Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and

Environmental Effects

ISSN: 1556-7036 (Print) 1556-7230 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ueso20

Co-optimization of CO2 sequestration and

enhanced oil recovery in extra-low permeability
reservoir in Shanbei

Y. Li, J. Li, S. Ding & H. Zhang

To cite this article: Y. Li, J. Li, S. Ding & H. Zhang (2016) Co-optimization of CO2 sequestration
and enhanced oil recovery in extra-low permeability reservoir in Shanbei, Energy
Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects, 38:3, 442-449, DOI:
10.1080/15567036.2012.724148

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15567036.2012.724148

Published online: 08 Feb 2016.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 23

View related articles

View Crossmark data

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=ueso20

Download by: [77.93.203.35] Date: 15 March 2016, At: 22:37

 ENERGY SOURCES, PART A: RECOVERY, UTILIZATION, AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
2016, VOL. 38, NO. 3, 442–449
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15567036.2012.724148

Co-optimization of CO2 sequestration and enhanced oil recovery

in extra-low permeability reservoir in Shanbei
Y. Lia,b,c, J. Lic,d, S. Dingc and H. Zhange
a
Enhanced Oil Recovery Institute, China University of Petroleum, Beijing, China; bKey Laboratory of Enhanced Oil
Recovery, CNPC, Beijing, China; cKey Laboratory of the Ministry of Education, China University of Petroleum, Beijing,
China; dResearch Institute of Petroleum Exploration and Development, CNPC, Beijing, China; eThe Nile Company,
CNPC, Beijing, China

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
This article put forward a theoretical system, which is used to analyze co- carbon dioxide
optimization of CO2 sequestration and enhanced oil recovery by using the sequestration; co-
Downloaded by [77.93.203.35] at 22:37 15 March 2016

methods or theories including the design of experiments, numerical simu- optimization; extra-low
lation, net present value, and the response surface methods. A CO2 flooding permeability reservoir; net
operation in an immiscible water-alternating-gas process of Shanbei extra- present value; oil recovery
low permeability reservoir was estimated preliminarily by using the meth-
ods proposed in this article. The result shows that optimized values
obtained from predicted values were in good agreement with the values
obtained from the simulation model and it is possible to optimize a coupled
CO2 sequestration and enhanced oil recovery project.

1. Introduction
Carbon dioxide (CO2) flooding for increasing oil recovery has been used since the 1950s. Nowadays,
geological sequestration is one way to mitigate the CO2 in the atmosphere; thus, injecting CO2 into
mature oil and gas reservoirs can achieve the purposes of both CO2 sequestration and enhanced oil
recovery (EOR).
The goal of CO2 geological sequestration is to maximize the amount of CO2 that is stored, but
in an EOR project, the goal is to maximize profit by minimizing the total amount of CO2
injected per barrel of oil produced. In coupled CO2 EOR and sequestration projects the aim is to
maximize both.
Some scholars (Kovscek, 2002; Jessen et al., 2005, Shen et al., 2009; Ding and Li, 2010) have
performed the research on CO2 storage in the reservoir, but mainly focused on the study of the
estimation method of CO2 storage. The technologies and methods of CO2 flooding used to enhance
oil recovery have been mature (Blunt et al., 1993; Bondor, 2003; Guan et al., 2007), but a CO2
flooding project is simply to optimize EOR in China (Zhong et al., 2012). Considering there is no
carbon subsidies in China, co-optimization of CO2 sequestration and EOR has not been reported.
Some scholars (Ghomian, 2008; Salazar, 2009; Bender, 2010) who used the design of experiments
(DOE) and the response surface methods (RSM) have done certain researches on the co-optimiza-
tion of CO2 sequestration and EOR, but no system theory is formed.
Shanbei, which is located in the northwest of China, is fairly lacking of water, and oil fields mostly
belong to low permeability reservoirs. According to the statistics, oil field waterflooding will
consume all of 1% of the water in Shanbei region, and the starting pressure of water injection is
relatively high, so it is better to inject gas to develop this kind of reservoir. In addition, there are large

CONTACT Prof. Junjian Li ljjwsl@126.com Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education, China University of Petroleum,
Beijing, 102249, China.
Color versions of one or more of the figures in the article can be found online at www.tandfonline.com/ueso.
© 2016 Taylor & Francis
 ENERGY SOURCES, PART A: RECOVERY, UTILIZATION, AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS 443

energy chemical industry projects and there will be almost 10 million tons per year of CO2 emitted
to the atmosphere. If a project of CO2 capture and EOR can be implemented, it will make a positive
contribution to Shanxi local economic development and ensure the national energy supply.
Based on the above concerns, this article took the case of Shanbei extra-low permeability reservoir
and formed a theoretical system, which is used to analyze co-optimization of CO2 sequestration
and EOR.

