CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Landslide is considered as one of the worst natural phenomenon that

treats human life and property all over the world, including Malaysia. As one of
the developing country, Malaysia has grown with rapid economic development
over the few years. These has resulted to cutting of many hill slopes. Thus, the
development of highlands area such as housing, highway, golf course and
intensive forest logging have resulted in landslides .Landslide in non- horizontal
position will encourage several gravitational force components to act upon them
and force the and slide when other external factors such as water and
displacement. Destruction can occur that continuously may affect the tropical
countries. For example, landslide tragedy that happened at Genting Highland on
the 30th of June 1995 had killed 20 lives and more than 20 people were injured.
Generally, there are various types of studies being used to monitor landslide
phenomena. The main study are geological structure, surface deformation,
ground water and geotechnical. Landslides can occur on any terrain, if some
conditions are fulfilled. One of the main causes of landslides is water, change in
underground levels, or cut slope. A geological process like landslides, except for
material damage and environmental damage may also cause human life hazard.

1
Therefore, this study is carried out to know about the landslide occurred at
Federal Road, 33, Lebuh SPA, Taman Paya Emas, Melaka.

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

A site visit was conducted at the SPA highway with doing observations from the
geological condition. From what we observed, there seems to appear a few variables of
problems occurred at the location. In Figure 1.1 & Figure 1.2 (refer appendix),the
drainage system below the slope is not in a good condition as due to the landslide. The
landslide caused the drain to be filled and clogged with the slope’s vegetate and plants
which in result the drain occurs to be slightly damaged and not repaired. Next, from
Figure 1.3 & Figure 1.4, we observed that the slope landslide was only merely covered
with a canvas sheet. The canvas sheet as can be seen is not in a good condition or
decayed. This shows a proper action of clearance and repair wasn’t taken upon the
slope’s failure. This has resulted the soil to keep rolling down and clogged the drain.
There is also no retaining wall to support the wall of the slope with increases the
tendency for a landslide to occur. Since the slopes is between a highway, there is a high
possibility that the failure is caused by movement of vehicles especially heavy vehicles
such as lorries, tractor or buses.

As known, Jabatan Kerja Raya (JKR) is responsible for the incident that happens
on the road, automatically they are responsible too for the landslide of the slopes. A
huge cost to repair may be required if actions aren’t taken in the shortest time. Ignorance
of this matter too has a big risk to effect the road users who drives daily through this
road which can be fatal.

2
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The main aim of the study is to gather more information on landslide at SPA
highway near Kampung Bertam Ulu, Melaka. Therefore, the following objectives are
presented to achieve the aim ;

i. To identify the causes of the landslides.

ii. To gather data of the soil’s strength
iii. To recommend a solution on how to overcome the landslide problem.

1.4 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This study focuses on on Federal Highway SPA (2.29133020, 102,

1921180) at Bertam Ulu., Federal Route 33, Taman Paya Emas, Melaka. Where
SPA stands for , Sungai Udang–Paya Rumput–Ayer Keroh Highway), Federal
Route
A survey will be made towards tnearby villagers by asking questions
through suitable methods such as questionnaires . We will also make a short visit
to the JKR Melaka to obtain more information focused on the landslide. Data
from the test of soil carried out by the JKR could be collected too.

3
1.5 IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY

In our opinion, our research has a potential to give awareness to the

responsible body , Jabatan Kerja Raya (JKR) , Daerah Bertam Hulu, Melaka , so that
they can take an immediate and proper action before any further side effects that may
occur if the slope failure becomes more dangerous. If maintenance of these slope aren’t
made, may cause fatal to the road users. An immediate response to this matter will
benefit the government of Melaka from facing a big lost that may cost millions for the
repair and maintenances and also will reduce the risk of drivers or users of the highway
road to be involved in an accident.
This study will also give a benefit to the environment by improving the
topography of the earth’s surface. Thus, maintaining the character and quality of the
groundwater flow.

4
Figure 1.1 : The drain is clogged and water couldn’t flow. This condition was spotted
on the 27th of September 2017.

Figure 1.2 : Plants as from the result of the landslide clogged the drain. . This condition
was spotted on the 27th of September 2017.

