AUSTRALASIAN

COAL MINING PRACTICE

Edited by

R J Kininmonth
E Y Baafi

Monograph Series
No 12
2009

Published by
THE AUSTRALASIAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGY
Level 3,15-31, Pelham Street, Carlton Victoria 3053

An enterprise of the Illawarra Branch, The AusIMM

 © Copyright

THE AUSTRALASIAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGY 2009

First printed 1986

Reprinted with corrections 1987
Second Edition 1993
Third Edition 2009

EDITORIAL COMMITTEE
Editors
R J Kininmonth
E Y Baafi

Members
D Adam
R Doyle
G Gibson
C Harvey
K Horrocks
S Saywell
R Tolhurst
W Watson

ADVISORY PANEL
Members
B Allan
M Buckenham
G Chalmers
A Davis
P Hanna
M Jakeman

The Institute is not responsible as a body, for the facts

and opinions advanced in any of its publications.

ISBN 978 1 921522 08 6

Compiled on CD ROM by
Visual Image Processing Pty Ltd
PO Box 3180
Doncaster East Vic 3109
 LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
A Carruthers, J H L Pearce, H L Stewart, D
Adcock, G P Hagan, T N Lea, J
Carthew, J Perkins, D Stone, I
Allan, B S Ham, B Li, S
Caspanay, M Phillips, Dr H R Strang, J
Anderson, I Hanes, J Lindsay, M
Chan, O Pierce, V Sutcliffe, G
Anderson, K Hannan, J C Lucke, D
Charlton, R Piper, I C Sutherland, G
Antwi, H Hardie, G E Lunarzewski, L Pitkin, G
Christensen, P Swan, R C
Armstrong, Dr L Hargraves, A J Lyall, K D Pitts, K
Connolly, B Swanson, A
Arney, J Harman, P Lyne, B Porter, I
Cook, F T
Aspinall, T O Harvey, C R Mc Ptyor, E Tague, D
Cram, K
Austen, R Harvey, I Macleod, R J C
Croft, D B Proud, Sir J Talbot, K
Aziz, N I Hatherly, P McDonald, A
Teske, K A
Cuddihy, P R
Hebblewhite, B K McGarvie, J Rathus, E M
B Titchen, H
D
Baafi, E Y Hedley, T McKendry, J Rees, P
Davidson, C W Tochowitz, R
Bacon, C A Hellicar, M McKenzie-Wood, P Reid, P
Davies, Dr H Todd, J
Baker, D Hewitt, A McKinnon, R Regan, R W
Doherty, J K Tyrell, W R
Balfe, P E Hiscocks, R McManus, D A Richmond, A
Doyle, J F V
Balks, R J Dunlop, I Hoffman, J M Ritchie, J B Van de Ven, P
Maiden, G
Bartlett, K Dunreath-Cooper, G Holdgate, G R Roach, W W
Mallet, C Waddington, A A
Barry, Dr O J E Holla, L Roberts, M
Eade, P Marsh, H L Waghorne, E P
Barton, C M Hollows, N Robertson, B
Edwards, J Marshall, R Walker, C T
Baughan, P N Holmes, D S Rogerson, Dr R
Ellis, P H Martin, C H Walls, D
Beamish, B Holt, G E Ross, K
English, W Mason, L Watson, W B
Beck, D J Hopkins, R S Rowlands, Prof D
Enever, J Mathewson, D Waudby, J
Bell, L C Horrocks, K R S Rowlands, M
Epps, J M Mattilla, G Westcott, P
Bharucha, N S Howarth, R Roxborough, Prof
Evans, T E Mills, K W FF White, Dr B
Bickert, G Hughson, R A
Mikula, P A Runge, G A Whitfield, A
Bird, M F Humphris, R
Fabjanczyk, M Mitchell, P Ryan, O J Whitehouse, D
Black, P I
Fairclough, F Isles, P T Monger, N R S Wigglesworth, K F
Blackham, M Savidis, Dr G
Farnell, G K Isokangas, T Moreby, R Wilcox, J
Blackwood, R L Saywell, S M
Fawcett, D Ivanovic, D Morgan, A Williams, H W
Blatch, T M Scott, R
Fenton, J H Morris, T Williams, N
J
Bloomfield, C Fleming, F R Jakeman, M Seaborne, C
Morrison, H Williams, R
Bolger, P F Ford, F Jeffries, J T Seib, W T Williamson, M
Munden, F W
Bowman, R G Fraser, R J Johnston, M Sellars, A B Wilson, R G
Murray, P J
Bramley, A J Jones, F Sen, Dr G C
G O Wischusen, R
Brazil, K T Gadsden, W R Jones, I O O’Brierne, T Sleeman, J Woods, J T
Brett, J Gale, W O’Regan, G Sleigh, J
K Wooton, P
Brisbane, P Galvin, J Kathage, B A Oldroyd, G C Singh, R N Wright, L
Brookes, D Garaty, J Kay, J Olsen, B Smith, C E
Y
Buffier, M J Gardner, R Kininmonth, R J Osborne, D Smith, G Yearby, M