2. Methodology
This method introduces the objective function and desirability function, by fitting the objective
function and then converting to the desirability function, according to the value of desirability to
optimize; the specific procedures are as follows:

● Establish the objective function and comprehensively use DOE, numerical simulation, net
present value (NPV), and RSM to fit the objective function.

Kovscek and Cakici (2004) have introduced an objective function combining dimensionless
Downloaded by [77.93.203.35] at 22:37 15 March 2016

oil recovery and reservoir utilization. The volume of CO2 is a dynamic parameter and is strongly
dependent on whether CO2 is stored as a liquid or gas, or dissolved in another fluid
under different conditions of pressure and temperature of the reservoir. Hence, instead of
defining the volume ratio of CO2 store in reservoir, Jahangri and Zhang (2011) have introduced
the storage factor by using the mass of CO2 stored in the reservoir over the total capacity of the
reservoir.
However, there exist two problems about these two objective functions. One is not considering
the economic optimum. Considering the cost of CO2 gas injection, the cost of water injection, and
the cost of carbon subsidy of CO2 stored, even if it is the biggest crude oil output, it cannot gain the
greatest profit. Another is not considering distortion of the objective function. Since the weight
values of the objective function are between 0 and 1, although the objective function values are non-
dimensional, the size of the value is not certain. If one of the objective function values is far bigger
than another, although it also can meet the objective function values of the biggest, it still cannot
meet each target function to achieve the maximum values.
This article used the D-optimal algorithm of design-expert software, and selected several factors
that affect water-alternating-gas (WAG) as experimental design factors, and determine NPV and the
amount of CO2 as the objective functions. By using the theory of numerical simulation and NPV, it
is possible to identify the result of the experimental design scheme. And, finally, RSM was used to fit
the objective function.

● Convert the objective function to desirability function, and use desirability to optimize.

First, each objective function was converted into an individual desirability function, di , which
varies between 0 and 1, where di is equal to 1 if the response is at its goal and 0 if the response is
outside the region (Myers et al., 2008):
8
>
> di ¼ 0; Yi  Lowi
>
>
<
Yi Lowi
di ¼ High i Lowi
; Lowi <Yi <Highi : (1)
>
>
>
>
:
di ¼ 1; Yi  Highi

where Yi is the objective function, Lowi is the minimum value of the objective function, and Highi is
the maximum value of the objective function.
 444 Y. LI ET AL.

Figure 1. Three dimensional reservoir model, oil saturation.

Downloaded by [77.93.203.35] at 22:37 15 March 2016

For multiple optimization, the global desirability function is defined as:

1
D ¼ ðd1  d2      dm Þm (2)
Design-Expert (version 8.0) software was used to optimize the responses using desirability functions.

3. Reservoir characteristics
In this study, a compositional simulation model, ECLIPSE 300 simulator, was used to analyze the
performance of a CO2 injection project. A typical reservoir model of a low permeability reservoir was
chosen.
The reservoir model used in this study was a 3D corner point reservoir grid, divided into 45,448 cells,
46 cells in X direction, 38 cells in Y direction, and 26 cells in Z direction; the dimension of each cell is 30
m × 30 m × 1.68 m. The average horizontal permeability is 1.95 mD and the average porosity is 8%; a
vertical to horizontal permeability ratio of 0.5 was used. The initial oil saturation was set at 0.48 and the
initial pressure was set at 12.9 MPa. The oil area was 1.568 km2 and the original oil in place was 53.04 ×
104 t (Figure 1). The case study consisted of three steps of development of the reservoir: In the first step, a
primary production period, 20 vertical producers were opened for production. The second step was a
waterflooding project, which lasted a short period. The last stage was a CO2 injection project.