5
Figure 1.3 : Most recent condition of the slope. It is just merely covered with canvas
sheet. . This condition was spotted on the 21st January 2018.

Figure 1.4 : The landslide seems to be eroded. . This condition was spotted on the 27th
of September 2017.

6
Figure 1.4 : A view of the landslide from opposite of the Federal Highway lane.

7
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

According to Keller and Blodgett (2004), landslides are an important hazard around the

world and they are often connected with other hazards such as volcanic activity or

earthquakes. The majority of landslides are small and slow but some are fast and big

with catastrophic consequences (Keller and Blodgett, 2004). While, in Malaysia, road

constructions has begun since before independence. Before 1957, there has been a road

system linking Johor Bahru in the south with Kangar in the north and Kota Bharu in the

East Coast, connecting main cities between the other cities. After the country gained

independence in 1957, efforts to improve the road system has been done properly and

through the rapid development planning, especially Malaysia Plan every five years

which was launched by the Federal Government. Thus, in this chapter will be potraying

highlighted research , theories and more information on our research.

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2.2 THEORY

2.2.1 Definition

i. Cees van Westen from International Institute for Aerospace Survey and

Earth Sciences, (ITC) , Enschede, The Netherlands stated that landslide is

defined as the movement of a mass of rock, debris or earth down the slope, when

the shear stress exceeds the shear strength of the material.

ii. Cruden , 1991 , defined landslide as the movement of a mass of rock, debris

earth down the slope.

iii. Lebuh SPA (Sungai Udang–Paya Rumput–Ayer Keroh Highway), Federal

Route 33 (formerly Malacca State Route M17), is a major highway

in Malacca state, Malaysia . This 23.1 km (14.4 mile) highway connects Sungai

Udang in the west to Ayer Keroh in the east.

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2.2.2 HISTORY OF LANDSLIDE

Landslides belong to a class of geological phenomena which occur rapidly,

contradicting our common believes of geology occurring only in large time spans. For

this characteristic and the often catastrophic and well visible aftermaths such mass

movements are widely recognized even by non geologists.

Ancient myths in the Alps often refer to landslides as punishment for greedy people –

god or the spirits of the mountain punish the village or man who denied help to others

or became corrupted by wealth by entombing it/him alive.

In the year 1618 the landslide that destroyed the Swiss village of Plurs, killing over

1.000 people, was explained as a divine act. A first glimpse of naturalistic approach is

however shown by suggesting that god used an earthquake to shake the mountains and

cause the catastrophe. Earthquakes seemed a plausible trigger mechanism; publications

in 1757 and 1806 still connect landslides to earthquakes. In 1806 the landslide of

Goldau, where an entire village was destroyed and 457 people killed, was described in

detail by many naturalists and a surviving testimony – this event it is considered today

the first landslide described and explained in a naturalistic approach.

(David Bressan , September 4th, 2011 )

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2.2.3 TYPES OF LANDSLIDE

The various types of landslides can be differentiated by the kinds of material involved

and the mode of movement. A classification system based on these parameters is shown

in figure 2. Other classification systems incorporate additional variables, such as the

rate of movement and the water, air, or ice content of the landslide material.

(U.S. Geological Survey ,Fact Sheet 2004-3072 , July 2004)

A. Falls

Failure and detachment of rock fragments (i.e. single block, several individual blocks,

rock mass volumes) followed by downward motion by free falling, bouncing, rolling

and sliding, without impulsive block-slope interaction.

Volume < 100.00m3 : block-block interaction “fragment rock fall”

Conditioning factors

i. Onset : presence of rocky cliffs, rock fracturing, favorable rock type , water

circulation

ii. Runout : slope macro-topography and roughness , block volume and shape,

vegetation

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 Figure 2.1

b) Lateral spreads

Seep- seated lateral extension over low-angle shear zones and formation of

associated tensile fractures and gravitational normal faults.

Develop in sub-horizontal slabs of stiff materials (rocks, over-consolidated

cohesive soils) , overlying layers of soft rocks or soils subjected to liquefaction.