Buffington, J Gibson, G Klemick, G Smith, G H Yeates, R

P
Byers, K T Grimson, K Knight, J L Palmer, I G Smith, M J
Golding, T Kraemer, I Partel, W S Sneddon, M W
C
Cairns, R A Goucher, R B Kukla, G T Partridge, A C Stevens, C
 FOREWORD

Since the first edition of this Australasian Coal Mining Practice in 1986, there have been substantial changes in our world.
Globalisation has had an enormous impact on the way society operates, particularly the ability to communicate in so many
ways. As a result mining in general and coal mining in particular has become far more transparent to the community at
large. Undoubtedly, this is a good thing for both industry and society. With transparency and scrutiny comes challenge
and with challenge comes improvement. This is clearly evident in the Australian Coal Industry, which has improved its
performance substantially in the last 35 years.
Previous Forewords have focused on critical issues facing the coal industry at the time of writing and I will do the same,
helping future readers get a sense of change over time. At the time of writing we have been mining coal for the best
part of a decade in the 21st century. Environmental challenges, both global and local, real and perceived, dominate the
industry outlook. The issue of climate change in particular has become one of the dominant issues of public policy in the
world today. The emergence of new economies on an unprecedented scale is also changing the face of the planet. The
so-called BRIC countries (Brazil, Russia, India and China), along with many other developing nations, are urbanising
and industrialising their economies, creating enormous demand for raw materials and energy. These issues are having a
profound effect on the size and development of the coal industry, which is moving at pace to adopt new technologies that
boost productivity and increase output. I will discuss each of these issues in turn but first, as the industry usually does, let
me talk about safety.
Australia is the safest place in the world to work in a coal mine. The introduction of risk-based legislative models in
preference to prescriptive legislation has allowed the people at our mines to develop control regimes that are best suited to
local conditions. This framework has forced people to think more comprehensively about the nature of hazards, leading to
safer work places. The risk-based model has demonstrated itself to be far more effective than the prescriptive regulation
favoured previously and still operating in many other jurisdictions. The effectiveness of a risk -based approach is reflected
in safety outcomes, especially fatality rates, where the Australian industry has the lowest rate of any major coal-producing
nation.
There has been, associated with this improvement in safety outcomes, a dramatic shift in management attitudes. Safety
is now viewed as an enabler of outstanding performance in production and enormous effort is applied to systematically
identifying and managing risk throughout all levels of organisations. This alignment of management and worker interest
in safety has reduced conflict in the workplace, creating the platform for improved industrial relations.
More often than not the entire coal industry is united as it faces the challenges posed by those outside the industry. In
particular, these challenges arise from environmental concerns and threaten resource recovery on a local scale and future
markets at a macro level.
Since the early 1990s scientists have been increasing the frequency and urgency of their warnings of the potential effects
of climate change. There is now broad consensus that increasing levels of carbon dioxide and other ‘greenhouse gases’
in the atmosphere present a significant risk that average global temperatures will increase over the next century. This rise
in global temperature is expected to induce ‘climate change’, major changes to global weather patterns that may change
sea levels, rainfall patterns, the frequency and severity of storm events and many other effects. The respected economist
Sir Nicholas Stern has predicted that climate change will have a profound effect on the world economy unless there is
coordinated global action taken urgently to address the issue.
