PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY II

CARRERA: PROFESORADO DE INGLÉS MODALIDAD: INTENSIVO

PROF.: MENÉNDEZ JULIETA. CICLO LECTIVO: 2018

PHONETICS
SYMBOLS
 UNIT I

SPANISH AND
ENGLISH
PHONOLOGICAL
SYSTEMS.
 SPANISH AND ENGLISH PHONOLOGICAL SYSTEMS

Spanish and English share a similar alphabet, but when the phonologies of the two languages are

compared, many differences are revealed. These differences will influence the speech of Spanish-speaking

children learning English. We can think of this influence in terms of the Competition Model. Before English

language learners have internalized the phonological system in English, they may transfer what they know

about Spanish to English. Knowledge of these differences will help the practitioner understand why some

sounds in English are difficult for English language learners to perceive and produce. Even the practitioner

who does not speak Spanish can become familiar with normal speech patterns for English language learners.

The alphabets of Spanish (according to the Real Academia Española) and English are presented in the

following table.

Table 1: Spanish and English alphabets

Spanish a b c ch d e f g h i j k l ll m n ñ o p q r s t u v w x y z
English a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z

Some dictionaries also classify the trilled “rr” (also known as the rolled “r”) as a single letter. The

letters “k” and “w” do not occur in words native to the Spanish language, but may occur in words adopted

into Spanish such as “karate,” “washatería,” and “sandwich.” Three Spanish letters that are not found in

English are the “ch,” “ll,” and “ñ.” The “ch” is considered a single letter in Spanish and it represents the same

sound as the two-letter combination “ch” in English. The “ll” represents a sound that a monolingual English

speaker may perceive as similar to the /j/ (“y”) in English. The “ñ,” represented by the phonetic symbol / ᵑ /,
may be perceived as similar to the “ny” sound in “onion.”

Vowel Systems

There are major differences between the vocalic phonemes in Spanish and English. In Spanish, there are five

vowels that consistently represent the single tense vowel sounds /a/, /e/,
/i/, /o/, and /u/. In contrast, English vowels represent many tense and lax vowel sounds including

/a/, / /, / /, / /, /e/, / /, /i/, /I/, /o/, / /, /u/, and / /. English language learners may use forward

transfer by substituting tense vowels from L1 for lax vowels in English. For example, a student

might pronounce the word “man” with the tense /a/ as in “mahn” instead of the lax vowel / /.

The following chart illustrates several examples of this forward transfer of Spanish vowels.

Table 2: Examples of Spanish to English forward transfer of vowels

Spanish phonemes English phonemes Result

/a/ / / “hat” may sound like “hot”

/e/ / / “get” may sound like “gate”

/i/ /I/ “hit” may sound like “heat”

“this” may sound like “these”

/o/ / / “ball” may sound like “bowl”

/ / “bun” may sound like “bone”

/u/ / / “put” may sound like “poot”

Consonant Systems

The next chart shows the consonantal phonemes of Spanish and English by manner of

production. This list includes the primary phonemes that exist in all dialects of Spanish.

Depending on the dialect of Spanish, additional allophones of these sounds exist. However, we

will focus on the most common Spanish phonemes to discuss typical speech patterns that may

occur when speakers use forward transfer of the Spanish phonological system to communicate in
English.

Table 3: Spanish and English consonantal phonemes

Spanish English
Voiceless Voiced Voiceless Voiced
Stops /p/ /t/ /k/ /b/ /d/ /g/ /p/ /t/ /k/ /b/ /d/ /g/
Nasals /m/ /n/ / / /m/ /n/ / /
Fricatives /s/ /f/ /x/ / /s/ /f/ / / / / /z/ /v/ / / / /
Affricates /t / /t / /d /
Liquids /l/ /l/ /r/
Tap/Trill /r/ /rr/
Glides /w/ /j/ /w/ /j/
Glottal /h/

Spanish and English share several consonantal phonemes including the stop sounds /p/, /t/,

/k/, /b/, /d/, /g/, the nasals /m/, /n/, / /, the fricatives /s/, /f/, the affricate /t / (“ch”), the liquid /l/, the

glide /w/, /j/, and the glottal /h/. Despite these common phonetic symbols, it is important to note

that there are differences in voicing, aspiration, and precise place of articulation for many of these

sounds that result in acoustic differences. We will now look at some of these differences in more

detail.

Stops

One prevalent difference between Spanish and English stop consonants is that Spanish stops

are less plosive, meaning that they are produced with less air pressure than their English pairs. This

is particularly noticeable with the Spanish voiceless consonants /p/, /t/, and /k/, which monolingual
English speakers sometimes perceive as their voiced counterparts (/b/, /d/, and /g/). Another

difference is in voice onset time, which refers to the duration of vocal fold vibration before the

release of air pressure. When stop consonants occur in word initial position, voiceless stops in

Spanish are produced with a relatively short voice onset compared to English. In contrast, English

voiceless stops are produced with long voice onset time, and voiced stops are produced with short

voice onset time. This difference can also lead to the perception of voiced rather than voiceless

sounds. Another difference is the exact place of articulation. While the English phonemes /t/ and

/d/ are produced on the alveolar ridge above the teeth, the Spanish /t/ and /d/ are produced with the

tip of the tongue placed on the back of the teeth, giving these sounds a dentalized quality (Whitley,

1986).