Figure 2.2

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Conditioning factors

i. Soft material of soils with high liquefaction potential

ii. Water circulation

iii. Seismicity

Figure 2.3 Damage due to lateral spreads caused by the 2001

Nisqually, WA Earthquake. The length of the damage is

feet (225 m). Photo by National Science investigation team

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 B. Flows

Most complex group,

a. Flows in both granular material and cohesive soils

- Debris flows ( fast )

- Earthflows ( slow,fast )

- Rock avalanches ( fast )

b. Wet : Newton or non-linear flow

c. Dry : granular flow ( debris / rock avalanches )

I. Debris flows

Rapid mass movemtn of mixtures of granular solids, water and air, in an intermediate

position between flooding and landslide processes.

( Costa , 1984 )

Triggered by : soil slips, debris remobilization in steep channels or an talus slopes

Has high mobility, velocity, and runout potential

Conditioning factors

i. Channel or slope steepness

ii. Water availability

iii. Relative abundance granular / cohesive soils

iv. Slope material and erodibility

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 II. Debris flows : Morphological and Sedimentological features

Depends on mixture rheology :

- Newtonian fluid

- Bingham fluid

- Dilatant fluid

Rheology = f (%fine, sediment concentration )

Figure 2. 4

Figure 2. 5

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III. Earth flows

Slow flow of cohesive soils or clay weak rocks. Triggering modes and mechanics

depend on water content and fine fraction.

Conditioning factors

i. Material with abundant fine fraction

ii. Water availability / groundwater

Figure 2. 6 The Sliding surface of the Aranayake landslide

IV. Rock Avalanches

Rapid granular flows ( dry or wet ) of large volume of fragmenting rock masses or

pyroclastic materials.

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Triggered by : rockslide collapse on high slopes , earthquake ,permafrost degradation ,

very large rockfalls

Has high mobility , velocity and runout potential

V. Rock Avalanches : Morphological and Sedimentological features

i. Coarse , poorly sorted debris

ii. Fragmented material + boulders

iii. Lobes , transversal and longitudinal ridges , leeves

iv. Bedrock , erosion , deformations

VI. Complex landslides

Varnes ( 1978 ) : Association of two or more types of movements either in space or in

time

Cruden e Varnes ( 1993 ) : Association of two or more types of movement in time

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2.2.4 CLASSIFICATIONS OF LANDSLIDE

From the International Institute for Aerospace Survey and Earth Sciences (ITC),

Enschede, The Netherlands.

The following factors can be used and have been used to classify landslides:

i. Material: Rock, Soil Lithology, structure, Geotechnical properties

ii. Geomorphic attributes: Weathering, Slope form

iii. Landslide geometry: Depth, Length, Height etc.

iv. Type of movement: Fall, Slide, Flow etc

v. Climate: Tropical, Periglacial etc.

vi. Water: Dry, wet, saturated

vii. Speed of movement: Very slow, slow etc.

viii. Triggering mechanism: Earthquake, rainfall etc.

2.2.4.1 Classification by Sharpe (1938)

Figure 2.7 Classification by Sharpe

It stated that the materials are earth and rock. The landslide flows and slips while the

velocity is slow to very rapid.

2.2.4.2 Varnes (1978)

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 Figure 2.8 Classfication of Varnes

Debris, bedrock and earth are the elements or materials of this class of landslide. The

movement of the landslide could occur in falls, topple, slide, flow and also complex.

The water content of the landslide is dry to wet and the velocity is from slow to rapid.

2.2.4.3 Hutchinson (1988)

When groud is unloaded, the rebound of the landslide is either artificially by encavation

or naturally by erosion, the unloaded area responds, initially elastically and

subsequently by slow swelling ( Peterson, 1958) . Creeps occurs at any extremely slow

movements which are imperceptible except through long-period measurement. Next,

for the sagging of mountain slopes, a general term for these deep-seated deformations

of mountains slopes, in , in their present state of development , do not justify

classification as landslide.

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2.2.4.4 Wieczorek: Unified Landslide Classification System.

