Project Report On Tribological Properties of Composite Material

FABRICATION AND EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON TRIBOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF CALOTROPIS
PROCERA FIBRE REINFORCED EPOXY HYBRID COMPOSITES
VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

BELAGAVI
A Project Report on
FABRICATION AND EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION

ON TRIBOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF CALOTROPIS
PROCERA FIBRE REINFORCED EPOXY HYBRID
COMPOSITES
Submitted by
Abhishek Patil 4BB14ME001

Chougule Shubham 4BB14ME009
Kishor Gurav 4BB14ME019
Pranit Patil 4BB15ME412
Under the Guidance of

Mr. Raghu M. J. B.E., M.Tech (Ph.D)
Assistant Professor (Sr. Grade)
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Bahubali College of Engineering
Shravanabelagola-573 135
2017-18
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, BCE, SHRAVANABELAGOLA 1

BAHUBALI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Shravanabelagola-573135
____________________________________________________
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the Project work entitled “FABRICATION
AND EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON TRIBOLOGICAL
PROPERTIES OF CALOTROPIS PROCERA FIBRE REINFORCED
EPOXY HYBRID COMPOSITES” is a bonafide work carried out by
Abhishek Patil, Chougule Shubham, Kishor Gurav, Pranit Patil in
partial fulfillment of VIII Semester to award the Bachelor Degree in
Mechanical Engineering of the Visvesvaraya Technological University,
Belagavi during the year 2017-18. It is certified that all
corrections/suggestions indicated for Internal Assessment have been
incorporated in the report and deposited in the department library. The
project report has been approved as it satisfies all the academic requirements
in respect of project work prescribed for the Bachelor of Engineering
Degree.
Mr. Raghu M. J Dr. Govardhan Goud Dr. Ramegowda

Assistant Professor & Guide Professor & HOD Principal
(Sr. Grade)
ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The completion of any work involves the efforts of many people. We have been
lucky to have received a lot of help and support from all parts of quarters during the
making of this project, so with gratitude we take this opportunity to acknowledge all
those whose guidance and encouragement helped us to emerge successfully.
We would like to thank our guide Shri. Raghu M. J. Assistant professor (Sr.
Grade) in Department of Mechanical Engineering, for his timely suggestions that helped
us to complete this project in due time.
We would like to thank Dr. Govardhan Goud Professor and Head of

department, Mechanical Engineering, for giving us facilities and support.
We would like to thank Prof. Gomatesh M. Ravanavar, Dean (Academic)
for providing the support for making this project possible.
We would like to thank Mr. Ashok H R. Asst. prof. and project Coordinator in
Department of Mechanical Engineering, for giving facilities and support.
Weexpress thanks to our beloved principal Dr. Ramegowda for providing us
facilities inside the campus.
We would also like to thanks all the Teaching and Non-Teaching Staff
member of Mechanical Department for their support and encouragement

throughout the engineering life.
We would like to sincerely thank all the people who are instrumental in imparting
the knowledge used by us for this project.
Finally we thank our parents and friends for their support.
Abhishek Patil 4BB14ME001
Chougule Shubham 4BB14ME009
Kishor Gurav 4BB14ME019
Pranit Patil 4BB15ME412
iii

ABSTRACT
Natural fibers are widely used for reinforcement in composite materials and
proved to be used in various applications. The Calotropis procera fiber containing composites are
more environmental friendly. The material used for hybrid composites are Epoxy resin, Hardener,
short Calotropis procera fibres and glass fibres. From literature survey it is found that the alkali
treatment improved the tribological properties of natural fibers. The Calotropis procera fibers
were extracted by manual decortications method from the stem husk of the plant and treated with
5% NaOH for 30 minutes and then washed with tap water followed by distilled water to remove
the traces of NaOH and dried under diffused sunlight to remove moisture content.
The short fibres of 4 to 5 mm length were used for fabrication which was done by
hand lay-up process with 20 wt% fibre reinforcement in Epoxy matrix. In 20 wt%
reinforcement of fibre the content of Calotropis procera and glass fibre were varied from
5, 10, 15 and 20 wt%. The 80 wt% Epoxy matrix was maintained in the composite. The
two tests were done to analyse the tribological properties, Dry sliding wear test as per
ASTM G99 and three body abrasive wear test as per ASTM G65. The test results were
tabulated and analysed.
The hybrid composite having 5 wt% Calotropis procera and 15 wt% Glass fibre
showed less wear loss in hybrid composites both in sliding wear test as well as in abrasive
wear test which is comparable with 20 wt% Glass fibre reinforced epoxy composite
which marked very low wear loss. The wear loss increases with the increase in speed,
load and abrasive size. The scanning electron microscope images reflected the same for
both Dry sliding wear test and three body abrasive wear test specimens where pictures of
wear out surface shows clear surface for low wear resistance specimen and rough
strangled surface for high wear resistance specimen.
The Calotropis procera and glass fiber reinforced hybrid epoxy composites were
successfully fabricated and can be used for lower end applications. A new class of composites
was developed and can be modified by changing the fabrication methods employed, hybridization
with different natural and synthetic fibers, matrix materials and adding fillers to suit various
applications.

CONTENTS
CERTIFICATE ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii
ABSTRACT iv
LIST OF FIGURES vi
AIM, SCOPE, OBJECTIVE 1
1. INTRODUCTION 2-11
1.1 HISTORY 2-6
1.2 DEFINITION OF COMPOSITES 6
1.3 CONSTITUENTS OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS 6-7
1.4 NATURAL FIBER 7
1.5 EPOXY RESIN 8
1.6 USES OF EPOXY RESIN 8
1.7 PROPERTIES OF EPOXY RESIN 9
1.8 CALOTROPIS PROCERA 9
1.9 OVERVIEW OF FIBER AND COMPOSITES 9-11
2. LITERATURE SURVEY 12-19
3. METHODOLOGY AND MATERIAL USED 20-24
3.1 METHODOLOGY 20-21
3.2 FIBER EXTRACTION STEPS 21
3.3 ALKALI TREATMENT 22
3.4 COMPOSITE FABRICATION 22

3.5 MANUFACTURING TECHNIQUE HAND LAY-UP METHOD 23
3.6 MATERIAL USED 23-24
4. FABRICATION AND TESTING 25-28
4.1 Fabrication 25
4.2 Testing 26-28
5. RESULT AND DISCUSION 29-39
5.1 Hardness test 29
5.2 Density test 30
5.3 Dry sliding wear test (as per ASTM G99) 31-34
5.4 Three body abrasive wear test (as per ASTM G65) 35-37
5.5 SEM Characterization 37-39
6. COST ANALYSIS 40
7. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES 41
8. CONCLUSION 42
REFERENCES 43-44
GANTT CHART

LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. No. Figure Name Page No.
1.1 Typical reinforcement types 3
1.2 Major polymer matrix composite fabrication processes 4
1.3 Uses of epoxy resin 8
3.1 Flowchart of Methodology 20
3.2 Fiber Extraction Steps 21
3.3 Hand lay-Up method 23
3.4 Epoxy resin 23
3.5 Hardener 24
3.6 Calotropis Procera fiber 24
4.1 Fabrication steps 25
4.2 Dry sliding wear tester 26
4.3 Dry sliding wear testing specimen 26
4.4 Three body abrasive wear tester 27
4.5 Three body abrasive wear testing specimen 27
4.6 Equipment for Hardness Testing 27
5.1 Comparison of hardness number 29
5.2 Comparison of density of different specimens 30
5.3 Analysis of wear loss with sliding distance 31
5.4 Analysis of coefficient of friction with sliding distance 31
5.5 Analysis of wear loss with sliding velocity 33
5.6 Analysis of coefficient of friction with sliding velocity 33

5.7 Analysis of wear loss with normal load 34
5.8 Analysis of coefficient of friction with normal load 34

5.9 Analysis of wear loss with abrasive size 35
5.10 Analysis of wear loss with normal load 37
5.11 Scanning Electron micrograph of 15% calotropis procera fibre (a) 37

500X and (b) 1000X
5.12 Scanning Electron micrograph of 5% calotropis procera fibre (c) 38
500X and (d) 1000X
50X and (d) 1000X
200X and (d) 2000X

LIST OF TABLES
Table. No. Table Name Page No.
1.1 Composition of few commonly used natural fibers 11
3.1 Percentage of glass fibre, milk weed and epoxy resine 22

5.1 Hardness test results for Calotropis Procera fiber composites 29
5.2 Density test results for Calotropis Procera fiber composites 30
5.3 Variation of the Coefficient of friction (or Force of friction in N) / 31

wear loss with Sliding distance at constant sliding velocity 1m/sec
and normal load 10N
wear loss with Sliding velocity at constant sliding distance 1000m
and normal load 10N
wear loss with normal load at constant sliding distance 1000m and
Sliding velocity 1m/sec
wear loss with 30N normal load at constant sliding distance
1000m and Sliding velocity 1m/sec.
wear loss with Abrasive size at constant sliding velocity 2.1 m/sec
and normal load 10N
wear loss with normal load at constant Abrasive size 300µm and
Sliding velocity 1.0m/sec
6.1 Cost Analysis 40