As a result of differences in voice onset time and place of articulation, if an English

language learner uses forward transfer of sound production from Spanish into English, a

monolingual English listener may have difficulty distinguishing the student’s production of

voiceless /p/, /t/, and /k/ sounds from their voiced pairs /b/, /d/, and /g/. A child’s production of

words such as “bear” and “pear” or “time” and “dime,” for example, may sound very similar.

Nasals

The nasal sounds /m/ and /n/ are produced in the same manner in Spanish and English. As

singletons, these sounds do not generally cause difficulty for Spanish speakers learning English.

However, when these sounds appear in clusters, such as the word “sometimes,” it is not unusual for

an English language learner to substitute the /m/ with the /n/ sound (Merino, 1992), or vice versa,

particularly when such a substitution facilitates coarticulation. Because the / / sound is not one of
the primary phonemes in Spanish, although it may occur as an allophone, particularly in Caribbean

dialects of Spanish (Goldstein, 2001), an English language learner may substitute it for the next

closest sound, which is /n/. Consequently, the word “long” may be pronounced as “lon.”

Fricatives

As you can see from the Table 3, the fricative class presents several phonetic contrasts

between Spanish and English. Though there are some similarities in the two language systems (e.g.

both contain the phonemes /s/ and /f/), there are many differences. There are two Spanish

phonemes that do not occur in English. The phoneme /x/ represents a voiceless sound produced

with velar frication. The phoneme / / represents a voiced bilabial fricative. Because the English

fricatives / /, / /, /z/, /v/, / /, and / / are not primary phonemes in Spanish (except / / in Spain) and

are considered later developing sounds for English speakers, it would not be uncommon for a

person who is learning English to have difficulty producing these sounds.

Forward transfer may again be used to substitute Spanish phonemes for their similar English

counterparts. For example, the next closest Spanish phonemes to the English voiceless / / and

voiced / / are voiceless /t/ and the voiced /d/, respectively. As a result, an English language learner

may pronounce the words “think” as “tink” and “cloth” as “clot.” Similarly, “this” may be

produced as “dis.” Voiced /z/ is often substituted by its voiceless pair /s/, so the word “zipper” may

be produced as “sipper.” Even though Spanish includes the orthographic “v,” both the letters “b”

and “v” represent the same phoneme in most dialects of Spanish. As a result, a Spanish speaker

may use forward transfer of the phoneme /b/ or / /, thereby producing “very” as “bery.” Voiced /v/
in word final position may be substituted with /f/, and so the word “leave” may sound like “leaf.”

Finally, the voiceless / / sound is not a primary phoneme in Spanish. The closest Spanish phoneme

is /t /. A word like “shop” might be produced as “chop.”

Affricates

Now that you are becoming familiar with patterns of forward transfer, you may foresee that

a Spanish speaker might substitute the voiced phoneme /d / with the /t / sound. This may often be

the case. However, if you listen carefully or envision the coarticulatory movements that are

required to produce a word like “jump,” you will notice that the glide /j/ is a coarticulatory product

of the phoneme /d /. Spanish speakers often perceive these English phonemes as allophones. As a

result, a Spanish speaker may also substitute the glide /j/ for the English /d / sound and say “yust”

for “just.” This is a common pattern of forward transfer and is not indicative of a speech disorder.

Liquids

The written letters “l” and “r” exist in both languages. For a child of the appropriate

developmental age, the /l/ should not typically cause difficulty for the English language learner.

The /r/, on the other hand, is produced quite differently between the languages, as a rhotic or

retroflexed /r/ in English, and as a tap or trill in Spanish. A monolingual English speaker may

perceive the Spanish tap /r/ to sound like the English tap in “butter,” or perhaps like an English /d/.

An example of forward transfer of the Spanish tap /r/ for the English rhotic /r/ is “boding” for

“boring.”
Glides

The bilabial glide /w/ and palatal glide /j/ occur in both Spanish and English. A listener

may hear subtle differences in the way an English language learner produces these sounds in

English. The /w/ sound may be produced with slight velar constriction. The phoneme /j/ may be

produced with varying degrees of palatalization. Also, it would not be atypical to hear the /j/ sound

pronounced more like /d /, which Spanish speakers may consider to be allophones, as mentioned

earlier. For example, “yesterday” could sound like “jesterday.”

Glottal

The written letter “h” is silent in Spanish. The open glottal phoneme /h/ exists in some

dialects of Spanish. For speakers for whom /h/ is not a common phoneme, the next most similar

sound is the velar fricative /x/. As a result, a child may produce a word such as “horse” with more

initial velar constriction than a mainstream English speaker.