Most commentators call for a reduction in the quantity of greenhouse gases that are emitted in order that the level of these
gases in the atmosphere is stabilised. While deforestation, agriculture and transport are all major sources of net emissions,
energy, and coal in particular, has become a major focus of international attention. The Australian Coal Industry is facing
this challenge through the creation of a A$1 billion fund to research and develop low emission technologies for utilising
the world’s cheap and abundant coal resources. The commercialisation of these technologies will be critical to reducing
carbon dioxide emissions during the use of coal.
Along with this global challenge, the coal industry often faces significant challenges on its doorstep. In the Sydney
Basin especially, but also elsewhere, competing land use creates the potential for conflict with local communities. Water
resources are also a major concern for regulators and communities alike, and the mining industry is a key stakeholder in
this debate. Improving engagement with the community and generating more grass roots support is a critical challenge
for the industry. Providing jobs was once a major contribution in its own right and almost guaranteed community support.
Now, in our affluent society, mining companies are facing more complex community demands.
Despite these obvious challenges the coal industry is growing very strongly on the back of insatiable world demand
for energy and raw materials. This demand is growing at a rapid rate in the developing world where increased energy
availability is closely linked to the eradication of poverty. The undeniable benefit of electricity on the standard of living of
more than a billion people presents an enormous paradox for global policy makers fighting climate change.
As the coal industry grows it continues to improve productivity through innovation and the adoption of technologies, often
developed through industry funded research programs such as ACARP (Australian Coal Association Research Program).
Suppliers to our industry are now suppliers to the world as recognition grows of our industry’s technical capability.
As a result of this innovation our mines are becoming more efficient and in many cases are world class. Some longwall
mines are approaching production levels of ten million tonnes per annum with wider longwalls reducing development
requirements. To enable this performance level, enhancements to power systems, face automation, strata control, gas
management, conveyors and transport systems have been necessary. Roadway development systems have also improved,
although breakthrough technologies to create a step change in performance are still lacking. Open-cut methods are being
enhanced through larger trucks with improved tyre technology and better control and power systems. Dragline operators
are experimenting with new digging technologies and changes to bucket, rope and jewellery configuration.
Mines generally are getting much larger, achieving economies of scale through increased automation, better data
acquisition and information systems allowing for a greater span of control. More and larger mines means the industry is
keeping pace with the extraordinary growth in demand for coal.
The bottleneck in our production system has increasingly become the capacity of the supply chain. Both rail and port
systems are full to capacity and infrastructure owners are rapidly reviewing options for expansion. Long queues of ships
off our ports have become commonplace – a situation we cannot tolerate if we want these ships and our customers to
return in the long term. If we cannot fix this situation other countries will take the opportunities afforded them at our
expense.
The great demand from society for coal and its simultaneous desire to address substantial environmental challenges create
a fascinating dilemma for all stakeholders in our industry. With a long and proud history of addressing challenges in a
forthright manner, I am sure that the future for coal industry participants remains full of opportunity and interest.

C Bloomfield, President
BHP Billiton, Illawarra Coal
 SPONSORS AND SUPPORTERS

Major Sponsor
BHP Billiton

Minor Sponsors
Aulron Energy Limited
Illawarra Branch of The AusIMM
Southern Queensland Branch of The AusIMM

