Global warming and its effects

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sea level rise on an endangered island

endangered polar bear
polar bear on melting ice

puppy polar bear polar bear

An article about Global Warming from a research done by the student of year 10 :

Greenhouse effect
On Planet Earth, we can identify many factors that make life possible. One of these is the
heat radiated from the sun which is the Earth's primary energy source, a burning star so
hot that we can feel its heat from over 150 million kilometers away. Its rays enter our
atmosphere and shower upon on our planet.
About one third of this solar energy is reflected back into the universe by shimmering
glaciers, water and other bright surfaces. Two thirds, however, are
absorbed by the Earth, warming land. oceans and atmosphere.

Our atmosphere is known to be a combination of natural gases such as nitrogen, oxygen,

water vapor and few other gases including carbon dioxide.

However, in the last decades, the level of concentration of greenhouse gases, whose
purpose is to keep the lower atmosphere warm, has been increasing. This has caused a
global warming which could upset most of the ecosystems of the globe, leading to their
destruction.

The most recent assessment report complied by the IPCC observed that changes in
atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases and aerosols, land cover and solar
radiation alter the energy balance of the « climate system ». Indeed, the element of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere nowadays is 30% reater than in the 18th century.
The greenhouse effect was discovered by Joseph Fourier, a French physicist and
mathematician in 1824. The greenhouse effect refers to circumstances where the visible
light of the sun passes through the layers of the atmosphere. In that case, some are
absorbed and transformed into a warming instrument to the earth's surface. Contributing
to the equivalent exchange of the incoming energy, the lands and oceans release heat into
the atmosphere. Some of the
gases mentioned above, such as the water vapor and carbon dioxide, absorb a fraction of
that heat helping to a warm atmosphere. What's left of that heat is
then released into space. This absorption of heat leads to more heating and a higher
resultant temperature, aiding to provide a suitable temperature warm
enough to our sustainability. Without this radiation heat-trapping caused by the so-called
greenhouse gases, the surface would have an average temperature
of -18ºC rather than our presently quite warm 15ºC. The latter temperature is necessary to
preserve life on earth. Carbon dioxide and water vapour are
probably the main human produced gases contributing to the greenhouse effect and
global warming. The earth reflects about 30% of the incoming solar
radiations. The remaining 70% warms the earth after being absorbed. Thus, the more
solar radiations are absorbed, the more the earth releases infrared
radiation to balance the flux of radiations.

Lately, the Earth has faced a warming of the litosphere which is known as anthropogenic
global warming. It is due to the increasing concentration of greenhouse effect gases in the
atmosphere caused by the overuse of cars, planes, factories, etc. despite the Kyoto
Protocol signed on the 11th December 1997 by mostly developped countries except the
USA. These accords are about decreasing the member countries greenhouse gases
emissions. The increase of greenhouse gases cause a reduction in outgoing infrared
radiation, which means that, to restore the balance between incomming and outgoing
radiation, Earth's climate must change. Global Warming is the simplest way for the
climate to get rid of excess energy. But a rise in temperature could cause many other
events, such as the consequences that follow ....

Sea level rise

One serious consequence raised by the Greenhouse effect is the rate of sea level rise.
For the past century, the sea level has risen at an average rate of 1.8mm per year.
However between 1993 and 2003 there was a mean increase rate of 31mm per year in the
sea level change.

This rate is estimated to increase in the next one hundred years due to the increases of
gases in the atmosphere and global warming. In the next century the sea level is estimated
to rise anywhere between 90 and 880mm.
The two main causes of sea level rise are thermal expansion and the addition of water due
to the melting of ice sheets. Both these are linked to to climate change and the
Greenhouse effect.
Thermal expansion can be described as the tendency of matter to change in volume to
change in response to a change in temperature. It is the decrease in water density that
results from global warming. This leads to the expansion of the ocean and an increase in
the sea levels.
The ice sheets in a Antarctica and Greenland melt, due to the increases in temperature
and contribute to the rise of the sea levels.
An increase in the sea level could cause major disasters all over the world. These include
eroding shorelines, coastal flooding, storm damage and saltwater contamination of
freshwater supplies. The rise in sea lever also puts beaches, freshwater, coral reefs,
fisheries and wildlife habitats at risk. Some of these consequences endanger human and
animal life such as flooding.
The increase in sea levels could also cause the submerging of islands and could cause
massive economic damage with billons spent on adaptation. Pacific Islands called
Kiribati, located between Australia and Hawaii, and the Maldives are both in danger of
being submerged.
Their tides are rising and their freshwater is becoming to salty to drink. This shows a
situation were many lives are at risk and peole will have to rellocate
to continue with their lives. Indonesia is also threatened
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priorities.