Phonotactic Constraints

There are also differences in phonotactic rules about which phonemes can occur in which

positions in syllables and words and in what combinations. For example, whereas most consonants

can occur in word final position in English words, the only consonantal phonemes that occur in

word final position in Spanish are /d/, /n/, /s/, /x/, /l/, and the tap /r/ (which represent the written

letters d, n, s, z, j, l, and r). Another phonotactic difference is that consonant clusters are common

and can occur in any word position in English. In Spanish, however, consonant clusters are much

less frequent and are subject to more constraints. For example, initial /s/ clusters can only occur in
Spanish if preceded by the letter “e.” As a result, English language learners may use forward

transfer and add a schwa to words beginning with /s/. For example, they may pronounce “store” as

“estore.” Further, consonant clusters cannot occur in word final position in Spanish. Children may

thus drop the final consonant in consonant clusters when producing words in English. For example,

they may reduce the final cluster in “test” to “tes,” or in “sound” to “soun.” As a result of such

differences in phonotactic constraints, the fact that a child can produce a particular sound in

Spanish does not necessarily mean the child will automatically produce that sound correctly in

English (Merino, 1992).

Summary and Conclusions

Sequential language learners are those who have acquired a first language (L1) before

learning a second language (L2). We have discussed the Competition Model in order to provide a

framework for understanding sequential language learners’ phonological development. Forward

cue transfer is a common process in sequential bilinguals that involves using the cues learned in

their L1 and applying that knowledge to L2. Now that you are familiar with this conceptual

framework of bilingual speech and language development, as well as the basic features of the

Spanish and English phonological systems, you will be better equipped to recognize when a child’s

speech errors in English may be attributed to normal forward cue transfer from Spanish. Note that

in addition to speech, you may also observe these patterns of phonological transfer in children’s

early spelling, since children often use a phoneme-to-grapheme or sounding out strategy when they

write. As we discussed earlier, bilingual learners’ phonological development may differ from

English or Spanish monolingual development. Thus, monolingual norms should not be used alone,
and skills must be assessed in both languages with consideration of the interaction between L1 and

L2.

Because of phonemic differences among various dialects of Spanish, it also will be

important to know what dialect(s) the child is exposed to in the home and community. Parents, of

course, are an excellent source for more insight into the child’s speech skills and language history.

The clinician who needs assistance communicating with the parents can often find another family

member, neighbor, or teacher who can help translate. It is important to find out when, from whom,

and in what contexts the child began learning each language, if the parents and similar peers have

trouble understanding the child’s speech, and what articulation errors the child produces in the

home language. If intelligibility is indeed a concern, if the child’s speech patterns in both

languages are not developmentally appropriate, and if speech errors cannot be clearly explained by

cue transfer, it is likely that speech services are warranted.

References

Bates, E. & MacWhinney, B. (1982). Functionalist approaches to grammar. In E. Wanner & L.

Gleitman (Eds.), Language acquisition: The state of the art. New York: Cambridge

University Press.

Bates, E. & MacWhinney, B. (1987). Competition, variation and language learning. In B.

MacWhinney (Ed.), Mechanisms of language acquisition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Bates, E. & MacWhinney, B. (1989). Functionalism and the competition model. In B. MacWhinney

& E. Bates (Eds.), The cross-linguistic study of sentence processing (pp. 3-73). New York:
 Cambridge University Press.

Gildersleeve, C., Davis, B., & Stubbe, E. (1996, November). When monolingual rules don’t apply:

Speech development in a bilingual environment. Paper presented at the American Speech-

Language-Hearing Association Convention, Seattle, WA.

Goldstein, B., & Washington, P.S. (2001). An initial investigation of phonological patterns in

typically developing 4-year old Spanish-English bilingual children. Language, Speech &

Hearing Services in the Schools, 32(3), 153-164.

Goldstein, B. (2001). Transcription of Spanish and Spanish-influenced English. Communication

Disorders Quarterly, 23(1), 54-60.

Iglesias, A. & Goldstein, B. (1998). Language and dialectal variations. In J. Bernthal & N. Bankson

(Eds.), Articulation and phonological disorders (4th ed., pp. 148-171), Needham Heights,

MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Kindler, A. (2002). Survey of the states'limited English proficient students and available

educational programs and services, 2000-2001 summary report. National Clearinghouse for

English Language Acquisition & Language Instruction Educational Programs.

MacWhinney B. (1997). Second language acquisition and the Competition Model. In A.M.B. de

Groot & J. Kroll (Eds.), Tutorials in bilingualism: Psychological perspectives (pp. 169-

199). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Merino, B. (1992). Acquisition of syntactic and phonological features in Spanish. In H.W. Langdon

& L. Cheng (Eds.), Hispanic children and adults with communication disorders (pp. 57-98).
CONSONANT
CLUSTERS
 p l ay, g row, s p l a s h
Consonant clusters at th e beg inning of word s
A2fc Combinations of consonant sounds (consonant clusters) can be difficult to pronounce for some
learners. English words can start with a vowel, or one, two or three consonant sounds.
Compare:
am ram cram scram

Here are the possible two-consonant clusters at the start of English words:

/p/ /t/ /k/ /hi /d/ /9 / /m/ /n/ /f/ /v/ /8/ /f/ /h/
+/1/ play x class b l a ck x gla ss x x fly x x x x

+/r/ p ray tri p cri m e b ro w n d ro p grow x x fry x th ree s h ri n k x

+ /w/ x tw i n s q ueen x dwell x x x x x x x x

+/j / p u re tu be q ue u e bea u ty d u e x m usi c n ews few view x x h u ge

In addition, the following two-consonant clusters are possible with Is/:

slow
III
sphere sWim
/f/ Iwl

snow 1nl Ipl spot

Imf It!
smile star
/kI
sky

All Here are the possible three-consonant clusters at the start of English words:

/sp/ /st/ /sk/

+ /11 splash x x

+ /r/ spray s tra w s crea m

+ /w/ x x sq uea k
+ /j / x s tew skewer

& Note: Some consonant clusters ma rked x i n A and B a re used i n a few u ncommon
words, for exa mple· sch wa (the name of the sound /;,f) and people's names. Is it faree?

In order to be understood clearly you should -

• avoid changing a consonant in a cluster to a different consonant.
For example: saying 'present' for 'pleasant' or saying 'queue' for 'crew'
• avoid leaving out one of the consonant sounds.
For example: saying 'poblem' for 'problem' or saying 'foo' for 'few'
• avoid adding an extra vowel between consonants.
For example: saying 'tewin' for 'twin' or saying 'faree' for 'free'
• avoid adding an extra vowel at the beginning of the word.
For example: saying 'estop' for 'stop' or saying 'escream' for 'scream'

You can find more practice of consonant clusters at the beginning of words in Section E2 .

English Pronunciation in Use (Advanced)

 Section B Pronunciation of words and phrases

Exercises
7.1 You w i l l hear som e short defi n itions. After each d efi n ition, press 'pause', tick (.r) the word you t h i n k
A2� is be i n g defi ned a n d say it a l o u d . When you p ress 'play' aga i n you w i l l hea r the correct answer.
Repeat it a n d then conti n u e i n the sa me way.
EXAMPLE 'to cook in hot oil' fly I f ir
1 string I sting 3 strain I stain S slum I sum 7 slip I sip 9 scare I square
2 clean I queen 4 Spain I sprain 6 pain I plain 8 kick I quick 10 grass I glass

7.2 You w i l l hear som e words. After each word , press 'pause' a n d u nderl i n e the correct defi n ition. When
Al4 you press 'pl ay' a g a i n you w i l l hear the correct a n swer.
EXAMPLE 'stray' to not leave I to move away from the intended route
1 to produce a continuous light I to increase in size
2 to shake with fear I a sweet food
3 to move through water I attractively thin
4 dried stalks of wheat I another word for shop
S watery liquid in your mouth I to divide into two
6 activity done for enjoyment I to give money for something
7 a border around a picture I burning gas
8 not mixed I not rich

7.3 Listen a n d u n d e r l i n e the sentence you hea r.

Al5 EXAMPLE The band isn't very popular. I The brand isn't very popular.
1 Just across the road. I Just cross the road.
2 The cat was following its tail. I The cat was following its trail.
3 Before that I had tried a motorbike. I Before that I had to ride a motorbike.
4 It's Michael's twin. I It's Michael's to win.
S He fell into a deeper sleep. I He fell into a deep sleep.
6 I thought it was a terrible slight ( = insult). I I thought it was a terrible sight.
7 Just blow your nose. I Just below your nose.
8 This one is a pear. I This one is spare.
Now check you r a n swers in the Key. Th en l i sten a g a i n a n d repeat the senten ces.

7.4 Try b u i l d i n g words by a d d i n g conso n a n t sou n ds. Sta rt with a vowel sou nd , a n d then a d d one
conso n a n t sou n d at a time before o r after the vowel, i n a ny o rder, to build new words.
(Note : (i) a consonant sou n d may consist of more than one letter; (iil don't add a ny new vowel sounds.)
Then say a l o u d the words you have written . For exa m pl e :
lel/: ache � lake � flake � flakes (2 consonants before the vowel and 2 after)
lall: rye � rife � rifle � trifle � trifles (2 before and 3 after)
li:/: sea � seem � scheme � scream � screamed ( 3 before and 2 after)

Now try with other vowels. You m i g ht fi n d it h e l pfu l to use a d i cti o n a ry. (Note : There is a l ist of
vowels on page 1 92.)

Follow up: Are there a ny consonant clusters at the beg i n n i ng of words that you have special problems with?
Collect a list of words that sta rt with these, record you rself saying them, and l isten. Repeat this often.
See U n it 3, exercise 3 for a n idea on how to collect words sta rting with a particu lar consonant cluster.