AIM:
Fabrication and experimental investigation on tribological properties of Calotropis
procera fiber reinforced epoxy hybrid composites.
SCOPE:
 Natural fiber is inexpensive, bio-degradable, and eco-friendly in the nature.
 It provides a feasible alternative to use of traditional material in the domestic,
automotive and lower end aerospace applications.
 The tribological properties could be improved and the cost can be reduced.
OBJECTIVES:
 To extract the bast fibers from the Calotropis procera plant.
 To fabricate composites with reinforcement of fiber in various weight proportions.
 To conduct tribological testing on composites by varying different parameters.
 To analyze and compare the result with neat epoxy and non hybrid composites.
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
A composite material can be defined as a combination of two or more materials
that results in better properties than those of the individual components used alone. In
contrast to metallic alloys, each material retains its separate Chemical, physical, and
mechanical properties. The two constituents are reinforcement and a Matrix. The main
advantages of composite materials are their high strength and stiffness, combined with
low density, when compared with Bulk materials, allowing for a weight reduction in the
finished part.
The reinforcing phase provides the strength and stiffness. In most cases, the
reinforcement is harder, stronger, and stiffer than the matrix. The reinforcement is usually
a fibre or a particulate. Particulate composites have dimensions that are approximately
equal in all directions. They may be spherical, platelets, or any other regular or irregular
geometry. Particulate composites tend to be much weaker and less stiff than continuous
fibre composites, but they are usually much less expensive. Particulate reinforced
composites usually contain less reinforcement (up to 40 to 50 volume percent) due to
processing difficulties and brittleness. A fibre has a length that is much greater than its
diameter. The length-to-diameter (l/d) ratio is known as the aspect ratio and can vary
greatly. Continuous fibres have long aspect ratios, while discontinuous fibres have short
aspect ratios. Continuous-fibre composites normally have a preferred orientation, while
discontinuous fibres generally have a random orientation. Examples of continuous
reinforcements include unidirectional, woven cloth and helical winding, while examples
of discontinuous reinforcements are chopped fibres and random mat.
Continuous-fibre composites are often made into laminates by stacking single
sheets of continuous fibres in different orientations to obtain the desired strength and
stiffness properties with fibre volumes as high as 60 to 70 percent. Fibres produce high-
strength composites because of their small diameter; they contain far fewer defects
(normally surface defects) compared to the material produced in bulk. As a general rule,
the smaller the diameter of the fibre, the higher its strength, but often the cost increases as
the diameter becomes smaller. In addition, smaller-diameter high-strength fibres have
greater flexibility and are more amenable to fabrication processes such as weaving or
forming over radii. Typical fibres include glass, aramid, and carbon, which may be
continuous or discontinuous. The continuous phase is the matrix, which is a polymer,
metal, or ceramic. Polymers have low strength and stiffness, metals have intermediate
strength and stiffness but high ductility, and ceramics have high strength and stiffness but

are brittle. The matrix (continuous phase) performs several critical functions, including
maintaining the fibres in the proper orientation and spacing and protecting them from
abrasion and the environment. In polymer and metal matrix composites that form a strong
bond between the fibre and the matrix, the matrix transmits loads from the matrix to the
fibres through shear loading at the interface. In ceramic matrix composites, the objective
is often to increase the toughness rather than the strength and stiffness; therefore, a low
interfacial strength bond is desirable. The type and quantity of the reinforcement
determine the final properties. The highest strength and modulus are obtained with
continuous-fibre composites. There is a practical limit of about 70 volume percent
reinforcement that can be added to form a composite. At higher percentages, there is too
little matrix to support the fibers effectively
The theoretical strength of discontinuous-fibre composites can approach that of
continuous-fibre composites if their aspect ratios are great enough and they are aligned,
but it is difficult in practice to maintain good alignment with discontinuous fibres.
Discontinuous-fibre composites are normally somewhat random in alignment, which
dramatically reduces their strength and modulus. However, discontinuous-fibre
composites are generally much less costly than continuous-fibre composites. Therefore,
continuous-fibre composites are used where higher strength and stiffness are required (but
at a higher cost), and discontinuous-fibre composites are used where cost is the main
driver and strength and stiffness are less important.
Fig 1.1 Typical reinforcement types
Both the reinforcement type and the matrix affect processing. The major
processing routes for polymer matrix composites are shown in Fig. 1.2. Two types of
polymer matrices are shown: thermosets and thermoplastics. A thermoset starts as a low-
viscosity resin that reacts and cures during processing, forming an intractable solid. A
thermoplastic is a high-viscosity resin that is processed by heating it above its melting
temperature. Because a thermoset resin sets up and cures during processing, it cannot be
reprocessed by reheating. By comparison, a thermoplastic can be reheated above its
melting temperature for additional processing. There are processes for both classes of
resins that are more amenable to discontinuous fibres and others that are more amenable
to continuous fibres. In general, because metal and ceramic matrix composites require
very high temperatures and sometimes high pressures for processing, they are normally
much more expensive than polymer matrix composites. However, they have much better
thermal stability, a requirement in applications where the composite is exposed to high
temperatures. This book will deal with both continuous and discontinuous polymer,
metal, and ceramic matrix. Composites with an emphasis on continuous fibre high-
performance polymer composites.
Fig. 1.2 Major polymer matrix composite fabrication processes.

1.1 HISTORY:
Composites have been used throughout the history, i.e., straw in bricks, metal rod-
reinforced concrete and light weight aerospace structures. Fiber reinforced polymer
matrix composite materials are being introduced in ever-increasing quantities in military
systems and have become a key element in the department of Defense’s effort to lighten
the force. However, polymer matrix composites have an inherent temperature limitations
based on their hydrocarbon structure.
A composite is defined as a material containing two or more distinct phases
combined in such a way so that each remains distinct. There were three principle driving
forces that led to interest and investment in the composite material in the mid-1950s and
1960s. The designer’s demand for lower weight and higher rigidity for aero or space
structures, electronics, and sport equipment’s, under water and other applications. In
1950s there was a fight for survival in the defense and space, because of cold war
between USA and Soviet, which led to the development of some metallic composites.
Advanced composites had come of the age in the early 1960s with the development of
high modulus of whiskers and filaments.
For several centuries, metals have been the preferred engineering materials for the
design and manufacture of components. Metals and alloys like steel, copper, aluminum,
zinc, brass, bronze etc., find extensive use in all walks of life.
Composite materials, particularly fiber reinforced polymeric composites (FRPCs)
are an extremely broad and versatile class of material system for automotive, aerospace
and under water applications due to the possibility of high strength and modulus coupled
with light weight, design and fabrication flexibility and improved mechanical
performance. The commonly used filled-fiber-reinforcement in polymer composites are
glass, carbon and aramid (Kelvar 49). These composites made of such materials not only
retain high strength, stiffness and thermal resistance but also show enhanced impact
strength, fatigue resistance and dimensional stability. One of the well-known composite
that is commonly used is glass fiber reinforced polymeric (GFRP) material. Glass fibers
have good mechanical properties at very reasonable cost when compared to carbons. The
purpose of fiber reinforced polymers (FRP) composite matrix material is to bind the
fibers together.
Automotive, aircraft and under water components fabricated with FRPCs have
tight requirements in service and they can withstand mechanical damages during service.
The fiber damage could occur during fabrication process, storage, service, transport and

maintenance. They are susceptible to mechanical damages when they are subjected to
effects of tension, compression and flexure, which can lead to interlayer delamination. So,
the hybrid polymer can be effectively used to overcome those limitations.
1.2 DEFINITION OF COMPOSITES

Composites are multifunctional material systems that provide characteristics not
obtainable from any discrete material. They are cohesive structures made by physically
combining two or more compatible materials, different in composition and characteristics.
1.3 CONSTITUENTS OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Composite materials have two components:
 Matrix
 The reinforcement
The matrix material surrounds and supports the reinforcement materials and
maintains their relative positions. The reinforcements impart their special mechanical and
physical properties to enhance the matrix properties. A combination of the two produces
material properties unavailable from the individual constituent materials, while the wide
variety of available matrix and strengthening materials allows the designer of the product
or structure to choose an optimum combination.
Composite materials can be classified into three groups on the basis of matrix
material. They are:
a) Metal Matrix Composites (MMC)
b) Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC)
c) Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)
a) Metal Matrix Composites

Metal Matrix Composites have many advantages over monolithic metals like
higher specific modulus, higher specific strength, better properties at elevated
temperatures, and lower coefficient of thermal expansion. Because of these attributes
metal matrix composites are under consideration for wide range of applications viz.
combustion chamber nozzle (in rocket, space shuttle), housings, tubing, cables, heat
exchangers, structural members etc.