Figure 2.9 Unified landslide classification system

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2.2.5 LANDSLIDE FEATURES

By Cees van Westen from The International Institute for Aerospace Survey and Earth

Sciences (ITC), Enschede, The Netherlands .

Figure 2.10

2.2.6 FACTORS ATTRIBUTED TO LANDSLIDE

By Ir. Dr. Gue See Sew & Ir. Tan Yean Chin, Landslides: Case Histories, Lessons

Learned and Mitigation Measures said that 49 cases of mostly large landslides on

residual soil slopes of weathering grade IV to VI were investigated by the Authors over

the last six years as part of forensic engineering engagements. Large landslides are

21
landslides which involve more than 5,000 cubic metres. Table 1 shows the percentage

of landslides caused by different factors. The results of the investigations indicate that

60% of the failures are due to inadequacy in design alone. The inadequacy in design is

generally the result of lack of understanding and appreciation of the subsoil conditions

and geotechnical issues. Failures due to construction errors alone either of

workmanship, materials and/or lack of supervision contributed to 8% of the total cases

of landslides. About 20% of the landslides investigated are caused by a combination of

design and construction errors. For landslides in residual soil slopes, the landslides

caused by geological features only account for 6% which is same as the percentage

contributed by lack of maintenance.

Table 1: Causes of Landslides

Causes of Landslides Number of Cases Percentage (%)

Design Errors 29 60

Construction Errors 4 8

Design and Construction 10 20

Errors

Geological Features 3 6

Maintenance 3 6

Total 49 100

The results clearly reveal that the majority of these failures are avoidable if extra care

was taken and input from engineers with relevant experience in geotechnical

22
engineering was sought from the planning to construction. Many of the landslides

reported above which were caused by design errors were due to following:-

a. The abuse of prescriptive method on the slope gradient (slope angle) to

be adopted for cut or fill slopes without proper geotechnical analyses and

calculations. It is very common in Malaysia to find many cut slopes that

are formed for residual soils that are 1V:1H (which means one vertical:

one horizontal = 45 degrees angle). Based on literatures published on

residual soils and the authors’ own experience of residual soils, it is very

unlikely to have an effective angle of friction (f’) of the residual soils of

45o (degrees) or near to this value. The authors’ own experiences

indicates that the f’ values of residual soils generally ranges from 29o to

36o and mainly depend on the particle size distribution of the materials.

Therefore, if proper analysis of the slopes’ stability was carried out with

correct soil parameters, most of these slopes of 45o gradient would not

have sufficient Factor of Safety (FOS) recommended against slip failure

in the long term even with some effective cohesion. In summary,

engineers should not only follow the slope gradients (e.g. 1V: 1H) that

have been done previously without proper geotechnical analysis and

design.

b. 2) Subsurface investigation (S.I.) and laboratory tests were not carried

out to obtain representative soils parameters, subsoil and groundwater

profiles for design and analysis of slopes. Therefore, the analysis and

23
 design carried out are not representative of the actual site conditions, and

thus unsafe.

c. 3) A lack of good understanding of fundamental soil mechanics that

the most critical condition of cut slopes is in the long term (in “Drained

Condition”). Therefore, it is necessary to adopt effective shear strength

parameters for the “Drained Analysis” of the cut slopes in residual soils

instead of undrained shear strength (su or cu).

ii. For landslides that were caused by construction errors alone or combined with

design, the common construction errors are as follows:-

a. Tipping or dumping of loose fill down the slopes to form a filled

platform or filled slopes. This isthe most rampant construction error for

earthworks construction in Malaysia. Contractors carrying out the filling

works on slopes will find it most “convenient” and “easy” to dump or

tip soil down the slopes to form the fill. The condition is worsened by

not removing the vegetation on the slopes causing the bio-degradable

materials to be trapped beneath the dumped fill, forming a potential slip

plane with a very low friction angle of the bio-degradable materials

(vegetation). The uncompacted fill slopes having a very low Factor of

Safety would likely fail in the long term.

b. 2) Errors of the method of construction such as forming cut slopes

by excavating slopes from the bottom (undermining) instead of the

24
 correct practice of cutting from the top downwards. This wrong practice

will trigger landslides or potential shear planes extending beyond the

proposed cut slope profile.