4. CO2 flooding optimization

4.1. D-optimal design
DOE is used to identify the factors that cause changes in the responses and predict them in a simple
mathematical form (Anderson and Whitcomb, 2007). RSM offers statistical tools that lead to
optimizing process performance.
CO2 injection depends on a large number of parameters, such as water-gas ratio, CO2 slug size,
the injection rate, and the well configuration of the injectors. Considering the number and time,
which will be simulated, the list of parameters to be analyzed in this study is water-gas ratio, CO2
slug size, and the injection rate. D-optimal algorithm was selected as the sampling approach to build
the response surface of NPV and CO2. The Design-Expert software was employed as a tool to build
the response surface.
 ENERGY SOURCES, PART A: RECOVERY, UTILIZATION, AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS 445

Table 1. Uncertain Factor Used in the D-optimal Design

Factors Type –1 Level +1 Level
WAG ratio Numeric 0.5 1.5
Injection rate Numeric 2,500 5,000
Total slug size Numeric 0.4 1.2

Table 1 shows the uncertain numeric factors used in the D-optimal design. Column “–1 Level”
represents the minimum value for each factor to be considered in the design; column “+1 Level”
represents the maximum value for each factor.
According to the design, 30 runs were designed and simulated. The result showed that NPV has a
range between ￥113.98 million to ￥199.75 million, and average NPV is ￥158.35 million. The
amount of stored CO2 in the reservoir has a range between 33,814.86 to 207,438.29 tons, with the
average amount being 107,289.05 tons.
Downloaded by [77.93.203.35] at 22:37 15 March 2016

4.2. Objective function fitting

NPV and the amount of stored CO2 were selected in this study as the objective function. According
to the simulated results of the above design plan, using Design-Expert software, this study recom-
mended a quadratic model as the fitting model.
A Box-Cox plot can be used as a tool to identify whether the data needs a transformation or not.
The Box-Cox plot is a graph where the values of λ are plotted against the error sum of squares; the
value that minimizes the error sum of squares can be read from the graph. Figure 2 shows an
example of a Box-Cox plot, and the value of λ in which the error sum of squares is minimized is
around 1; therefore, the recommended transformation should be λ = 1 (None).
The assumption of the normality can be checked by using the normal probability plot of residuals,
as the residuals stay along a straight line (Figure 3), the normality assumption is satisfied. Outlines
can be detected through the predicted versus actual plot. This graph helps to detect those values,
which cannot be easily predicted by the model; they are the points that are not over the 45° straight
line. The predicted versus actual plot can be selected in the section “Diagnostics” of the Design-
Expert software (Figure 4).
According to the above analysis, Eq. (3), a quadratic model, was defined to describe the NPV
calculations in this article for this reservoir:

Figure 2. Box-Cox plot. NPV.

 446 Y. LI ET AL.

Figure 3. Normal plot of residuals.

Downloaded by [77.93.203.35] at 22:37 15 March 2016

Figure 4. Predicted vs. actual plot.

NPV ¼ 59:1114 þ 28:1815  WAG Ratio þ 8:4828E  003  Injection Rate þ 126:1509
 Total Slug Size þ 7:9585E  003  WAG Ratio  Injection Rate  18:2989
 WAG Ratio  Total Slug Size þ 0:01201  Injection Rate  Total Slug Size (3)
13:9928  WAG Ratio ^2  3:2410E  006  Injection Rate ^2  63:1346
 Total Slug Size ^ 2:

Figure 5 shows the relationship between the response variable, NPV, and two of the process
variables, namely, total slug size and WAG ratio.
Similarly, Eq. (4), a quadratic model, was defined to describe the amount of stored CO2 calcula-
tions in this article for this reservoir:

CO2STR ¼ 19; 424:0512 þ 93; 468:6654  WAG Ratio  17:4197  Injection Rate
þ 1:2615E þ 005  Total Slug Size þ 15:1950  WAG Ratio  Injection Rate
 25; 578:9480  WAG Ratio  Total Slug Size þ 27:5427  Injection Rate (4)
 Total Slug Size  46; 981:5701  WAG Ratio ^2  1:0663E  003
 Injection Rate ^2  67; 562:4198  Total Slug Size ^2:
 ENERGY SOURCES, PART A: RECOVERY, UTILIZATION, AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS 447

Figure 5. NPV by total slug size and WAG ratio.