b) Ceramic matrix Composites

One of the main objectives in producing ceramic matrix composites is to increase
the toughness. Naturally it is hoped and indeed often found that there is a concomitant
improvement in strength and stiffness of ceramic matrix composites.
c) Polymer Matrix Composites

Most commonly used matrix materials are polymeric. In general the mechanical
properties of polymers are inadequate for many structural purposes. In particular their
strength and stiffness are low compared to metals and ceramics. These difficulties are
overcome by reinforcing other materials with polymers. Secondly the processing of
polymer matrix composites need not involve high pressure and doesn’t require high
temperature. Also equipments required for manufacturing polymer matrix composites are
simpler. For this reason polymer matrix composites developed rapidly and soon became
popular for structural applications. Composites are used because overall properties of the
composites are superior to those of the individual components for example polymer.
1.4 NATURAL FIBER

Natural fibers can be defined as, the substances produced by plants that can be
spun into filament, thread or rope. Examples: banana fiber, coconut fiber, sisal fiber etc.
The interest in natural fiber-reinforced polymer composite materials is rapidly growing
both in terms of their industrial applications and fundamental research. They are
renewable, cheap, completely or partially recyclable, and biodegradable. Plants, such as
flax, cotton, hemp, jute, sisal, kenaf, pineapple, ramie, bamboo, banana, etc., as well as
wood, used from time immemorial as a source of lingo cellulosic fibers, are more and
more often applied as the reinforcement of composites. Their availability, renewability,
low density, and price as well as satisfactory mechanical properties make them an
attractive ecological alternative to glass, carbon and man-made fibers used for the
manufacturing of composites. The natural fiber-containing composites are more
environmentally friendly, and are used in transportation (automobiles, railway coaches,
aerospace), military applications, building and construction industries (ceiling paneling,
partition boards), packaging, consumer products, etc. Synthetic fibers are textiles made
from man-made rather than natural fibers or Synthetic fibers are made by the joining of
monomers into polymers, by the process of polymerization. Examples: polyester, nylon,
rayon etc.

1.5 EPOXY RESIN

An epoxy resin is defined as a molecule with more than one epoxy group, which
can be hardened into a usable plastic. Epoxy resins are the most commonly used thermo
set plastic in polymer matrix composites.
Epoxy resins are a family of thermo set plastic materials which do not give off
reaction products. They also have good adhesion to other materials, good chemical and
environmental resistance, good chemical properties and good insulating properties.
1.6 USES OF EPOXY RESIN

 Used in Paint industry as it dries quickly and provides protective layers that are
highly tough
 Structural or engineering adhesives used in the construction of aircrafts,
automobiles, boats and other such applications.
 Not limited just to technical applications, artists have also used epoxies as a
painting medium by mixing it with pigments to obtain colours.
 These are an integral part of the electronic industry and used in overloading
transistors, integrated circuits and hybrid circuits.
 As brilliant composites, epoxies are used in the manufacturing of various casts
and moulds, laminates, plastic tooling’s, and similar other fixture.
Fig.1.3: Uses of epoxy resin

1.7 PROPERTIES OF EPOXY RESIN

 No volatile loss during cure of product.
 Dimensional stability during cure. They exhibit little shrinkage and can be used
for very accurate reproduction.
 Chemical resistance: Good resistance to a variety of chemicals (including
solvents, acids, and bases) results with properly cured formulations.
 Durability: Cured formulations exhibit good hardness, impact strength, and
toughness.
 Adhesion: The tenacity of epoxy adhesion to almost any surface is without equal
among organic coatings.
 Versatility in curing agent choice and curing conditions.
1.8 CALOTROPIS PROCERA

Calotropis procera fiber (Calotropis procera) is obtained from the stem of calotropis
procera plant. In India, it is found in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and
Andhra Pradesh. Calotropis procera contains an abundance of milk sap in its leaves, stem
and pods. Many parts of calotropis procera are used in medicinal applications. The floss
obtained from the seed, is used for stuffing purpose.
 Calotropis procera fibers are hollow, with a thin wall and are therefore
lightweight.
 The hollow structure of calotropis procera fiber has led to its use in items
where good insulation or buoyancy properties are needed.
 Like cotton, it is a single cell fiber, but unlike cotton, it is free from
convolutions and has low cellulose content.
 Due to its very smooth surface, spinning of 100% calotropis procera fiber is
difficult. However, it can be blended with other fibers and spun into a yarn.
1.9 OVERVIEW OF FIBER AND COMPOSITES

The attraction in utilizing natural fiber, for example, distinctive wood fiber and
plant fiber as support in plastics has expanded drastically throughout last few years.
Concerning the ecological viewpoints if natural fibers might be utilized rather than glass
fibers as fortification in some structural provisions it might be extremely intriguing.
Natural fibers have numerous points of interest contrasted with glass fiber, for instance

they have low thickness, and they are biodegradable and recyclable. Also they are
renewable crude materials and have generally great strength and stiffness.
Natural fibers are classified on the basis of the origin of source, into three types
1) Plant Fibers
2) Mineral Fibers
3) Animal Fibers
1. Plant Fibers:
Plant fibers are usually consists of cellulose: examples cotton, jute, bamboo, flax,
ramie, hemp, coir and sisal. Cellulose fibers are used in various applications. The
category of these fibers is as following: Seed fibers are those which obtain from the seed
e.g. Kapok and cotton. These fibers having superior tensile properties than the other
fibers. Because of these reason these fibers are used in many applications such as
packaging, paper and fabric. Fruit fibers are the fibers generally are obtain from the fruit
of the plant, e.g. banana fiber and coconut fiber. Similarly, stalk fiber are the fibers which
are obtain from the stalks (rice straws, bamboo, wheat and barley). Leaf fibers are the
fibers those are obtain from the leaves (agave and sisal). Skin fibers are those fibers
which are obtain from the bast or skin surrounding the stem of the plant.
2. Mineral Fibers:
Mineral fibers are those which are get from minerals. These are naturally
happening fiber or somewhat changed fiber. It has different classifications they are taking
after: Asbestos is the main characteristically happening mineral fiber. The Variations in
mineral fiber are the serpentine, amphiboles and anthophyllite. The Ceramic filaments are
glass fiber, aluminum oxide and boron carbide. Metal filaments incorporate aluminums
strands.
3. Animal Fibers:
Animal fiber by and large comprises of proteins; cases, silk, alpaca, mohair,
downy. Animal hairs are the strands got from creatures e.g. Sheep's downy, goat hair,
horse hair, alpaca hair, and so forth. Silk fiber is the filaments gathered from dry saliva of
bugs or creepy crawlies throughout the time of planning of cocoons. Avian strands are the
fiber from fowls. Composites of natural fiber used for drives of structural, but typically
with synthetic thermoset matrix which of course bound the environmental benefits. Now
a days natural fiber composites application are usually found in building and automotive

industry and the place where dimensional constancy under moist and high thermal
conditions and load bearing capacity are of importance.
Table 1.1: Composition of few commonly used natural fibers.
Natural fibers like cotton, sisal, jute, abaca, pineapple and coir have already been
studied like a reinforcement and filler in composites. Among various natural fibers,
banana fiber is considered as a potential reinforced in polymer composites due to its many
advantages such as easy availability, low cost, comparable strength properties etc.
Generally, natural fibers are consists of cellulose, lignin, pectin etc. The detail
compositions of few commonly used natural fibers are shown in table 1.1.