Global warming
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

For past climate change, see Paleoclimatology and Geologic temperature record.

Global mean surface temperature difference relative to the 1961–1990 average

Comparison of ground based (blue) and satellite based (red: UAH; green: RSS) records
of temperature variations since 1979. Trends plotted since January 1982.

Mean surface temperature change for the period 2000 to 2009 relative to the average
temperatures from 1951 to 1980.[1]
Global warming is the increase in the average temperature of Earth's near-surface air and oceans since the mid-20th century and its projected continuation.
Global surface temperature increased 0.74 ± 0.18 °C (1.33 ± 0.32 °F) between the start and the end of the 20th century.[2][A] The Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) concludes that most of the observed temperature increase since the middle of the 20th century was very likely caused by increasing
concentrations of greenhouse gases resulting from human activity such as fossil fuel burning and deforestation.[2] The IPCC also concludes that variations in
natural phenomena such as solar radiation and volcanic eruptions had a small cooling effect after 1950.[3][4] These basic conclusions have been endorsed by more
than 40 scientific societies and academies of science,[B] including all of the national academies of science of the major industrialized countries.[5]

Climate model projections summarized in the latest IPCC report indicate that the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 1.1 to 6.4 °C (2.0 to 11.5 °F)
during the 21st century.[2] The uncertainty in this estimate arises from the use of models with differing sensitivity to greenhouse gas concentrations and the use of
differing estimates of future greenhouse gas emissions. Most studies focus on the period leading up to the year 2100. However, warming is expected to continue
beyond 2100 even if emissions stop, because of the large heat capacity of the oceans and the long lifetime of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.[6][7]

An increase in global temperature will cause sea levels to rise and will change the amount and pattern of precipitation, probably including expansion of subtropical
deserts.[8] Warming is expected to be strongest in the Arctic and would be associated with continuing retreat of glaciers, permafrost and sea ice. Other likely effects
include changes in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, species extinctions, and changes in agricultural yields. Warming and related changes
will vary from region to region around the globe, though the nature of these regional variations is uncertain.[9]

Political and public debate continues regarding global warming, its causes and what actions to take in response. The available options are mitigation to reduce
further emissions; adaptation to reduce the damage caused by warming; and, more speculatively, geoengineering to reverse global warming. Most national
governments have signed and ratified the Kyoto Protocol aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Temperature changes
• 2 External forcings
o 2.1 Greenhouse gases
o 2.2 Aerosols and soot
o 2.3 Solar variation
• 3 Feedback
• 4 Climate models
• 5 Attributed and expected effects
o 5.1 Natural systems
o 5.2 Ecological systems
o 5.3 Social systems
• 6 Responses to global warming
o 6.1 Mitigation
o 6.2 Adaptation
o 6.3 Geoengineering
• 7 Debate and skepticism
• 8 See also
• 9 Notes
• 10 References
• 11 Further reading

• 12 External links

Temperature changes
Main article: Temperature record
Two millennia of mean surface temperatures according to different reconstructions, each
smoothed on a decadal scale. The instrumental record and the unsmoothed annual value
for 2004 are shown in black.
Evidence for warming of the climate system includes observed increases in global average air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of snow and ice, and
rising global average sea level.[10][11][12][13][14] The most common measure of global warming is the trend in globally averaged temperature near the Earth's surface.
Expressed as a linear trend, this temperature rose by 0.74 ± 0.18 °C over the period 1906–2005. The rate of warming over the last half of that period was almost
double that for the period as a whole (0.13 ± 0.03 °C per decade, versus 0.07 °C ± 0.02 °C per decade). The urban heat island effect is estimated to account for
about 0.002 °C of warming per decade since 1900.[15] Temperatures in the lower troposphere have increased between 0.13 and 0.22 °C (0.22 and 0.4 °F) per
decade since 1979, according to satellite temperature measurements. Temperature is believed to have been relatively stable over the one or two thousand years
before 1850, with regionally varying fluctuations such as the Medieval Warm Period and the Little Ice Age.[16]