English Pronunciation in Use (Advanced) 21

 j u m p. n ext. g l i m psed
Consonant cl usters at th e end of word s
.< � ) A26 There are many more combinations of consonant sounds possible at the end of English words
than at the beginning (see Unit 7). There can be up to four consonant sounds in a final
consonant cluster:

Words with . . . 2 fi nal consonants 3 fi nal consonants 4 fi nal consona nts

h o n e� Istl h eillfQ Ilptl p ro m p ts Impt sl
j UillQ ImpI n ext Ikstl gl i m psed Impstl
w raQru:.d Iptl cri� IspsI te xts Ikst sI

� A27 Some final clusters with three or four consonants can be difficult to pronounce even for native
English speakers, so in some words these are commonly simplified. For example, the middle
consonant of the clusters Ikt s/, Imps/, Impti, Int s/, IndzJ and Isktl is hardly heard or sometimes
even left out (see also Unit 29A):
prod ucts -+ produc�s IprodAksl j u mps -+ j u m�s Id3AmPsI
camped -+ cam�ed Ikremtl clients -+ clien�s Iklargnt sl
hands -+ h antls /hrenzJ asked -+ askd lo:stl
Notice also:
twelfth -+ twelfth Itwel81 fi fth s -+ fifths IfI8s1 or fifTlts IfIfsl

Leaving final consonants out of consonant clusters at the end of words can cause
misunderstanding, and you should avoid this. For example, say:
product (not: produc�) jump (not: jum�) hand (not: hantl)

In particular, avoid leaving out /zl or Isl in plurals and third person singular verb forms, and ItI
or Id! in -ed verbs and adjectives:
jobs (not: jobs) sleeps (not: sleeps)
laughed (not: laughe4) curved (not: curve4)

Don't be tempted to add vowels to consonant clusters in order to make them easier to say, as
this can also cause misunderstanding. You should -
• avoid adding an extra vowel ( usually /il or Ig/) between consonants:
watched (not: watch1d) health (not: heal;!th) dogs (not: dog;!s)
• avoid adding an extra vowel ( usually Igl or lu:/) at the end of the word:
last (not: last;!) announce (not: announce;!) attempts (not: attemptsu: )
• avoid adding a n extra vowel a t the end o f a n adjective, a s this can sound like a
comparative form:
fast (not: fast;! because it sounds like 'faster' )
damp (not: damp;! because i t sounds like 'damper' )

You can find more practice of consonant clusters at the end of words in Section E2.

22 English Pronunciation i n Use (Advanced)

 Section B Pronunciation of words and phrases

Exercises
8.1 How many fi n a l conso n a n t sounds 1 , 2, 3 o r 4 d o the words i n the box have when they a re
- -

spoken slowly a n d ca refu l ly? ( Note that the n u m ber of conso n a n t sounds may be d i fferent fro m the
n u mber of conso n a n t letters.) Write the words i n the a p p ropriate row.

� against aspects ll�eHiflts axe catch contexts diamonds ears

earth grasped laughed ledge next risked sculpts stamps tempts touched

1 fi nal consonant sound

2 fi nal consonant sou nds
3 fi nal consonant sou nds tlcce.tt+s !nt sl
4 fi nal consonant sou nds tI++e.r1Ap1-s Impt sl

Now check you r answers, l i sten and say the words.

8.2 Listen t o some o f the words from exercise 8.1 ( i n bold) used i n conversation. Some fi n a l clusters a re
si m p l ified. U n d e r l i n e the words w h ich a re si m p l ified a n d show which sou n d is left out or red uced.
EXAMPLES It was a long jump, but he risked it. � (the Ik/ sound is left out)
He helped us a lot. (no simplification)
1 It's my turn next. 5 The question has a number of aspects.
2 It's a recording of regional accents. 6 She loved diamonds.
3 Don't forget to buy some stamps. 7 It was taken out of context.
4 I've always been against it. 8 They grasped it easily.

8.3 Listen a n d u n derl i n e t h e word you hea r.

EXAMPLE I accept / accepted the award gratefully.
1 I couldn't go on without more paint / pain.
2 The company has some innovative designers / designs.
3 I couldn't go faster / fast in my oid car.
4 The factory makes trays / trains.
5 We wore heavy boots with thick, ridged / rigid soles.
6 They're one of Brazil's main exports / exporters.

8.4 A n n a fa i led her test t o beco me a newsrea der for her l oca l Eng l ish
la n g u a g e ra d i o station. Look at the tra nscript of the news item that
she read . Then l i ste n to the news bei n g read clearly a n d correct the
words that Anna pro n o u n ced wrong ly.

+hittK
The pol ice tftffi the rose on the south coat will be pack when

the seven Felton Pop Festival beginners neck weekend Lass

:
year more than 1 0,000 pop fan pack into the feel where the

festival was hell . There is simpler accommodation on a nearby

farm, but most people will camper in small tense.

Now check you r a nswers i n the Key. Then read a loud the (correct) news item.

Follow up: What is the maxim u m number of final consonant sounds that ca n occur i n your first language?