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY
Literature survey was done to understand the various works carried in the past
relevant to the natural fiber reinforced composites. Following is the overview of the
results of the research works carried out in the field of natural fiber reinforced
composites.
[1] Shankar et al have studied and reported that the ultimate tensile strength value
maximum at 15% and then decreases with increasing in fiber starting from 15% to 20%.
They also reported that the flexural strength value decreasing from 5% to 10% (87.31
MPa) and after that the value increased from fiber. Sumaila et al. Have investigated the
influence of fiber length on the mechanical and physical properties of nonwoven short
banana, random oriented fiber and epoxy composite and they described that the tensile
properties and percentage elongation of the composite attained a maximum in composite
fabricated from 15 mm fiber length. They have also reported that the impact energy
whereas the compressive strength increases decreased with increasing fiber length, also
the mean flexural properties of the composite increased with increasing in fiber length up
to 25mm.
[2] The potential of grain by-product such as barley husk, coconut shell as
reinforcements for thermoplastic as an alternative or together with wood fibres was
investigated. The thermal degradation characteristics of those fibres were studied to
investigate the feasibility of these fibres from the processing point of view. The result
revealed that barley husk and coconut shell were thermally stable at temperature as high
as 235 and 195 0C respectively which compared with soft wood fibre thermally stable up
to 245 0C. The cellulose structural material content in barley is 50 % and in coconut shell
is 34 %. Both coconut shell and barley husk have higher carbon rich layer on their surface
than soft wood fibre. Barley husk fibre reinforced composite showed 10 % better tensile
strength than soft wood fibre reinforced composite, both coconut shell and barley husk
reinforced composite showed 80 and 40 % better elongation at break; 20 and 35 % better
charpy impact strength than soft wood fibre composite.
[3] Composite are materials consist of two or more chemically distinct constituents on
a macro-scale, having a distinct interface separating them, and which cannot be obtained
by any constituent working individually. They consist of five different types. Among
them polymer matrix composite (PMC) and metal matrix composite (MMC) are the
commonly used in large scale. In the industries application of fibre place an important
role in both type of composite matrix. Because the type of fibre used should possess
required amount of strength to form the strong bond. The glass fibreis the most used and
easy available fibre. S.K.Singh, S.Singh, S.Sharma and V.Sharma made the same effort as
the other authors to improve the efficiency of the epoxy resin in the glass fiber. He made
use of montmorilloniteclosite 30B nanoclay to modify the epoxy resin. The different
composition of nano clay is used such as 1%, 3%,5%. The results were analyzed. The
nano clay of 3% showed better properties than the 1% and 5%.
[4] In most cases, natural fibres reinforced polymer composites exhibit better
mechanical properties than the pure matrix. In other words,the use of natural fibres as
reinforcement for polymeric composites introduces positive effecton the mechanical
behaviour of polymers. Addition of jute fibres to poly(lactic acid) (PLA) showed 75.8%
enhancement to the tensile strength of PLA while flax fibres exhibited negative impact,
i.e. decrease the tensile strength of composite by 16%. On other hand, kenaf, hemp, and
cotton improved the tensile strength of PP composite. Tensile strength of epoxy
improved with the addition of jute fibres but the jute fibres deteriorated the compressive
strength. Meanwhile, jute enhanced all the mechanical properties of polyester composites.
Jute/polyester composite has showed the maximum improvement in tensile strength by
121% compared to pure polyester.
[5] Venkateshwaran et al studied the effect of alkali (NaOH) treatments of various
concentrations (0.5%, 1%, 2%, 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%) on the mechanical properties of
banana/epoxy composite. The results reported that as compared to other treated and
untreated fiber composites, 1% NaOHtreated fiber reinforced composites have a better
properties. The alkali concentration on the fiber surfaces results in better mechanical
properties of the resulted composite.
However, the rising of alkali concentration maybe causes fiber surface damage,
leading to a decrease of mechanical properties. The effect of different chemical treatment
on the mechanical properties and characteristic of sisal-oil palm hybrid fiber reinforced
natural rubber composites have been
studied by John et al with chemical treatment, the torque values increased which
lead to greater crosslinking. Similarly, alkali treatment showed a rise in the composites’
tensile strength in comparison to untreated composites and with 4% NaOH treated fibers,
optimum tensile strength was seen for resulted composites. In contrast, for composites
treated with 4%NaOH a strong interface is apparent because of a more superior adhesion
between rubber and fiber is presentwhich avoids solvent entry and a little swelling occurs.

[6] V. Arumuga prabu et al [4] studies on Influence of redmud on the mechanical,

damping and chemical resistance properties of banana/polyester hybrid composites The
effect of varying parameters such as particle size (4, 6 and 13 lm) and weight percentage
(2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 wt%) of redmud were analyzed on static mechanical, free vibration and
chemical resistance properties of hybrid composites. The addition of redmud shown
enhanced performance compared to the virgin BFRPCs in all the above said properties.
The maximum increase of 50% in mechanical strength was observed for the BFRPCs
with the addition of redmud having 4 lm particle size and 8 wt% of filler content
compared to pure BFRPCs. The increased value of fundamental natural frequencies with
associated modal damping characteristics of redmud filled BFRPCs were found using
half-power band width method.
[7] Bilba et al. determined the chemical composition of banana pseudostem by
elemental analysis. The results were as follows, cellulose-31-35%, hemicellulose-14-17%
and lignin-15-16%. Reddy and Yang analysed the production processes, structure,
properties and suitability of biofibres for various industrial applications. They studied the
properties of banana fibre, pineapple leaf fibre, coir, wheat straw, barley straw and rice
straw and resulted that pineapple and banana fibers have higher cellulose content 70-82%
and 60-65%, respectively. The banana fibre showed the diameter of 80-250 μm with the
elongation percentage of 1.0-3.5. Kiruthika and Veluraja studied the physical properties
of banana pseudostem fibre. The varieties selected by them were Red Banana, Nendra,
Rasthaly, Morris and Poovan. They found that the tensile strength of Red Banana fibres
was high (525 MPa) followed by Nendra (456 MPa), Rasthaly (346 MPa), Morris (252
MPa) and Poovan (175 MPa).
[8] Samrat Mukhopadhya studied that Hundred fibers were chosen at random from
the collection of banana fibers. There was a wide range of variation of diameter starting
from 0.08mm to 0.32 mm. Based on a class interval of 0.029 mm, which was decided
based on the presence of at least 10 fibers in a class, the fibers were divided into 8 classes
(Figure 3). Diameter distribution of fibers measured along 100 different points along the
length for four different fibers also follow a normal distribution (Figure 5) except for
Fiber 1, which had a bimodal distribution. However majority of the fibers follow a normal
distribution, 25% of the fibers fall in the 0.17 to 0.19 mm group and 66% of the fibers
cluster around the diameter of 0.14 to 0.23 mm. This distribution is inherent in natural
fibers of various origins.

[9] Summerscales, J rising interest in natural fibers in the composites field is

undeniable, mainly due to sustainability, but also because of their good mechanical
properties and low cost. The differences observed among different natural fibers are due
to their chemical composition, origin, climate conditions, etc. On average, vegetable
fibers are made of 60%–70% of cellulose, 10%–20% of hemicellulose, 5%–15% of lignin
and up to 2% of pectin and waxes The use of natural fibers as reinforcement of polymeric
parts has been widely studied, specially focusing on injection molding technology. In
fact, around 21,000 tons of natural fibers were used in 2003 in the European industry; the
most relevant fibers for the industrial production of plastic composites are flax, sisal and
hemp. Natural fibers are less harmful to humans, machinery and the environment, thus
being realistic alternatives to glass fiber.
[10] Bamboo is the fastest growing plant in the world - some species grow even one
meter per day. It has a great ability to reduce green house gases, absorbing five times
more CO2 than an equivalent stand of trees and producing 35% more oxygen. Bamboo
constantly improves its solidity , thereby preventing its erosion. In addition it retains
water in its watersheds The species of bamboo used for fibre production are not eaten by
the endangered Giant Panda. Fortunately there is also no information about genetically
modified bamboo. With respect to their structure, natural bamboo fibres are similar to
ramie fibres; however, they are fibre and shorter. Their length varies from 1 to 5 a α-
cellulose content of 36 - 41%, lignins (22 - 26%) and penthosans (16 - 21%) The most
significant components in the bamboo’s chemical constitution are those providing its
extraordinary fungal and bacterial resistance. The one responsible for bamboo’s
antibacterial properties is 2.6-bimethoxy-p-benzoquinone, called ‘Bamboo kun’. The
highly distinctive fungal resistance occurs due to a protein – dendrocin.
[11] Calotropis procera was evaluated by Kumar et al (2000). A single oral dose of DL
ranging from 165 to 830 mg/kg produced a significant dose dependent analgesic effect
against acetic acid induced writhing. The effect of DL (830 mg/ml) produced marginal
analgesic effect of DL was delayed by 1 h by naloxone at dose of 0.5mg/kg, i.p., which
completely blocked the analgesic effect of morphine (10 mg/kg, i.p.). Tribological
properties of composites are greatly depended on the volume percentages of fibers and
resin. Stems of Calotropis Procera plants have been used to obtain natural cellulose fibers
with better strength if fiber concentrations increases tribological properties also increased.
[12] J. Jayaramudu studied that the alkaline treatment of hemp fiber increased the
tribological properties of hemp/PP composites, indicating that interfacial bonding

improved after alkaline treatment. The tribological properties of the hemp reinforced PP
composites were achieved with the 4% alkali chemical treatment. Meanwhile, the
tribological properties of the 6% NaOH-treated fiber composite were lower than those of
the 2% and 4 % NaOH-treated composites. This result may be due to the presence of
hemicelluloce and lignin on the fiber, which was mostly removed after the 6% alkali
treatment which caused fibrils in the fibers to be easily pulled out (fibrillation). This
explanation is supported by SEM observations.
[13] Sedelnik N studied about the biological modification of the technical hemp fibre
reduces its linear density by 30-40%, and its mean length is reduced 5.5 times compared
to the input length. In flat carding the bio-modified hemp fibre is made even finer and
shorter, and is evened up in length so that it approximates cotton. After the flat-carding
operation, the linear density of the hemp fibre is reduced on average by 63%, and in
length by on average 87%. After flat carding, the bio-modified hemp fibre reaches a mean
linear density of about 1.5 tex and a mean length of about 34 mm. Following biological
modification, the chemical composition of the hemp fibre is changed to a degree that indi-
cates a good capability for spinning. There is a slight increase in cellulose content, while
the content of the cementing vegetable substances is reduced: hemicellulose by 28%,
pectin by 98%, and lignin by 23%.
[14] Timber as felled has considerable moisture content[MC] present as 'free' moisture
within the cell cavities and 'bound' or 'combined' moisture saturating the cell walls. The
freshly sawn lumber will lose perhaps 50% of its totalweight, shrink somewhat and
become much stronger, harder and more durable during the seasoning[drying and
stabilizing]process. The seasoning process also improves timber workability and the
bonding of adhesives and surface finishes.The targetMC for the process is normally 12%
(i.e. weight of water compared to weight of totally dry wood) but it may vary between
10% and 15% in moderate climate conditions; at these levels only bound moisture
remains. Timber with MC between 15% and 25% is sometimes regarded as partially
seasoned. The tangential shrinkage is only about 3.5% and the radial shrinkage is around
2.5%. The specific gravity of the cell wall material is about the same in most timbers is
about 1.50
[15] From the literature review, there remains a lack of research in the studying of the
correlations between the mechanical properties and the friction coefficient of
filler/polymer composite materials. Therefore, various attempts were made to find any
correlation between individual mechanical properties with the steady state of the