Estimates by NASA's Goddard Institute for Space Studies and the National Climatic Data Center show that 2005 was the warmest year since reliable, widespread
instrumental measurements became available in the late 1800s, exceeding the previous record set in 1998 by a few hundredths of a degree.[17][18] Estimates
prepared by the World Meteorological Organization and the Climatic Research Unit show 2005 as the second warmest year, behind 1998.[19][20] Temperatures in
1998 were unusually warm because the strongest El Niño in the past century occurred during that year.[21] Global temperature is subject to short-term fluctuations
that overlay long term trends and can temporarily mask them. The relative stability in temperature from 2002 to 2009 is consistent with such an episode. [22][23]

Temperature changes vary over the globe. Since 1979, land temperatures have increased about twice as fast as ocean temperatures (0.25 °C per decade against
0.13 °C per decade).[24] Ocean temperatures increase more slowly than land temperatures because of the larger effective heat capacity of the oceans and because
the ocean loses more heat by evaporation. [25] The Northern Hemisphere warms faster than the Southern Hemisphere because it has more land and because it has
extensive areas of seasonal snow and sea-ice cover subject to ice-albedo feedback. Although more greenhouse gases are emitted in the Northern than Southern
Hemisphere this does not contribute to the difference in warming because the major greenhouse gases persist long enough to mix between hemispheres.[26]

The thermal inertia of the oceans and slow responses of other indirect effects mean that climate can take centuries or longer to adjust to changes in forcing.
Climate commitment studies indicate that even if greenhouse gases were stabilized at 2000 levels, a further warming of about 0.5 °C (0.9 °F) would still occur.[27]

External forcings
External forcing refers to processes external to the climate system (though not necessarily external to Earth) that influence climate. Climate responds to several
types of external forcing, such as radiative forcing due to changes in atmospheric composition (mainly greenhouse gas concentrations), changes in solar
luminosity, volcanic eruptions, and variations in Earth's orbit around the Sun.[3] Attribution of recent climate change focuses on the first three types of forcing.
Orbital cycles vary slowly over tens of thousands of years and thus are too gradual to have caused the temperature changes observed in the past century.

Greenhouse gases

Main articles: Greenhouse effect and Radiative forcing

For more details on this topic, see Atmospheric CO2.

Greenhouse effect schematic showing energy flows between space, the atmosphere, and
earth's surface. Energy exchanges are expressed in watts per square meter (W/m2).

Recent atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) increases. Monthly CO2 measurements display
seasonal oscillations in overall yearly uptrend; each year's maximum occurs during the
Northern Hemisphere's late spring, and declines during its growing season as plants
remove some atmospheric CO2.
The greenhouse effect is the process by which absorption and emission of infrared radiation by gases in the atmosphere warm a planet's lower atmosphere and
surface. It was discovered by Joseph Fourier in 1824 and was first investigated quantitatively by Svante Arrhenius in 1896.[28] Existence of the greenhouse effect
as such is not disputed, even by those who do not agree that the recent temperature increase is attributable to human activity. The question is instead how the
strength of the greenhouse effect changes when human activity increases the concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

Naturally occurring greenhouse gases have a mean warming effect of about 33 °C (59 °F).[29][C] The major greenhouse gases are water vapor, which causes about
36–70 percent of the greenhouse effect; carbon dioxide (CO2), which causes 9–26 percent; methane (CH4), which causes 4–9 percent; and ozone (O3), which
causes 3–7 percent.[30][31][32] Clouds also affect the radiation balance, but they are composed of liquid water or ice and so have different effects on radiation from
water vapor.

Human activity since the Industrial Revolution has increased the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, leading to increased radiative forcing from CO2,
methane, tropospheric ozone, CFCs and nitrous oxide. The concentrations of CO2 and methane have increased by 36% and 148% respectively since 1750.[33]
These levels are much higher than at any time during the last 650,000 years, the period for which reliable data has been extracted from ice cores.[34][35][36] Less
direct geological evidence indicates that CO2 values higher than this were last seen about 20 million years ago.[37] Fossil fuel burning has produced about three-
quarters of the increase in CO2 from human activity over the past 20 years. Most of the rest is due to land-use change, particularly deforestation.[38]