English Pronunciation in Use (Advanced) 23

 a bstract. n ext Fri d ay
Consonant clusters with in and across word s
,Jp;1'; Consonant clusters also occur within words. For example:

Clusters with . . . 2 consonant sou nds 3 consonant sounds 4 consonant sounds

e�a pe co!lill.le te a bs tra ct
a Qillo ac h con trol ewess ion
d i�ike e2ille rt uQ.ili:e a m
a d d ress tra nsl a te em.u isi te Ukskw/)
iill.Qo rta n t h u n d red e xcru cia tin g

& Note : Some clusters fou n d with i n words ca n a lso be fou n d at the beg i n n i ng of words (d i�ike - �ow),
at the end of words (iill.Qo rta nt - larrml, or both (e�a pe - Scotland/aili; but others ca n't (a bstract,
i nvisi ble).

AH. When a word ending with a consonant or consonants is followed by a word beginning with a
consonant or consonants, a new consonant cluster across words is formed. These can be
particularly difficult to pronounce when they come within a speech unit without a pause (see
Section E4 Glossary for a definition of speech unit) :
II it's an elm treell
II there's a childre.!li.J2laygroundll

When consonant clusters are divided by a pause, they are

often easier to pronounce:
II if Tom can't take you to the film/I try Mikell
II there'll be three suitcasesll two of Joan'sll plus my ownll

m_ ��1:4/7AII. the consonant clusters within the speech units in this conversation are underlined. listen and follow

�r . ��/.
(lt1Apor'h:�....f-
liS.f-e. ... i...
"�"'�'w�,W'''�,"''_,�W''
the notes. Some clusters are simplified with sounds left out or changed to make them easier to
pronounce. (Units 26-31 give detailed information on all these features of fluent speech.)

pronou nced Iksfrl It I a nd /j/ are pronou nced ItSI Idl is left out

O n e l e n gthe n ed
A: )
11 n ex FridaYII I 'lLmee �� nd It I is left ou t

Isl is sa id
B : 11 by the bus sta ti o n ll
I
A: 11 noli the a rtga l ieryll theD....!'£e caru;ol lect Steve aUive ll

It I is pro n ou n ced
l i ke Ikl
� �e � � 1 is
l i ke Iml
d In
l ike ID I
ro 1 is left o u t

Words that commonly go together in phrases and compounds (examples of these are given in
Units 1 6-1 8 ) are generally said within speech units. Consonants at the word boundaries are
usually run together in a cluster. For example:

Cl usters with . . .
2 consonant sou nds 3 consonant sou nds 4 consonant sou nds
civi12erva n t va cu u m cl e a n e r tel evision s cree n
cough,med i ci n e flash flood w i n n i ng s trea k
e l e ctriuen ce askiD..9J2[ i ce fa lse fri e n d s
fulLma rks p resenui m p l e l u n ch b rea k
l a n gu agda b passive s m o kin g fi l m cred its

24 English Pronunciation in Use (Advanced)

 Section B Pronunciation of words and phrases

Exercises
9. 1 U n derl i n e a l l the conso n a n t clusters within the words i n this text (i .e. not at the beg i n n i ng or end of
words). N ote that some words have two conso n a n t clusters.

When I started playing badminton, I was sixty and I hadn't

done any strenuous exercise for almost twenty years . But after
j ust a few months I 'd won the over-fifties national
championship and an international competition. My husband
thinks I'm crazy and that I'll inj ure myself. But I 've found a
number of advantages in taking up a sport. I feel much
healthier, and it's important to be active at my age. And
meeting new people has improved my social l ife . So I'll carry
on playing until I get too oH

Now check you r answers in the Key. Then read the text a l o u d , focusi n g on the pro n u nciation of
words with u n d e r l i ned conso n a n t clusters.

9.2 Listen a n d repeat ph rase 1 i n col u m n A with a s l i g h t pa use between the two speech u n its. Then l isten
A36 a n d repeat ph rase 1 in col u m n B, m a k i n g s u re yo u r u n the words tog ether without a pa use. Then do
the sa me fo r ph rases 2-10 (notice that the u nderl i n ed clusters a re the sa me i n co l u m ns A a n d B).
Som e u n d e r l i ned consonant clusters i n co l u m n B a re si m p l ified. Try to m a ke the sa me si m p l ifications
when you repeat them (see Key for deta i ls of si m p l ifications).

A B
1 1/ Jack was i n the a u d iencell tryi ng not to laug hl/ 1/ she's a freela nce tra nslatorl/
2 1/ the ring looked very elega.ntLL2Qa rkl i n g i n the su n l ightl/ 1/ the president spoke nextl/
3 // here's some m il.lsLLd.ri n k it nowl/ 1/ she wore a si l k d ressl/
4 1/ I hea r you won the contragLLgre at newsl/ 1/ it looked green to mel/
5 1/ if you're going to the coa�y therel/ 1/ it's on the fi rst floorl/
6 1/ if you fi nd any of my oid booksll th row them awayl/ 1/ he spea ks th ree lang uagesl/
7 1/ it's got two bed roomsll slig htly smal ll/ 1/ lift you r a rms slowlyl/
8 1/ it's very olQLLfu i dget saysl/ 1/ there was a cold breezel/
9 1/ there was a footprintll sma l l l i ke a child'sl/ 1/ what's that u n pleasant smel ll/
10 1/ it was sad i n some pa r1ill..hu morous in othersl/ 1/ it's hugel/

9.3 M atch a word from box A with a word from box B t o m a ke com p o u n d n o u ns. Say t h e com po u n ds
a l o u d , m a k i n g s u re you r u n the words i n the com p o u n d togeth er.
A B

� direct general golf lamp club property musiC �6tS6fttft�

first passive rock lost speech class shade smoking speech
time tourist stFike therapist trap travel

EXAMPLE bloo�oiso�i�q (Id! in 'bloog' is pronounced like Ibl)

A37 Listen , check you r a n swers a n d repeat the co mpou nds, m a k i n g the sa me si m p l ifications of consonant
clusters where these occu r (see Key for deta i l s of si m p l ifications).