coefficient of friction (COF) under 50 N applied load after a 7.56-km sliding distance
using the BOR technique. Considering individual mechanical properties, the correlation
results of the tensile strength (S−1), modulus of elasticity (M−1), elongation at the break
(e−1), and hardness (H−1) against the coefficient of friction of the studied materials. The
correlation results show a remarkable and significant correlation between S−1 and e−1
(83.3% and 73.2%), while the modulus of elasticity and hardness have no correlation with
the coefficient of friction of the materials (22.5%, 11.9%).
[16] According to Rozman et al. (2001), there was a reduction of flexural and tensile
strengths from the incorporation of EFB and glass fibre (GF) into polypropylene (PP)
matrix. Kalam et al. (2005) found that increasing fibre volume ratio from 35 vol% to 55
vol% for oil palm fruit bunch fibre (OPFBF)/epoxy composite reduced the tensile
strength of the composite and increased the Young’s modulus. Composite of Arenga
pinnata fibre reinforced epoxy showed that the 10 wt.% woven roving fibre has the
highest value of flexural strength test (Sastra et al. 2005). Sapuan et al. (2006) has studied
the mechanical properties of woven banana fibre reinforced epoxy composites and found
that the composites can be used for the household utilities. Therefore, the purpose of this
work is to study and evaluate the tensile and flexural properties of short random oil palm
fibre reinforced epoxy (OPF/epoxy) composites. The composites were fabricated using
hand lay up techniques and four different ratios were prepared.
[17] The study confirms that rice husk has more than 30% dietary fiber. In addition, it
is also an excellent source of protein and mineral, so it could used in food industry0
especially developing functional foods. Results show that enzymatic extraction gives
more fiber from rice husk than chemical method(33.97% vs. 67.53%) and the extracted
fiber had higher water-binding capacity and exhibited high fat binding capacity. In this
research, with comparison of some chemical components and functional properties
between dietary fiber extracted from rice husk in two chemical and enzymatic techniques,
it was demonstrated that although chemical extraction of dietary fiber from rice husk is
easier than enzymatic extraction, dietary fiber extracted in enzymatic method was chosen
as preference fiber.
[18] A V Rathna Prasad studied that there is a growing interest in agricultural waste as
a substitute for wood-based raw materials. Among the various agricultural straws, rice
straw and chicken feather could be very interesting materials as filler in biodegradable
polymer composites, due to its good thermal stability compared to other agricultural
waste. The rice straw can be easily crushed into chips or particles, which are very similar

to wood particles or fibers. The hydrophilic character of the rice straw is one of the
reasons for relatively high moisture content, approximately 60% on a wet base, or 10-
12% on a dry base. The ash content of up to 22% and low protein content result in a
material decomposing not as readily as other straws (Pan et al, 1999). On the other hand,
high content of silica (up to 20%) represents an additional potential benefit in building
industry. From this point of view, rice straw has been studied as potential filler in various
thermoplastic matrices.
[19] This plant is belongs to southern Mexico, but nowadays it is cultivated all over the
world. The fibre is obtained from its rosette of sword shaped leaves. The fibre is extracted
by a process known as the sisal plant has a 7-10 year life-span and typically produces
200-250 commercially usable leaves. Each leaf contains an average of around 1000
fibres. The fibre element shown in figure 2, which accounts for only about 4% of the
plant by weight, is extracted by a process known as decortication.
[20] In recent years, polymer composites reinforced with natural fiber such as wood,
flax, hemp, and wheat straw have become popular, thanks to their renewable, recyclable,
and biodegradability. These composite products are characterized by a unique
combination of excellent durability, superior dimensional stability, high rigidity, and
relatively low density. The calotropic procera gives good result at 20% compared to the
5% 10% and 15%. The strength of the material decreasing from 5% to 10% and after
that the value increased from fiber. By varying the percentage of fibre with calotropic
procera gives the better tribological properties.
[21] Nirmal et al. used bamboo fibre bundles as reinforcement both in chopped and
unidirectional mats, concluding that the composites with unidirectional mats have better
wear resistance than those with randomly distributed fibre bundles, but all composites
have better wear behavior than the neat resin.
[22] Fiber treatments are a very important factor to manufacture polymer composites
because it can improve the tribological properties to a great extent by making good
interfacial bonding between fibers and matrix. This means that the intersurface plays a
dominant role in tribological properties.
[23] When increasing the fibre composition of the oil palm composite led to severe
wear. However, increasing the fibre compositions of the milk weed composite showed
better wear performance.The tribological properties of oil palm composite lower than
milk weed composite at high temperatures.

[24] To investigate the effect of aging process on the wear and frictional characteristics
of oil palm fibres. Prepared samples of treated oil palm fibre reinforced composite were
immersed in different types of solutions (i.e. water, salt water, diesel, petrol and engine
oil) for three years. Results revealed that immersing the samples in water and salt water
demonstrated poorest wear performance as compared to the ones immersed in engine oil
and diesel.
From the litrerature it is understood that lot of research work has been carried out
on natural fiber reinforced composites. The reinforcement of natural fiber in polymer
composites found to be beneficial in increasing the mechanical and tribological properties
in most of the cases. Hybridization was done to increase the strength of the composites
substantially so as to compete with the existing synthetic fiber reinforced composites
popularly glass fiber was used for hybridization with natural fiber. There seems to be very
less work done on Calotropis procers fiber reinforced composites, this project work was
taken up to fabricate and investigate the tribological properties of Calotropis procera fiber
reinforced epoxy hybrid composites experimentally.

CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY AND MATERIALS USED
3.1 METHODOLOGY
The methodology used to carry the project work is illustrated in the flow diagram
which is as shown in Fig. 3.1. The different steps involved are fiber extraction, composite
fabrication, specimen cutting and testing as per the ASTM standard.
Calotropis Procera stem

collection
Fiber Extracting by
decorticating method
Alkali Treatment
Mould Preparation as per

Dimension
Fabricating by Hand-lay Up
Method as per composition
Cutting the specimens as per

the required shape
Testing the cut specimens as

per the ASTM standard
Result and discussion
Fig 3.1: Flowchart of Methodology

Initially survey of Calotropis Procera plant is done. Then, the stems of Calotropis
Procera plant are collected in huge quantity. Then the collected stems are dried under

sunlight for 2-3 days. After drying stems are dipped in water for 2-3 hours. Dipped stems
are taken out and fiber is extracted by decorticating method (Decorticating method means
removing outer layer of the stem using tool).
3.2 FIBER EXTRACTION STEPS

The fiber extracted from stem husk using manual decortications which is as shown in the
flow diagram shown in Fig 3.2.
Calotropis procera stems are cut
They are dried in sun
They are immersed in water
Husks are removed
Fibers are extracted
Fig 3.2: Fiber Extraction Steps

 Stems of Calotropis Procera plants are cut by using axe.
 These stems are dried under sunlight for around 3-4 days.
 Dried stems are dipped in water for around 1-2 hours.
 Stem husk is removed carefully by using sharp objects such as cutter, knife
etc.
 Fiber is extracted from stem husk.