4.3. Co-optimization
Downloaded by [77.93.203.35] at 22:37 15 March 2016

The main goal of this study is to optimize the coupled CO2 sequestration and EOR project. It can be
done by performing a multiple response optimization (MRO). The amount of CO2 sequestered and
NPV are the responses to be optimized.

● Single response optimization:

First, response NPV was converted into individual desirability function, d1 :

8
>
> d1 ¼ 0; NPVi  113:983
>
>
<
NPVi 113:983
d1 ¼ 199:754113:983 ; 113:983<NPVi <199:754 ; (5)
>
>
>
>
:
d1 ¼ 1; NPVi  199:754

where NPVi is the objective function.

Then the goals and limits were set for each response. In this condition the objective is to
maximize the profitability of the project. Table 2 shows the goals and limits for each response.
Figure 6 shows ramps representing the optimum or optimized location for NPV and the value of
the desirability function is 0.892547. In this case the maximum value for NPV is ￥190.538 million
when WAG ratio is 1.5, injection rate is 5,000 m3/d, and total slug size is 1.2.
Similarly, in response the amount of CO2 sequestered was converted into individual desir-
ability function, d2 . The desirability function is 0.891508. The maximum value for the amount
of CO2 stored is 188,602 tons when WAG ratio is 1.48, injection rate is 5,000 m3/d, and total
slug size is 1.2.

TABLE 2. Single Response Optimization Goals.

Limits
Response Goal Lower Upper
WAG ratio In range 0.5 1.5
Injection rate, m3/d In range 2,500 5,000
Total slug size, PV In range 0.4 1.2
NPV, ￥MM Maximize 113.983 199.754
CO2STR, t None — —
 448 Y. LI ET AL.

Figure 6. Recommended optimized location obtained by maximizing desirability function.

● Multiple response optimization:

For multiple optimization, the global desirability function is defined as:

Downloaded by [77.93.203.35] at 22:37 15 March 2016

1
D ¼ ðd1  d2 Þ2 : (6)

The main goal of this study is to optimize the coupled CO2 sequestration and EOR project. Table 3
shows the goals and limits for each response.
According to the ramps representing the optimum or optimized location for NPV and CO2, the
value of the desirability function is 0.892547. In this case, the maximum value for NPV is ￥190.538
million and the maximum value for the amount of CO2 sequestered is 207,438 tons when WAG ratio
is 1.5, injection rate is 5,000 m3/d, and total slug size is 1.2.

● Confirmation of the results:

A numerical simulation run was performed with the recommended location to compare the
prediction of the overall desirability function and the reservoir response. The comparison
between predicted and simulated results is shown in Table 4. The relative error is 4.6% in the
NPV response and 9.1% in the amount of CO2 sequestered response, both values are accurate
and in good agreement each other. The mathematical models developed in both cases describe
very well the behavior of the responses. This method can be used as co-optimization of CO2
sequestration and EOR.

Table 3. Multiple Response Optimization Goals

Limits
Response Goal Lower Upper
WAG ratio In range 0.5 1.5
Injection rate, m3/d In range 2,500 5,000
Total slug size, PV In range 0.4 1.2
NPV, ￥MM Maximize 113.983 199.754
CO2STR, t Maximize 33,814.9 207,438

Table 4. Comparison between Predicted and Simulated Results.

WAG Ratio Injection Rate, m3/d Total Slug Size, PV NPV, ￥MM CO2STR, t
Simulation 1.5 5,000 1.2 199.75 207,438.29
Prediction 1.5 5,000 1.2 190.538 188,576
Relative error (%) — — — 4.6 9.1
 ENERGY SOURCES, PART A: RECOVERY, UTILIZATION, AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS 449