Follow up: Find two-word compound nouns used in a topic that i nterests you or in your area of study. Which of
them have consonant clusters across the two words? Record yourself saying them, and l isten to the recording.

English Pronunciation in Use (Advanced) 25

 Con so n a nt cl u sters : Fu rthe r p ra ctice
Con so n a n t cl uste rs a t the beg i n n i n g of word s

1 ® IbI-I, Ibr-I a n d Ib-I browse - blouse brink - blink

Listen and repeat the words in the box. blue - brew bland - brand
breeze - bees broad - bored
Listen. The speaker will say two words from the box.
blank - bank blend - bend
If you hear the same word twice, write S (same ) .
I f you hear two different words, write D (different) .
1 . 2 ........ . 3 ...... . .
. 4 ........ . 5 ...... . 6 .. 7 .. 8 .....

Listen. Underline the word you hear.

9 The cat's black/back.
10 a new bloom/ broom
11 She looked at her untidy hair and blushed/brushed.
12 Have you made the bread/bed yet ?
13 a terrible blow/bow
14 I brought/bought it from town.

2 ® IpI-I, Ipr-I a n d lp-I proud - ploughed please - peas

Listen and repeat the words in the box. plank - prank preach - peach
pretty - pity plane - pain
Listen. The speaker will say two words from the box.
plod - prod praise - plays
If you hear the same word twice, write S (same ) .
I f you hear two different words, write D (different) .
1 ....... . 2 . 3 ......... 4 ........ 5 ........ 6 ..... 7 .. 8 ..... .

Listen. Underline the word you hear.

9 I didn't know what the plan/pan was for.
10 a small plot/pot
11 There were only two prawns/pawns left.
12 the first pies/prize
13 She wanted to play/pray.
14 All the children were present/pleasant.

3 E4 IkI-I, Ikr-I and Ik-I cloud - crowd clash - cash

Listen and repeat the words in the box. clown - crown came - claim
croak - cloak crane - cane
Listen. The speaker will say two words from the box.
clutch - crutch cost - crossed
If you hear the same word twice, write S (same).
If you hear two different words, write D (different) .
1 ....... . 2 ..... 3 . 4 ... 5 ....... . 6 . 7 ...... . 8 ......

Listen. Underline the word you hear.

9 I think he's a crooklcook.
10 the main clauselcause
11 The captain didn't have a crew/clue.
12 The climblcrime was terrible.
13 They're very clean/keen.
14 They're really coollcruel.

1 32 English Pronunciation in Use (Advanced)

 Section f Reference

4 eft) IgI-I. Ig r-I a n d Ig -I great - gate gave - grave

Listen and repeat the words in the box. green - glean gory - glory
grammar - glamour glide - guide
Listen. The speaker will say two words from the box.
glade - grade gloom - groom
If you hear the same word twice, write S (same).
If you hear two different words, write D (different) .
1 . 2 .. 3 ......... 4 .. 5 6 .. 7 ......... 8 .

Listen. Underline the word you hear.

9 The cows were all grazing/gazing over by the lake.
10 We grew/glue them together.
11 I hurt myself while I was cutting the glass/grass.
12 She gasped/grasped at it.
13 It j ust stopped going/growing.
14 Her cheeks started to go/glow red.

5 ® Ifl-I. /fr-I a n d If-I frog - fog fraud - ford

Listen and repeat the words in the box. flagrant - fragrant flee - free
flame - frame four - floor
Listen. The speaker will say two words from the box.
fee - flee fresh - flesh
If you hear the same word twice, write S (same).
If you hear two different words, write D (different) .
1 ........ . 2 3 ....... . 4 . 5 6 ........ . 7 .. 8

Listen. Underline the word you hear.

9 It's flatter/fatter in the middle.
10 He stood there with the fruit/flute in his hand.
11 It froze/flows through the north of the country.
12 I flavour/favour plain food.
13 Have you tried flying/frying it?
14 a terrible flight/fright

6 Itr-/a nd It -I; Idr-/a nd Id-I drip - dip down - drown

Listen and repeat the words in the box. tied - tried truth - tooth
drain - train tread - dread
Listen. The speaker will say two words from the box.
dug - drug tea - tree
If you hear the same word twice, write S (same).
If you hear two different words, write D (different) .
1 ........ 2 . 3 4 5 . 6 .. 7 ........ . 8 .