3.3 ALKALI TREATMENT

From literature survey it is found that the alkali treatment improved the
tribological properties of natural fibers. The Calotropis procera fibers were extracted by
manual decortications method from the stem husk of the plant and treated with 5% NaOH
for 30 minutes and then washed with tap water followed by distilled water to remove the
traces of NaOH and dried under diffused sunlight to remove moisture content.
3.4 COMPOSITE FABRICATION

A Per-pex sheet mould of dimension (200×200) mm was used for casting the
composite sheet. The usual hand lay-up technique was used for preparation of the
samples. For different weight fraction of fibers, the calculated amount of epoxy resin
and hardener was thoroughly mixed with gentle stirring to minimize air entrapment.
Different doses of particulates were added separately in the above mixture and stirred
for 10 minutes using a glass rod to obtain uniform dispersion of particulates. The
mixture was then poured into the prepared mould. Before pouring the mould was coated
with release agents. Pressure was then applied from the top and the mould was allowed
to cure at room temperature for 72 hrs. During application of pressure a small amount of
mixture of epoxy and hardener was squeezed out. Care has been taken to consider this
loss during manufacturing of composite sheets. After 72 hours the samples were taken
out from the mould, cut in to different sizes and shape, and kept in an air tight container
for further experimentation. The composite composition was as shown in the Table 3.1.
Table 3.1: Percentage of glass fibre, milk weed and epoxy resin.
Material Glass fibre (wt%) Milkweed fibre Epoxy Resin
Composition (wt%) (wt%)
1 0 20 80
2 5 15 80
3 10 10 80
4 15 5 80
5 20 0 80

3.5 MANUFACTURING TECHNIQUE HAND LAY-UP METHOD
Fig 3.3: Hand lay-Up method

The most popular type of open molding is hand lay-up process it is shown in the Fig
3.3. It is a simple but effective process which takes relatively low capital investment but
high labour cost. Hand lay-up process is fabrication process to manufacture of fibre
reinforced polymer (FRP) products. It is simple but effective process and it is cheap
process as compared to other processes. Mold is taken which is made of POP and its
surface should be covered with Teflon sheet. Then resin and a thin layer of reinforcement
are placed. After curing the component is pulled out of the mold.
3.6 MATERIAL USED

1. Epoxy resin
2. Hardener
3. Calotropic Procera fibre
1. Epoxy resin
It is the one of the matrix material and it takes binding action between the fibers.
It has an excellent adhesion property with great strength, toughness, excellent
resistance to chemical attack and to moisture. Fig 3.4 shows the epoxy resin.
Fig 3.4: Epoxy resin

2. Hardener
Hardener is high viscous liquid material, mixed with resin in suitable proportion
during the process of preparation of composites which helps in the solidification of
the wet, smooth composite. Fig 3.5 shows the hardener.
Fig 3.5: Hardener

3. Calotropis Procera fiber
Fiber is obtained from the stem husk of the plant. In India, it is largely
found in Punjab, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh.
Calotropis Procera fiber has a low density of 0.97 gm/cm3. Fig 3.6 shows
extracted Calotropis Procera fiber.
Fig 3.6: Calotropis Procera fiber

CHAPTER 4
FABRICATION AND TESTING
4.1 Fabrication
The composite specimen was fabricated using hand layup method. The fabrication steps
are as shown in Fig 4.1. The fabrication was carried as follows -
 Prepare the wooden mould of 200x300x3mm with the help of spacers.
 Apply the releasing gel on the prepared surface of mould.
 The Calotropis Procera fiber is prepared in random orientation such that it evenly
covers the entire area of mold cavity
 Epoxy resin and hardener is mixed in bowl in the ratio of 10:1 and stirred well.
 Mixed solution is poured into the mold with the help of stick from the centre of
the mold.
 Chopped Calotropis Procera fiber is uniformly distributed on the entire area of
mixed solution to fill up the gaps finally a small amount of solution is poured.
 Once the process is completed releasing gel is placed over and removed the air
bubbles from the plate and another plate is placed above it.
 The load is applied on the glass up to 10kg to 15kg for around 24 hours.
Fig 4.1: Fabrication steps

4.2 Wear Test

1. Dry sliding wear test as per ASTM G99.
2. Three body abrasive wear test as per ASTM G65.
1. Wear testing
Fig 4.2: Dry sliding wear tester Fig 4.3: Dry sliding wear testing specimen
Dry sliding pin-on-disc (POD) setup was used for the sliding wear test which is as
shown Fig 4.2. The tests were conducted according to ASTM G99 standard. The
specimens of size (5 × 5 × 2.6) mm3 were used for the test which is as shown in Fig 4.3.
Sliding wear loss increases with the increase in abrading distance/applied load for all the
composites. The effect of different loads (10 to 30 N) and sliding distances from 2000 to
8000 m on the performance of the wear resistance of the composites were measured.
Wear rates (weight loss method) were acquired by a fabricated prototype wear
tester using bush specimens. Applied normal load and test duration were the parameters
monitored in the present work. In each mode namely, reciprocation or rotation, same load
and test duration were maintained. An initial run-in-period of 20 minutes was maintained
in all the tests. In all the tests, wear rates were acquired first in the rotation mode followed
reciprocation mode on the same specimen.
The applied normal loads were 10 and 20 N, and the sliding velocity was 1.5 m/s.
Sliding distances varied from 2,000 to 8,000 m in steps of 2,000 m. The surface of the
specimen was cleaned with a soft tissue paper soaked in acetone and with compressed air
before and after the test. The specimen weight is recorded using an electronic balance.

The difference between initial and final weight of the specimen were measured as the
sliding wear loss. The frictional force is measured by attaching a force transducer on pin-
on-disc machine and it touches the loaded lever arm. The weight loss was converted into
volume loss by using measured density of the specimen. A minimum of three trials was
conducted to ensure repeatability of test data. The worn surface of the composite
specimen was examined using a scanning electron microscope. The wear was measured
by the loss in weight, which was then converted into wear volume using measured density
data.
2. Three body abrasive wear testing
Fig 4.4: Three body abrasive wear tester
Fig 4.5: Three body abrasive wear testing specimen

Three-body abrasive wear studies were carried out on a dry sand/ RWAT rig as
shown in Fig 4.4. The abrasives are introduced between the test specimen and the rotating
wheel with a chlorobutyl rubber tire. The test specimen is pressed against the rotating
wheel at a specified force by means of lever arm while a controlled flow of grit abrades
the test surface. The rotation of wheel is such that its contact face moves in the direction

of grit flow. The pivot axis of the lever arm lies within a plane, which is approximately
tangential to the rubber wheel surface and normal to the horizontal diameter along which
the load is applied. The tests were carried out for different loads and sliding distances.
The rubber wheel was rotating at a speed of 2.4 m/s. Abrasive particles used was silica
sand of size 150-200 micro meter and 250-500 micro meter. Sand flow rate between
rubber wheel and specimen was 250 ± 5 g/min. The sizes of the specimens were (75 x 25
x 3) mm3 which is as shown in Fig 4.5. Weight loss measurements were made at regular
test intervals of 60 s using an analytical balance reading. The specimen holder was
designed to ensure that samples are removed and replaced during each test such that the
wear scar was always at the same location. In all the above tests, wear was measured by
loss in weight, which was then converted into wear volume using density data.
Hardness Test
Hardness may be defined as a material's resistance to permanent indentation.
Hardness testing machine is as shown in Fig 4.6. Durometer, like many other hardness
tests, measures the depth of an indentation in the material created by a given force on a
standardized presser foot. This depth is dependent on the hardness of the material, its
viscoelastic properties, the shape of the presser foot, and the duration of the test. ASTM
D240 the size of the specimen was (25x25x3) mm3. Durometer allows for a measurement
of the initial hardness, or the indentation hardness after a given period of time. The basic
test requires applying the force in a consistent manner, without shock, and measuring the
hardness (depth of the indentation).
Fig 4.6: Equipment for Hardness Testing

CHAPTER 5
RESULT AND DISCUSION
5.1 Hardness Test
The Hardness test are Carried out in CIPET, Mysore as per the ASTM
standard. Hardness tests specimens are cut into the ASTM Standard of machine
specification.
Table 5.1: Hardness test results for Calotropis Procera fiber composites.
Composite specimen Composite specimen Hardness
designation composition number
1 Neat Epoxy 51.00
2 20wt% Milkweed + 80wt% Epoxy 51.33
3 15wt% Milkweed + 5wt% Glass + 80wt% Epoxy 57.66
4 10wt% Milkweed + 10wt% Glass+ 80wt% Epoxy 60.66
5 5wt% Milkweed + 15wt% Glass+ 80wt% Epoxy 61.00
6 20wt% Glass+ 80wt% Epoxy 64.66
Fig 5.1: Comparison of hardness number.
The Table 5.1 and Fig 5.1 show that, the 20% of glass fibre reinforced Epoxy composite
has higher hardness number. But the hybrid composites have higher hardness number
compared to neat epoxy composite. The hardness incresed with glass fiber reinforcement.
The high strength glass fibers actively participate in stress transfer and hence exhibit
higher hardness.

5.2 Density Test

The Density test are Carried out in CIPET, Mysore as per the ASTM standard.
Density tests specimens are cut into the ASTM Standard of machine specification.
Table 5.2: Density test results for Calotropis Procera fiber composites.
Composite specimen Density g/cm3
1 1.186
2 1.172
3 1.168
4 1.204
5 1.259
6 1.291
Fig 5.2: Comparison of density of different specimens.
The above Table 5.2 and Graph 5.2 show that, the 20% of glass fibre have higher
density. But the hybrid composites have higher density compare to neat epoxy composite.
The density of composite decreased for 5 wt% and 10 wt% of natural fiber reinforcement
but increased for other compositions because of factors like random orientation,
uniformity in mixing, surface contact of fiber with resin etc., which depends on various
factors like constituent materials, fiber geometry, method of fabrication etc.