5. Conclusions
By using the methods or theories, including DOE, numerical simulation, NPV, and RSM, this article
established a theoretical system, which was used to analyze co-optimization of CO2 sequestration
and EOR. This method could achieve the purposes to both maximize profit and maximize the
amount of CO2 stored.
This article gave the predicted mathematical models of NPV and three of the process variables. By
using the fitting equation, three-dimensional response surface, and single response optimization, it is
possible to achieve the maximum value of NPV, which is ￥190.538 million when WAG ratio is 1.5,
injection rate is 5,000 m3/d, and total slug size is 1.2.
This article gave the predicted mathematical models of the amount of CO2 sequestrated and three
of the process variables. Similarly, it is possible to achieve the maximum value of CO2 sequestration,
which is 188,602 tons when WAG ratio is 1.48, injection rate is 5,000 m3/d, and total slug size is 1.2.
This study achieved the maximum value for NPV, which is ￥190.538 million, and the maximum
value for the amount of CO2 sequestered is 207438 tons when WAG ratio is 1.5, injection rate is
5,000 m3/d, and total slug size is 1.2 for Shanbei extra-low permeability reservoir. The comparison
between predicted and simulated results shows that the relative error is 4.6% in the NPV response
Downloaded by [77.93.203.35] at 22:37 15 March 2016

and 9.1% in the amount of CO2 sequestered response; both values are accurate and in good
agreement with each other. The mathematical models developed in both cases describe well the
behavior of responses. This method can be used for co-optimization of CO2 sequestration and EOR.

Acknowledgment
The authors wish to thank Shanxi Yanchang oil field for their support.

References
Anderson, M. J., and Whitcomb, P. J. 2007. DOE Simplified: Practical Tools for Effective Experimentation, Second Ed.
New York, NY: Productivity Press, pp. 147–160.
Bender, S. 2010. Co-optimization of CO2 sequestration and enhanced oil recovery and co-optimization of CO2
sequestration and methane recovery in geopressured aquifers. M.S.E. Thesis, The University of Texas at Austin,
Austin, Texas.
Blunt, M., Fayers, F. J., and Franklin Jr., M. O. 1993. Carbon dioxide in enhanced oil recovery. Energy Convers.
Manage. 34:1197–1204.
Bondor, P. L. 2003. Applications of carbon dioxide in enhanced oil recovery. J. Can. Pet. Technol. 33:579–586.
Ding, S. W., and Li, Z. P. 2010. An estimation method of CO2 storage potential in a reservoir. Spec. Oil Gas Reservoir 17:57–59.
Ghomian, Y. 2008. Reservoir simulation studies for coupled CO2 sequestration and enhanced oil recovery. Ph.D.
Dissertation, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas.
Guan, Z. L., Xie, C. J., Qi, R., and Blunt, M. 2007. Numerical simulation study on enhanced recovery factor by CO2
displacement. Nat. Gas Ind. 27:1–3.
Jahangri, H. R., and Zhang, D. X. 2011. Optimization of the net present value of carbon dioxide sequestration and
enhanced oil recovery. OTC Paper 21985. 2011 Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, Texas, May 2–5.
Jessen, K., Kovscek, A. R., and Franklin, M. O. J. 2005. Increasing CO2 storage in oil recovery. Energy Convers.
Manage. 46:293–311.
Kovscek, A. R. 2002. Screening criteria for CO2 storage in oil reservoirs. Pet. Sci. Technol. 20:841–866.
Kovscek, A. R., and Cakici, M. D. 2004. Geologic storage of carbon dioxide and enhanced oil recovery. II. Co-
optimization of storage and recovery. Energy Convers. Manage. 46:1941–1956.
Myers, R. H., Montgomery, D. C., and Anderson-Cook, C. 2008. Response Surface Methodology: Process and Product
Optimization Using Designed Experiments, Third Ed. New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., pp. 13–135.
Salazar, J. E. R. 2009. Coupled CO2 sequestration and enhanced oil recovery optimization using experimental design and
response surface methodology. M.S.E. Thesis, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas.
Shen, P. P., Liao, X. W., and Liu, Q. J. 2009. Methodology for CO2 storage capacity in reservoirs. Pet. Explor. Dev.
36:216–220.
Zhong, Z. Q., Wu, Y. P., Fu, Y. L., Wu, G. J., and Liu, P. C. 2012. Injection optimization in CO2 flooding for low
permeability reservoir. Spec. Oil Gas Reservoir 19:82–84.