c. Over-excavation of cut slopes. Contractors unintentionally over-

excavate cut slopes and then try to fill back the excavated materials to

reform the slope to the required gradient. The uncompacted loose

materials will slip down.

iii. The way to prevent these bad construction practices is to have proper full-time

supervision by members of the design consultant and together with reliable and

responsible earthworks contractors having clear method statements for

construction.

iv. Landslides due to geological features contributed to about 6% of the total

failures investigated. However, it should be recognised that these geological

features such as discontinuities in residual soils, especially sedimentary

formations, are not usually detectable during the design stage even with

extensive subsurface investigation (boreholes, geo-physical method), even to

an experienced engineering geologist who carries out geological mapping at the

site prior to cutting. Most of these geological features can only be detected after

exposing the slopes during excavation. In view of this, it is encouraged to carry

out confirmatory geological slope mapping of the exposed slopes (after

excavation) by an experienced engineering geologist or geotechnical engineer

to detect any geological discontinuities that may contribute to potential failure

25
 mechanisms, namely planar sliding, anticline sliding, active-passive wedges,

etc.

v. By understanding that geological discontinuities could not be fully addressed

during the design stage, design engineers should make moderately conservative

assumptions for the soil/rock parameters and also the groundwater profile to

ensure adequacy in design and should only carry out adjustments on site if

necessary after geological slope re-mapping and re-analysis of the slopes. On

the contrary, when optimistic assumptions are made and the results obtained

during construction at site are less favourable then expensive options such as

retaining walls or slope strengthening using soil nails are required due to space

and boundary constraints. Thus the safety of slopes is often compromised.

vi. The common problems of landslides caused by lack of maintenance are

blockage of drains for surface run-off, and erosion. Blockage of drains will

cause large volumes of water to gush down a slope causing erosion to the slope

and the formation of gullies. These gullies will further deteriorate into a big scar

on the slope and finally lead to a landslide. The blockage of drains could also be

due to debris accumulated on cracked drains, the collapse of drains, etc. If proper

maintenance is carried out, then all these small defects would have been

rectified and landslides caused by erosion would be-prevented.

26
 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

In a research or study that is carried out, it requires a method or ways to get data

and information on the research being done. With valid and sufficient datas, only

then the research could be done successfully.

To achieve a good data, the study must be perfect and be done according to its

suitable procedure. It is to ensure the findings of the research are validated has

a quality to it. A researcher has to be aware and not take lightly of the methods

and ways used to gain the data and must be suitable to the study carried out.

This chapter will cover the detailed explanation of methodology that are will be

used in this study . The process used to collect information and data for the

purposes of making decisions. The methodology may include surveys,

publication research, interviews, and other research techniques , and may

include both present and historical information. Many methodology o findings

from this field mainly generated into journal for others to take advantages and

improve as upcoming studies. The method is used to achieve the objective of

the project.

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3.2 METHODOLOGY EXPLANATION

Methodology is a systematic, theoretical analysis of method applied to a field of study.

It comprises the theoretical analysis of the body of method and principal associated with

a branch of knowledge. The flow chart below shows the work flow throughout the

research.

Start

Topic Selection

Problem Statement

Objective of Study

Scope of Study

Literature Review

Data Collecting

Data from responsible bodies Reading materials and references

Observation
s

Data Analysis

End 28
3.2.1 Problem Statement

Before being able to decide on the title and objectives of a study, problems should be

identified first. In order to do so, there were few ways that were used to get to know the

problem occurred at this landslide. Observations by naked eyes were made followed by

capturing pictures of the landslides condition. A visit to the location was also done few

time to follow up and to see if there was any improvement on the landslides. The

landslide wasn’t the only that was observed , hence the drainage nearby was seen to be

clogged therefore the problems of the landslide is discovered.

3.2.2 Topic Selection

This topic is decided from the phenomenon problems occurred at the Federal Highway

SPA (2.29133020, 102, 1921180) at Bertam Ulu. A landslide there with few problems

statement are identified. The location of the landslide is chosen as it was a

recommendation from our Supervisor. It was felt that there was a potential for choosing

this location as it was beside a Federal Highway and a lot could be observed. After

making the suitable selection of topic, an option should be selected to continue next

progress for the project.