5.3 Dry sliding wear test (as per ASTM G99)

The Dry sliding wear test are Carried out in NIE, Mysore as per the ASTM Standard.
Dry sliding tests specimens are cut into the ASTM Standard of machine specification.
Table 5.3: Variation of the Coefficient of friction (or Force of friction in N) / wear loss
with Sliding distance at constant sliding velocity 1m/sec and normal load 10N.
1000m
Coefficient of friction Initial Final
Composite wear loss
Weight Weight (gm)
(gm) (gm)
NE (Neat Epoxy) 4.3 28.9398 28.9304 0.0094
0G+20MW 3.3 30.2924 30.2843 0.0081
5G+15MW 2.7 28.9595 28.9564 0.0031
10G+10MW 1.3 28.9595 28.9565 0.0030
15G+5MW 1.8 28.9311 28.9301 0.0010
20G+0MW 2.5 28.9401 28.9395 0.0006
3000m
Initial Final
Composite wear loss
Coefficient of Weight Weight (gm)
friction (gm) (gm)
NE (Neat Epoxy) 2.5 31.3177 31.3060 0.0117
0G+20MW 3.0 30.3291 30.3244 0.0047
5G+15MW 2.8 30.3312 30.3271 0.0041
10G+10MW 3.2 30.5225 30.5191 0.0034
15G+5MW 2.8 30.5375 30.5365 0.0010
20G+0MW 2.9 30.5483 30.5479 0.0004
Fig 5.3:Analysis of wear loss Fig 5.4 : Analysis of coefficient of friction

with sliding distance with sliding distance

The dry sliding wear test (as per ASTM G99) is done for different composition of
specimen by varying the sliding distance and taking velocity and normal load as constant.
The results were tabulated for sliding distance 1000m and 3000m which is as shown in
the Table 5.3. For 1000m the neat epoxy have high wear loss, when the glass fibre
composition increases with natural fibre the wear loss get decreases as shown in the Fig
5.3 and Fig 5.4. The 20% of glass fibre have low wear loss as compared to the neat
epoxy. Similarly for 3000m when the siding distance increases the wear loss also
increases for all composition as shown in the Fig 5.3 and Fig 5.4.
with Sliding velocity at constant sliding distance 1000m and normal load 10N.
1m/s
Coefficient of Initial Final
Composite friction
wear loss
Weight Weight
(gm)
(gm) (gm)
NE (Neat Epoxy) 2.4 30.2666 30.2656 0.0010
0G+20MW 2.8 30.2948 30.2939 0.0009
5G+15MW 2.4 30.2858 30.2851 0.0007
10G+10MW 2.6 30.5079 30.5072 0.0007
15G+5MW 2.5 30.3024 30.3019 0.0005
20G+0MW 2.6 30.5443 30.5439 0.0004
3m/s
Composite friction wear loss
Weight Weight
(gm)
(gm) (gm)
NE (Neat Epoxy) 4.3 28.9398 28.9304 0.0094
0G+20MW 3.3 30.2924 30.2843 0.0081
5G+15MW 2.7 28.9595 28.9564 0.0031
10G+10MW 1.3 28.9595 28.9565 0.0030
15G+5MW 1.8 28.9311 28.9301 0.0010
20G+0MW 2.5 28.9401 28.9395 0.0006

Fig 5.5: Analysis of wear loss Fig 5.6: Analysis of coefficient of friction
with sliding velocity with sliding velocity
specimen by varying the sliding velocity and taking sliding distance and normal load as
constant. The results were tabulated for sliding velocity 1m/s and 3m/s as shown in the
Table 5.4. For 1m/s the neat epoxy have high wear loss, when the glass fibre composition
increases with natural fibre the wear loss get decreases as shown in the Fig 5.5 and Fig
5.6. The 20% of glass fibre have low wear loss as compared to the neat epoxy. Similarly
for 3m/s , when the siding velocity increases the wear loss also increases for all
composition as shown in the Fig 5.5 and Fig 5.6.
with 10N normal load at constant sliding distance 1000m and Sliding velocity 1m/sec.
10N
Composite friction
wear loss
Weight Weight
(gm)
(gm) (gm)
NE (Neat Epoxy) 2.4 31.2506 31.2401 0.0105
0G+20MW 3.6 30.2758 30.2690 0.0068
5G+15MW 3.6 30.3650 30.3635 0.0015
10G+10MW 3.7 30.2866 30.2857 0.0009
15G+5MW 3.2 30.5558 30.5551 0.0007
20G+0MW 2.8 28.8841 28.8838 0.0003

with 30N normal load at constant sliding distance 1000m and Sliding velocity 1m/sec.
30N
Composite friction wear loss
Weight Weight (gm)
(gm) (gm)
NE (Neat Epoxy) 4.3 28.9398 28.9304 0.0094
0G+20MW 3.3 30.2924 30.2843 0.0081
5G+15MW 2.7 28.9595 28.9564 0.0031
10G+10MW 1.3 28.9595 28.9565 0.0030
15G+5MW 1.8 28.9311 28.9301 0.0010
20G+0MW 2.5 28.9401 28.9395 0.0006
Fig 5.7:Analysis of wear loss with Fig 5.8:Analysis of coefficient friction with
normal load normal load
specimen by varying the normal load and taking sliding distance and sliding velocity as
constant. The results were tabulated for normal load of 10 N and 30 N as shown in the
Table 5.5 and Table 5.6. For 10 N normal load the neat epoxy have high wear loss, when
the glass fibre composition increases with natural fibre the wear loss get decreased as
shown in the Fig 5.7 and Fig 5.8. The 20% of glass fibre have low wear loss as compared
to the neat epoxy. Similarly for 30 N when the normal load increases the wear loss also
increases for all composition as shown in the Fig 5.7 and Fig 5.8.

5.4 Three body abrasive wear test (as per ASTM G65)
The Three body abrasive wear test is carried out in NIE, Mysore as per the ASTM
Standard. Three body abrasive tests specimens are cut into the ASTM Standard of
machine specification.
with Abrasive size at constant sliding velocity 2.1 m/sec and normal load 10N.
150µm 300µm
Composite Initial Final Wear Initial Final Wear

Weight Weight loss Weight Weight loss
(gm) (gm) (gm) (gm) (gm) (gm)
NE (Neat 8.3788 8.0341
8.1861 0.1927 7.4915 0.5426
Epoxy)
0G+20MW 10.6013 10.4327 0.1686 10.3749 9.8691 0.5058
5G+15MW 8.5827 8.4322 0.1505 9.6694 9.4068 0.2626
10G+10MW 10.4210 10.2765 0.1445 7.8455 7.5859 0.2596
15G+5MW 8.9513 8.8163 0.1350 9.2646 9.0096 0.2550
20G+0MW 9.9061 9.7897 0.1164 7.9711 7.7401 0.2310
Fig 5.9: Analysis of wear loss with abrasive size

The three body abrasive wear test (as per ASTM G65) is done for different
composition of specimen by varying the abrasive size and taking normal load and sliding

velocity as constant. The results were tabulated for abrasive size of 150µm and 300µm as
shown in the Table 5.7. For 150µm abrasive size the neat epoxy have high wear loss,
when the glass fibre composition increases with natural fibre the wear loss get decreases
as shown in the Fig 5.9. The 20% of glass fibre have low wear loss as compared to the
neat epoxy. Similarly for 300µm, when the abrasive size increases the wear loss also
increases for all composition as shown in the Fig 5.9.
with normal load at constant Abrasive size 300µm and Sliding velocity 1.0m/sec.
10N 20N
Initial Final wear Initial Final wear

Composite
Weight Weight loss Weight Weight loss
(gm) (gm) (gm) (gm) (gm) (gm)
NE (Neat 8.3788 8.1032
8.1861 0.1927 7.7365 0.3667
Epoxy)
0G+20MW 10.6013 10.4327 0.1686 10.3480 10.1196 0.2284
5G+15MW 8.5827 8.4322 0.1505 10.7918 10.5643 0.2275
10G+10MW 10.4210 10.2765 0.1445 9.8559 9.6358 0.2201
15G+5MW 8.9513 8.8163 0.1350 8.9393 8.7200 0.2193
20G+0MW 9.9061 9.7897 0.1164 8.0819 7.8721 0.2098
30N
Initial Final wear loss
Weight Weight
(gm) (gm) (gm)
Composite
NE (Neat Epoxy) 9.9719 9.5995 0.3724
0G+20MW 11.2269 10.8669 0.3600
5G+15MW 8.5885 8.2375 0.3510
10G+10MW 8.7740 8.4255 0.3485
15G+5MW 8.9550 8.6103 0.3447
20G+0MW 10.5020 10.1590 0.3430