CO2 concentrations are continuing to rise due to burning of fossil fuels and land-use change. The future rate of rise will depend on uncertain economic,
sociological, technological, and natural developments. Accordingly, the IPCC Special Report on Emissions Scenarios gives a wide range of future CO2 scenarios,
ranging from 541 to 970 ppm by the year 2100 (an increase by 90-250% since 1750).[39] Fossil fuel reserves are sufficient to reach these levels and continue
emissions past 2100 if coal, tar sands or methane clathrates are extensively exploited.[40]

The destruction of stratospheric ozone by chlorofluorocarbons is sometimes mentioned in relation to global warming. Although there are a few areas of linkage, the
relationship between the two is not strong. Reduction of stratospheric ozone has a cooling influence, but substantial ozone depletion did not occur until the late
1970s.[41] Ozone in the troposphere (the lowest part of the Earth's atmosphere) does contribute to surface warming.[42]

Aerosols and soot

Ship tracks over the Atlantic Ocean on the east coast of the United States. The climatic
impacts from aerosol forcing could have a large effect on climate through the indirect
effect.
Global dimming, a gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth's surface, has partially counteracted global warming from 1960 to the
present.[43] The main cause of this dimming is aerosols produced by volcanoes and pollutants. These aerosols exert a cooling effect by increasing the reflection of
incoming sunlight. James E. Hansen and colleagues have proposed that the effects of the products of fossil fuel combustion—CO 2 and aerosols—have largely
offset one another in recent decades, so that net warming has been driven mainly by non-CO2 greenhouse gases.[44]

In addition to their direct effect by scattering and absorbing solar radiation, aerosols have indirect effects on the radiation budget.[45] Sulfate aerosols act as cloud
condensation nuclei and thus lead to clouds that have more and smaller cloud droplets. These clouds reflect solar radiation more efficiently than clouds with fewer
and larger droplets.[46] This effect also causes droplets to be of more uniform size, which reduces growth of raindrops and makes the cloud more reflective to
incoming sunlight.[47]

Soot may cool or warm, depending on whether it is airborne or deposited. Atmospheric soot aerosols directly absorb solar radiation, which heats the atmosphere
and cools the surface. In isolated areas with high soot production, such as rural India, as much as 50% of surface warming due to greenhouse gases may be
masked by atmospheric brown clouds.[48] When deposited, especially on glaciers or on ice in arctic regions, the lower surface albedo can also directly heat the
surface.[49] The influences of aerosols, including black carbon, are most pronounced in the tropics and sub-tropics, particularly in Asia, while the effects of
greenhouse gases are dominant in the extratropics and southern hemisphere. [50]

Solar variation

Main article: Solar variation

Solar variation over the last thirty years.

Variations in solar output have been the cause of past climate changes.[51] The consensus among climate scientists is that changes in solar forcing probably had a
slight cooling effect in recent decades. This result is less certain than some others, with a few papers suggesting a warming effect.[3][52][53][54]

Greenhouse gases and solar forcing affect temperatures in different ways. While both increased solar activity and increased greenhouse gases are expected to
warm the troposphere, an increase in solar activity should warm the stratosphere while an increase in greenhouse gases should cool the stratosphere.[3]
Observations show that temperatures in the stratosphere have been cooling since 1979, when satellite measurements became available. Radiosonde (weather
balloon) data from the pre-satellite era show cooling since 1958, though there is greater uncertainty in the early radiosonde record.[55]

A related hypothesis, proposed by Henrik Svensmark, is that magnetic activity of the sun deflects cosmic rays that may influence the generation of cloud
condensation nuclei and thereby affect the climate.[56] Other research has found no relation between warming in recent decades and cosmic rays.[57][58] A recent
study concluded that the influence of cosmic rays on cloud cover is about a factor of 100 lower than needed to explain the observed changes in clouds or to be a
significant contributor to present-day climate change. [59]

Feedback
Main article: Climate change feedback
Feedback is a process in which changing one quantity changes a second quantity, and the change in the second quantity in turn changes the first. Positive
feedback amplifies the change in the first quantity while negative feedback reduces it. Feedback is important in the study of global warming because it may amplify
or diminish the effect of a particular process. The main positive feedback in global warming is the tendency of warming to increase the amount of water vapor in
the atmosphere, a significant greenhouse gas. The main negative feedback is radiative cooling, which increases as the fourth power of temperature; the amount of
heat radiated from the Earth into space increases with the temperature of Earth's surface and atmosphere. Imperfect understanding of feedbacks is a major cause
of uncertainty and concern about global warming.