29
3.2.3 Objective of Study

Few problems were identified from the landslide, thus the objectives were introduced.

The objectives were made after analysing the problem statement and it was known to

be effecting the drainage and also may have effects on the users of the federal highway

road.

3.2.4 Scope of Study

For this study, the scope is limited to the locations and the villagers as it

is the most suitable. The landslide will be observed time to time as it has a risk

of being fatal to the users of the Federal Highway. This study focuses at the

location also to create awareness towards the responsible bodies of landslide that

occurred in order for fast actions to be taken. More problem may occur if

immediate actions aren’t taken. It may involve number of lives and also a huge

cost of repairment.

The villagers were selected as they could offer more data and

information for this study. Individuals who are familiar to using the road may

have experienced few dissatisfactions towards the occurrence of the landslide,

the voices of the villagers could open up chances of shortening the time of

repairing the landslide. They will be analysed by filling up some questionnaire

sheets which may provide sufficient data.

30
3.2.5 Literature Review

Literature review is about general knowledge on landslides. It includes the

definition of landslide, the history of how landslide happened, types of landslide, the

causes of landslides occurred, the features and also few research that have been done.

This literature review is to improve the understanding about landslides and ease the

process of this study.

3.2.6 Data Collecting

There are a lot of methods and equipment for landslides monitoring. In order to

recommend solutions or ways to overcome the landslide problem, data and information

related to the landslide has to be gathered. It is concluded that in all cases, measurements

have to be made in terms of time, manpower and budget. The type of the landslide, the

environmental conditions of the landslide, the expected accuracy and the professionals

who use the deformation monitoring techniques are also the important factors to be

considered. Hence, few methods used in this study.

a) Observations and Questionnaire

A visual observation may consist of inspection with supporting notes and/or

photographs. It is important to note that the most effective way of monitoring is ground-

31
based visual inspection and sampling on a regular basis. Every development of the

problem are noted and compared.

It is one of the most effective way by carrying out a questionnaire as sufficient

information can be gained from the respondents. The range villagers are selected as

samples for this research as the samples are living closest to the landslide and may

experience some outcomes from it.

b) Data from responsible bodies

A further approach will be taken to the JKR to gather some information or data related

to the landslide by doing paper works and visit. A slight cost might be needed for this

method. Even so, it would fulfil the needs of this research as a test cant be done

personally.

c) Reading material and references

Lastly, in doing a study , reading comes to a huge and as it widens the knowledge on a

certain topic. Reference sources are used to obtain a specific answer to a question or to

indicate other sources to use during the research process. It can be used to obtain a

specific answer to a question or to indicate other sources to use during the research

process.

A visit to the library is often done to gain useful and more knowledge. Perpustakaan

Politeknik Merlimau and The Kuala Lumpur Library was the main place to get data

from various sources such as the book, journals, newspapers and also from the internet.

32
A few books very analysed to get more sources of information that can be used at an

input to enable this research to be a success. The access of being a student at the college

was been used to a maximum by visiting the library often and using the facilities

provided by the library such as borrowing journals and surfing the internet to look up

on information needed.

33
3.2.7 Data Analysis

The data that are or might be obtained will be analysed to figured out a

recommendation to solve the landslide problem.

3.2.8 Conclusion

Methodology is the systematic and theoretical analysis that are divided into few

steps. All of these steps need to be followed exactly so that this product can be created

to solve all the problems that are faced by the road users. This is the reason why

methodology is very important to be carried out properly and carefully.

A successful research or study is the results from a good methods and ways used.

By using few methods stated and explained, its hoped that this research can achieve a

standard and quality of its own. This methodology of study is also to ease researchers

to gain the information and data that they need from respondents of the study. A proper

etiquette and procedure was also followed to carry out the study.

It’s a privilege if this methodology could fulfil the objectives of this study that

is aimed for. Hopefully with this research it could ease the work that would be carried

out to overcome the landslide problem.

34