Fig 5.10 : Analysis of wear loss with normal load

The three body abrasive wear test (as per ASTM G65) is done for different
composition of specimen by varying the normal load and taking abrasive size and sliding
velocity as constant. The results were tabulated for normal load of 10 N, 20 N and 30 N
as shown in the Table 5.8. For 10 N normal load the neat epoxy have high wear loss,
when the glass fibre composition increases with natural fibre the wear loss get decreases
as shown in the Fig 5.10. The 20% of glass fibre have low wear loss as compared to the
neat epoxy. Similarly for 20 N and 30 N, when the normal load increases the wear loss
also increases for all composition as shown in the Fig 5.10.
5.5 SEM Characterization
The scanning electron microscope images were taken for both dry sliding wear
test and three body abrasive wear test specimens. The magnified images show the nature
of wear out surface by the action of sliding contact under load in sliding wear test and the
abrading action of abrasives in three body abrasive wear test.
Dry sliding wear test SEM Characterization:
(a) (b)
Fig 5.11: Scanning Electron micrograph of 15% calotropis procera fibre (a) 500X and (b)
1000X

(c) (d)
Fig 5.12: Scanning Electron micrograph of 5% calotropis procera fibre (c) 500X and (d)
1000X
Sliding wear can be characterized as a relative motion between two smooth solid
surfaces in contact under load, where surface damage during the translational sliding does
not occur by deep surface grooving because of penetration by asperities or foreign
particles. In sliding contact, wear can occur because of adhesion, surface fatigue,
tribochemical reaction and abrasion. Many factors influence the prevailing wear
mechanism. The type of contact namely elastic or plastic is a function of the tangential
traction on the surface, the contact area and material properties such as the yield
strength. The SEM images shown in Fig 5.11 indicates surface produced by the pullout of
broken surface of fiber and micro cracking of the matrix surface. This is due to low
strength of milkweed fibers and improper bonding of fiber and matrix. The Fig 5.12
shows the micro crack of matrix along with wear debris and micro pits formed due to
uniformly wear out surface. This is due to high strength of glass fibers and good bonding
between fiber and matrix.
1. Three body abrasive wear test SEM Characterization:
(a) (b)
1000X
(c) (d)
2000X
Scanning electron microscope (SEM) studies of three body abrasive wear
specimens revealed the morphologies worn surface of the composites such as micro-
ploughing, formation of debris, micro cracking and fiber matrix de-bonding. The SEM
images shown in Fig 5.13 indicates surface produced by the pullout of fiber and fiber
matrix de-bonding. This is due to low strength of milkweed fibers and improper bonding
of fiber and matrix. The Fig 5.14 shows the micro-ploughing of matrix along with wear
debris formed due to uniformly wear out surface. This is due to high strength of glass
fibers and good bonding between fiber and matrix.

CHAPTER 6
COST ANALYSIS
The various cost incurred to complete the project is as shown in Table 5.9 which
includes material cost, testing cost and transportation cost.
Table 6.1: Cost Analysis
Sl. Materials Quantity Unit cost Total cost
No in Rs in Rs
1. Epoxy Resin L-12(3202) 2.5 Kg 2.5*400 1000
2. Hardener 250 ml 1*250 250
3. Releasing gel 250gm 1*100 100
4. Plastic Hand gloves 5 5*10 50
5. POP Mold 4 4*250 1000
6. Steel Roller 1 80 80
Total 2480
TOTAL PROJECT COST:

Total project cost = Bill of Material + Transportation + Testing cost
= Rs 2480 + Rs 2500 + Rs 13200
= Rs 18180 /-

CHAPTER 7
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Advantages
 Light weight and low density
 Higher strength and higher elastic modulus
 Higher toughness and impact properties
 Low sensitivity to temperature changes or thermal shock
 High wear resistance and higher fatigue life
 It provides higher specific tensile strength (ratio of material strength to density).
 Provides greater specific modules (ratio of material stiff to density).
 The fatigue endurance limit is greater.
 Toughened composites provide significantly higher impact energy.
 Design flexibility is greater.
 Low thermal conductivity and low coefficient of thermal expansion
Disadvantages
 Properties not established until manufactured
 Lack of clear-cut codes, standards & design rules
 Limited availability of design data
 Raw material cost
 Poor public acceptance.
Future scope
Composites are one class of advanced materials, where in the material properties
can be altered based on the type of constituent materials. Other natural fibers can be used
with the Calotropis procera fiber to develop a hybrid composite and thereby its
tribological properties can be further improved.
There is a large scope for future investigations, considering different weight
fraction and fiber orientation. Also, the material behaviour can be studied under different
environmental conditions of temperature, surrounding medium and composition.
The composition of fiber can be varied and optimized for better results. There is large
scope for future study, considering different weight fractions or volume fractions,
hybridizing with other synthetic fibers. The similar experiments can be carried by
changing the matrix material and using fillers.

CHAPTER 8
CONCLUSION
The bast fibers were extracted from the Calotropis procera plant. Calotropis
procera fiber reinforced epoxy hybrid composite was fabricated and the effects of various
parameters on tribological properties of the specimen were evaluated.
The dry sliding wear test conducted as per ASTM G99 indicates the increased wear loss
with the increase in sliding distance and applied load for all the composites and similarly
for three body abrasive wear test conducted as per ASTM G65 indicates the increased
wear loss with the increase in the abrasive size and load. The SEM images of the worn
out surfaces of dry sliding wear and three body abrasive wear test specimens depicted the
various wear mechanisms due to which wear has been occurred which can be analyzed by
the surface morphology.
The 5 wt% Calotropis procera fiber and 15 wt% glass fiber reinforced hybrid
epoxy composites shows less wear loss which is very close to 20 wt% glass fibre
reinforced epoxy composite. Therefore 5 wt% Calotropis procera fiber reinforced hybrid
composite can effectively replace glass fiber reinforced composites to some extent. The
other combination of hybrid composites can be used for lower end applications as per the
requirement.

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FABRICATION AND EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON TRIBOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF CALOTROPIS

PROCERA FIBRE REINFORCED EPOXY HYBRID COMPOSITES

VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

FABRICATION AND EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION

Abhishek Patil 4BB14ME001

Under the Guidance of

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, BCE, SHRAVANABELAGOLA 1

BAHUBALI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Mr. Raghu M. J Dr. Govardhan Goud Dr. Ramegowda

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, BCE, SHRAVANABELAGOLA 2

We would like to thank Dr. Govardhan Goud Professor and Head of

member of Mechanical Department for their support and encouragement

Abhishek Patil 4BB14ME001

Chougule Shubham 4BB14ME009

Kishor Gurav 4BB14ME019

Pranit Patil 4BB15ME412

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, BCE, SHRAVANABELAGOLA 3

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, BCE, SHRAVANABELAGOLA 4

AIM, SCOPE, OBJECTIVE 1

1.1 HISTORY 2-6

1.2 DEFINITION OF COMPOSITES 6

1.3 CONSTITUENTS OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS 6-7

1.4 NATURAL FIBER 7

1.5 EPOXY RESIN 8

1.6 USES OF EPOXY RESIN 8

1.7 PROPERTIES OF EPOXY RESIN 9

1.8 CALOTROPIS PROCERA 9

1.9 OVERVIEW OF FIBER AND COMPOSITES 9-11

2. LITERATURE SURVEY 12-19

3. METHODOLOGY AND MATERIAL USED 20-24

3.1 METHODOLOGY 20-21

3.2 FIBER EXTRACTION STEPS 21

3.3 ALKALI TREATMENT 22

3.4 COMPOSITE FABRICATION 22

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, BCE, SHRAVANABELAGOLA 5

3.5 MANUFACTURING TECHNIQUE HAND LAY-UP METHOD 23

3.6 MATERIAL USED 23-24

4. FABRICATION AND TESTING 25-28

4.2 Testing 26-28

5. RESULT AND DISCUSION 29-39

5.1 Hardness test 29

5.2 Density test 30

5.5 SEM Characterization 37-39

7. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES 41

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, BCE, SHRAVANABELAGOLA 6

5.6 Analysis of coefficient of friction with sliding velocity 33

5.8 Analysis of coefficient of friction with normal load 34

5.11 Scanning Electron micrograph of 15% calotropis procera fibre (a) 37

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, BCE, SHRAVANABELAGOLA 7

1.1 Composition of few commonly used natural fibers 11

3.1 Percentage of glass fibre, milk weed and epoxy resine 22

5.2 Density test results for Calotropis Procera fiber composites 30

5.3 Variation of the Coefficient of friction (or Force of friction in N) / 31

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, BCE, SHRAVANABELAGOLA 8

 It provides a feasible alternative to use of traditional material in the domestic,

automotive and lower end aerospace applications.

 To fabricate composites with reinforcement of fiber in various weight proportions.

 To conduct tribological testing on composites by varying different parameters.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, BCE, SHRAVANABELAGOLA 10

Fig 1.1 Typical reinforcement types

Fig. 1.2 Major polymer matrix composite fabrication processes.