Climate models
Main article: Global climate model

Calculations of global warming prepared in or before 2001 from a range of climate

models under the SRES A2 emissions scenario, which assumes no action is taken to
reduce emissions and regionally divided economic development.

The geographic distribution of surface warming during the 21st century calculated by the
HadCM3 climate model if a business as usual scenario is assumed for economic growth
and greenhouse gas emissions. In this figure, the globally averaged warming corresponds
to 3.0 °C (5.4 °F).
The main tools for projecting future climate changes are mathematical models based on physical principles including fluid dynamics, thermodynamics and radiative
transfer. Although they attempt to include as many processes as possible, simplifications of the actual climate system are inevitable because of the constraints of
available computer power and limitations in knowledge of the climate system. All modern climate models are in fact combinations of models for different parts of
the Earth. These include an atmospheric model for air movement, temperature, clouds, and other atmospheric properties; an ocean model that predicts
temperature, salt content, and circulation of ocean waters; models for ice cover on land and sea; and a model of heat and moisture transfer from soil and
vegetation to the atmosphere. Some models also include treatments of chemical and biological processes.[60] Warming due to increasing levels of greenhouse
gases is not an assumption of the models; rather, it is an end result from the interaction of greenhouse gases with radiative transfer and other physical processes.
[61]
Although much of the variation in model outcomes depends on the greenhouse gas emissions used as inputs, the temperature effect of a specific greenhouse
gas concentration (climate sensitivity) varies depending on the model used. The representation of clouds is one of the main sources of uncertainty in present-
generation models.[62]

Global climate model projections of future climate most often have used estimates of greenhouse gas emissions from the IPCC Special Report on Emissions
Scenarios (SRES). In addition to human-caused emissions, some models also include a simulation of the carbon cycle; this generally shows a positive feedback,
though this response is uncertain. Some observational studies also show a positive feedback.[63][64][65] Including uncertainties in future greenhouse gas
concentrations and climate sensitivity, the IPCC anticipates a warming of 1.1 °C to 6.4 °C (2.0 °F to 11.5 °F) by the end of the 21st century, relative to 1980–1999.
[2]

Models are also used to help investigate the causes of recent climate change by comparing the observed changes to those that the models project from various
natural and human-derived causes. Although these models do not unambiguously attribute the warming that occurred from approximately 1910 to 1945 to either
natural variation or human effects, they do indicate that the warming since 1970 is dominated by man-made greenhouse gas emissions.[3]

The physical realism of models is tested by examining their ability to simulate current or past climates.[66] Current climate models produce a good match to
observations of global temperature changes over the last century, but do not simulate all aspects of climate.[38] Not all effects of global warming are accurately
predicted by the climate models used by the IPCC. For example, observed Arctic shrinkage has been faster than that predicted.[67]

Attributed and expected effects

Main articles: Effects of global warming and Regional effects of global warming
Global warming may be detected in natural, ecological or social systems as a change having statistical significance. [68] Attribution of these changes e.g., to natural
or human activities, is the next step following detection.[69]

Natural systems

Sparse records indicate that glaciers have been retreating since the early 1800s. In the
1950s measurements began that allow the monitoring of glacial mass balance, reported to
the WGMS and the NSIDC.
Global warming has been detected in a number of systems. Some of these changes, e.g., based on the instrumental temperature record, have been described in
the section on temperature changes. Rising sea levels and observed decreases in snow and ice extent are consistent with warming.[14] Most of the increase in
global average temperature since the mid-20th century is, with high probability,[D] atttributable to human-induced changes in greenhouse gas concentrations. [70]

Even with current policies to reduce emissions, global emissions are still expected to continue to grow over the coming decades.[71] Over the course of the 21st
century, increases in emissions at or above their current rate would very likely induce changes in the climate system larger than those observed in the 20th century.

In the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, across a range of future emission scenarios, model-based estimates of sea level rise for the end of the 21st century (the
year 2090-2099, relative to 1980-1999) range from 0.18 to 0.59 m. These estimates, however, were not given a likelihood due to a lack of scientific understanding,
nor was an upper bound given for sea level rise. Over the course of centuries to millennia, the melting of ice sheets could result in sea level rise of 4-6 m or more.
[72]

Changes in regional climate are expected to include greater warming over land, with most warming at high northern latitudes, and least warming over the Southern
Ocean and parts of the North Atlantic Ocean.[71] Snow cover area and sea ice extent are expected to decrease. The frequency of hot extremes, heat waves and
heavy precipitation will very likely increase.