Listen. Underline the word you hear.

9 It can't be two/true.
10 I thought it was a tap/trap.
11 She's taking diving/driving lessons.
12 The door/drawer was open.
13 Why don't you dry/try it?
14 It died/dried during the night.

English Pronunciation in Use (Advanced) 1 33

 Section E. Reference

Consona nt cluste rs a t t h e end of word s

E8 Fi n a l c l u sters sta rti ng w ith I-rn-I and /-n-I pitch - pinch concerned - concern
U-mp/. I-nd/. etc.) warmth - warm bet - bent
Listen and repeat the words in the box. thumb - thump arm - armed
bomb - bombs fringe - fridge
Listen. The speaker will say two words from the box.
If you hear the same word twice, write S (same ) .
I f you hear two different words, write D (different) .
1 ........ . 2 ........ . 3 . 4 ........ . 5 6 ........ . 7 ........ . 8 ........ .

Listen. Underline the word you hear.

9 I blame/blamed it on the cold weather.
10 We had to changelchain it.
11 The police weren't able to fine/find her.
12 The rooms/room can be booked in advance.
13 a company that makes trays/trains
14 We could see the flames/flame in the window.

E9 Fi n a l c l u sters sta rti ng w i t h 1-1-1 U-1k/. 1-1f/. etc.) well - wealth gull - gulf
Listen and repeat the words in the box. cold - coal kiln - kill
wool - wolf hole - hold
Listen. The speaker will say two words from the box.
built - build sale - sales
If you hear the same word twice, write S (same ) .
I f you hear two different words, write D (different) .
1 2 ......... 3 4 .. 5 ..... 6 .. 7 8 ........ .

Listen. Underline the word you hear.

9 She suddenly fell/felt ill.
10 The use of smokeless fuels/fuel is compulsory.
11 We call1called our cat 'Sparky'.
12 We help/held them out.
13 I decided to fill/film it.
14 I dropped a shelf/shell on the floor.

E10 Fi n a l c l u ste rs e n d i ng w i t h I-tl U-pt/. I-ktl etc.) left - let eat - east
Listen and repeat the words in the box. felt - fell pain - paint
past - pass fact - fat
Listen. The speaker will say two words from the box.
hunt - hut pack - packed
If you hear the same word twice, write S (same ) .
I f you hear two different words, write D (different) .
1 . 2 3 4 ... .... . 5 6 ....... . 7 ........ . 8 ........ .

Listen. Underline the word you hear.

9 just a guest/guess
10 He bit/built it.
11 I was sure I saw a ghost/goat in the house.
12 She was carrying a bell/belt in her hand.
13 We meant/met to discuss it.
14 when they abolished/abolish hunting

English Pronunciation in Use (Advanced)

 Section E. Reference

10 Fi n a l c l u sters end i ng with I-dl U-md/. I-zd/. etc.) phone - phoned goal - gold
Listen and repeat the words in the box. bombed - bond devised - divide
harmed - hard raced - raised
Listen. The speaker will say two words from the box.
lend - led bed - begged
If you hear the same word twice, write S (same).
If you hear two different words, write D (different) .
1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 .. 7 ........ . 8 .

Listen. Underline the word you hear.

9 The wind/win was unexpected.
10 I eventually sold/sewed it.
11 His last film was surprisingly bad/banned.
12 We've tied/timed it better this time.
13 It was very wild/wide.
14 They describeldescribed it as their second home.

11 E12 Fi n a l c l u ste rs e n d i ng w i t h I -sI U-ps/. I-ks/. etc.) gaps - gas licks - lips
Listen and repeat the words in the box. base - bakes cakes - case
once - won clips - clicks
Listen. The speaker will say two words from the box.
cats - caps checks - chess
If you hear the same word twice, write S (same).
If you hear two different words, write D (different) .
1 ...... ..
. 2 ...... . 3 4 ....... 5 ....... . 6 7 ........ 8 ........ .

Listen. Underline the word you hear.

9 He drew some graphs/grass on the board.
10 a quick glass/glance
11 They couldn't explain the deaths/debts.
12 She said she was six/sick.
13 covered in moss/moths
14 I went to buy some maps/mats.

12 E13 Fi n a l cl u ste rs e n d i ng w ith I-zl U-vz/. I-nz/. etc.) lives - lies youths - use
. .

Listen and repeat the words in the box. ralse - rams stars - starves
bags - bangs size - sides
Listen. The speaker will say two words from the box.
rise - rides calls - cause
If you hear the same word twice, write S (same).
If you hear two different words, write D (different).
1 2 ....... . 3 . 4 .. 5 ......... 6 ........ . 7 ....... . 8

Listen. Underline the word you hear.

9 Her crieslcrimes were ignored.
10 The bright red robes/rose lay on the floor.
11 The lawns/laws were added later.
12 She says/sells a lot, doesn't she ?
13 All the black cardslcars were to the left.
14 The size/signs looked good.

English Pronunciation in Use (Advanced) 1 35

STRONG AND
WEAK FORMS
 STRONG
AND WEAK
FORMS
PRACTICE