Ecological systems
In terrestrial ecosystems, the earlier timing of spring events, and poleward and upward shifts in plant and animal ranges, have been linked with high confidence to
recent warming.[14] Future climate change is expected to particularly affect certain ecosystems, including tundra, mangroves, and coral reefs.[71] It is expected that
most ecosystems will be affected by higher atmospheric CO2 levels, combined with higher global temperatures.[73] Overall, it is expected that climate change will
result in the extinction of many species and reduced diversity of ecosystems.[74]

Social systems
There is some evidence of regional climate change affecting systems related to human activities, including agricultural and forestry management activities at
higher latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere.[14] Future climate change is expected to particularly affect some sectors and systems related to human activities.[71]
These include:

• Water resources in some dry regions at mid-latitudes, the dry tropics, and areas
that depend on snow and ice melt
• Agriculture in low latitudes
• Low-lying coastal systems
• Human health in populations with limited capacity to adapt to climate change
It is expected that some regions will be particularly affected by climate change, including the Arctic, Africa, small islands, and Asian and African megadeltas. Some
people, such as the poor, young children, and the elderly, are particularly at risk, even in high-income areas.

Responses to global warming

The broad agreement among climate scientists that global temperatures will continue to increase has led some nations, states, corporations and individuals to
implement responses. These responses to global warming can be divided into mitigation of the causes and effects of global warming, adaptation to the changing
global environment, and geoengineering to reverse global warming.

Mitigation

Main article: Mitigation of global warming

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is an approach to mitigation. Emissions may be
sequestered from fossil fuel power plants, or removed during processing in hydrogen
production. When used on plants, it is known as bio-energy with carbon capture and
storage.
The IPCC's Working Group III is responsible for crafting reports on mitigation of global warming and the costs and benefits of different approaches. The 2007 IPCC
Fourth Assessment Report concludes that no one technology or sector can be completely responsible for mitigating future warming. They find there are key
practices and technologies in various sectors, such as energy supply, transportation, industry, and agriculture that should be implemented to reduced global
emissions. They estimate that stabilization of carbon dioxide equivalent between 445 and 710 ppm by 2030 will result in between a 0.6 percent increase and three
percent decrease in global gross domestic product.[75]

Mitigation of global warming is accomplished through reductions in the rate of anthropogenic greenhouse gas release. The world's primary international agreement
on reducing greenhouse gas emissions, the Kyoto Protocol, now covers more than 160 countries and over 55 percent of global greenhouse gas emissions.[76] As of
February 2010, only the United States, historically the world's largest emitter of greenhouse gases, has refused to ratify the treaty. The treaty expires in 2012.
International talks began in May 2007 on a future treaty to succeed the current one.[77] The 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference met in Copenhagen
in December 2009 to agree on a framework for climate change mitigation. [78] No binding agreement was made.

There has also been business action on climate change, including efforts to improve energy efficiency and limited moves towards use of alternative fuels. In
January 2005 the European Union introduced its European Union Emission Trading Scheme, through which companies in conjunction with government agree to
cap their emissions or to purchase credits from those below their allowances. Australia announced its Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme in 2008. United States
President Barack Obama has announced plans to introduce an economy-wide cap and trade scheme.[79]

Adaptation

Main article: Adaptation to global warming

A wide variety of measures have been suggested for adaptation to global warming, including: water conservation,[80] water rationing, adaptive agricultural
practices[81] including diversification, construction of flood defenses,[82] changes to medical care,[83] and interventions to protect threatened species.[84] The capacity
and potential for human systems to adapt is unevenly distributed across different regions and populations.[85] The economic costs of adaptation are potentially
large, but also largely unknown. Across the literature, there is wide agreement that adaptation will be more difficult for larger magnitudes and higher rates of
climate change.

Geoengineering

Main article: Geoengineering

Geoengineering is the concept of planetary engineering applied to Earth: i.e. the deliberate modification of Earth's natural environment on a large scale to suit
human needs.[86] An example is greenhouse gas remediation, which removes greenhouse gases from the atmosphere, usually through carbon sequestration
techniques such as carbon dioxide air capture.[87] Solar radiation management reduces absorbed solar radiation, such as by the addition of stratospheric sulfur
aerosols [88] or cool roof techniques.[89] No geoengineering projects of significant scale have been implemented, and detailed study has largely been the work of
small numbers of scientists; but various significant institutions such as the Royal Society and IMechE have recently suggested that further study is warranted.
Their various externalities and other costs are seen as major issues, and the idea or concern that one country could act unilaterally has also been raised.[90][91][92]

Debate and skepticism

Main articles: Global warming controversy and Politics of global warming
See also: Scientific opinion on climate change, Climate change consensus, and Climate
change denial

Per capita greenhouse gas emissions in 2000, including land-use change.

Per country greenhouse gas emissions in 2000, including land-use change.

Increased publicity of the scientific findings surrounding global warming has resulted in political and economic debate.[93] Poor regions, particularly Africa, appear at
greatest risk from the projected effects of global warming, although their emissions have been small compared to those of the developed world.[94] The exemption
of developing countries from Kyoto Protocol restrictions has been used to justify non-ratification by the U.S. and a previous Australian Government.[95] (Australia
has since ratified the Kyoto protocol.)[96] Another point of contention is the degree to which emerging economies such as India and China should be expected to
constrain their emissions.[97] The U.S. contends that if it must bear the cost of reducing emissions, then China should do the same[98][99] since China's gross national
CO2 emissions now exceed those of the U.S.[100][101][102] China has contended that it is less obligated to reduce emissions since its per capita responsibility and per
capita emissions are less that of the U.S.[103] India, also exempt, has made similar contentions.[104]

In 2007–2008 Gallup Polls surveyed 127 countries. Over a third of the world's population was unaware of global warming, with people in developing countries less
aware than those in developed, and those in Africa the least aware. Of those aware, Latin America leads in belief that temperature changes are a result of human
activities while Africa, parts of Asia and the Middle East, and a few countries from the Former Soviet Union lead in the opposite belief.[105] In the Western world,
opinions over the concept and the appropriate responses are divided. Nick Pidgeon of Cardiff University finds that "results show the different stages of
engagement about global warming on each side of the Atlantic"; where Europe debates the appropriate responses while the United States debates whether
climate change is happening.[106]

Debates weigh the benefits of limiting industrial emissions of greenhouse gases against the costs that such changes would entail.[75] Using economic incentives,
alternative and renewable energy have been promoted to reduce emissions while building infrastructure.[107][108] Organizations such as the libertarian Competitive
Enterprise Institute, conservative commentators, and companies such as ExxonMobil have challenged IPCC climate change scenarios, funded scientists who
disagree with the scientific consensus, and provided their own projections of the economic cost of stricter controls.[109][110][111][112] Environmental organizations and
public figures have emphasized changes in the current climate and the risks they entail, while promoting adaptation to changes in infrastructural needs and
emissions reductions.[113] Some fossil fuel companies have scaled back their efforts in recent years,[114] or called for policies to reduce global warming.[115] Many
studies link population growth with emissions and the effect of climate change.[116][117][118]

Some global warming skeptics in the science or political communities dispute all or some of the global warming scientific consensus, questioning whether global
warming is actually occurring, whether human activity has contributed significantly to the warming, and the magnitude of the threat posed by global warming. [citation
needed]

1. ^ Marsh, Nigel; Henrik, Svensmark (November 2000). "Cosmic Rays, Clouds,

and Climate" (PDF). Space Science Reviews 94 (1–2): 215–230.
doi:10.1023/A:1026723423896. http://www.dsri.dk/~hsv/SSR_Paper.pdf.
Retrieved 2007-04-17.
2. ^ Lockwood, Mike; Claus Fröhlich (2007). "Recent oppositely directed trends in
solar climate forcings and the global mean surface air temperature" (PDF).
Proceedings of the Royal Society A 463: 2447. doi:10.1098/rspa.2007.1880.
http://www.pubs.royalsoc.ac.uk/media/proceedings_a/rspa20071880.pdf.
Retrieved 2007-07-21. "Our results show that the observed rapid rise in global
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• Choi, Onelack; Fisher, Ann (May 2005). "The Impacts of Socioeconomic
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Earth System: a 2004 Snapshot. Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research Occasional
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