Supporters
Illawarra Branch of The AusIMM
School of Civil, Mining and Environmental Engineering, University of Wollongong
Wollongong TAFE NSW – Illawarra
MAJOR SPONSOR PROFILE
 PREFACE
In presenting this new volume of Australasian Coal Mining Practice, Monograph 12, it is appropriate to pay special
mention to Alan Hargraves, one of the co-editors of the second edition of this Monograph. It was he who, in 1999, initiated
a review of the chapters of that edition in preparation for the issue of this edition. Unfortunately funding could not be
assured and planning for publication was deferred until a generous donation from BHP Billiton ensured that the revision
could proceed.
The editors wish to thank Col Bloomfield for his foreword that is included in this volume. Forewords and prefaces to the
two editions of the previous Monograph have not been included here but the writers names have been added as part of
the list of contributors. At the same time it is considered important to recognise their work and they are listed as follows:
First Edition: Foreword: Sir John Proud
Foreword (New Zealand): W S Partell
Preface: C H Martin
Second Edition: Foreword: J Wilcox
Preface: A J Hargraves and C H Martin
The list of contributors has been enlarged to cover all the editions and as far as possible includes the names of those
reviewers of the second edition whose comments were received.
There has been some minor consolidation of chapters so that with the addition of one on explosives and the late inclusion
of one dealing with carbon capture the total is now 46.
We wish to take this opportunity to thank the Editorial Committee for their help, members of the Advisory Panel for their
support and interest, and those AusIMM staff members who gave editorial assistance.
Our special thanks go to Susy McConnochie for her work in preparing the chapters and we are indebted to Connie Woods
of Wollongong TAFE for her formatting skills.
In conclusion we wish to thank all the chapter editors who took time out of their busy schedules to prepare the information
now before you.

R J Kininmonth
E Y Baafi
 CONTENTS
Title Page i
Editorial Committee ii
Advisory Panel ii
List of Contributors iii
Foreword iv
Sponsors and Supporters vi
Preface viii
Contents ix
Chapter 1 Historical S M Saywell 1
Chapter 2 Geological Setting of Australian Coal Deposits A Hutton 40
Chapter 3 Development Potential of Papua New Guinea R Rogerson 85
Chapter 4 Exploration of Deposits J Edwards 93
Chapter 5 Feasibility Studies A Morgan 112
Chapter 6 Mine Ownership K Talbot 125
Chapter 7 Mine Planning B White 137
Chapter 8 Development, Organisation, Administration and Surface Arrangements J Doherty 162
Chapter 9 Shafts, Drifts and Tunnels P H Ellis 176
Chapter 10 Blasting Practice G C Sen 191
Chapter 11 Principles of Machine Mining F F Roxborough 206
Chapter 12 Rock Mechanics and Stability of Excavations B K Hebblewhite 256
Chapter 13 Roadway Support W Gale 278
Chapter 14 Bord and Pillar Methods B A Kathage 297
Chapter 15 Longwall G W Mitchell 340
Chapter 16 Multi-seam Working R Howarth 376
Chapter 17 Alternative Mining Methods D Stewart 392
Chapter 18 Open-cut Mining P Westcott 410
Chapter 19 Highwall Mining in Australia W Seib 459
Chapter 20 Brown Coal Mining in the Latrobe Valley E P Waghorne 470
Chapter 21 Recruitment Training and Education B Ham 486
Chapter 22 Accidents, Health and Safety B Lyne 499
Chapter 23 The Development of Safety Legislation R W Regan 519
Chapter 24 Surveying and Plans D Baker 531
Chapter 25 Mine Dust and Dust Suppression N Aziz 553
Chapter 26 Seam Gas and Drainage J Hanes 580
Chapter 27 Ventilation R Moreby 604
Chapter 28 Electricity in Coal Mining R A Cairns 689
Chapter 29 Communications Monitoring and Control J F Waudby 716
Chapter 30 The Use of Computers E Y Baafi 748
Chapter 31 Transport J McKendry 758
Chapter 32 Drainage and Dewatering of Mines I O Jones 770
Chapter 33 Explosions, Fires and Spontaneous Combustion D Cliff 800
Chapter 34 Mine Rescue M Bird 815
Chapter 35 Beneficiation, Utilisation and Handling K R S Horrocks 826
Chapter 36 Marketing R Charlton 857
Chapter 37 Subsidence Engineering K W Mills 874
Chapter 38 Sustainable Development and Environmental Management W R Tyrrell 903
Chapter 39 Surface Rehabilitation C Bell 925
Chapter 40 Selected Issues Related to Management M Jakeman 951
Chapter 41 Mine Business Planning and Management J Buffington 973
Chapter 42 Economic and Productivity Aspects of Mining I Kraemer 989
Chapter 43 Industry Development and Promotion R L McKinnon 1019
Chapter 44 Coal Mine Research R Wischusen 1038
Chapter 45 The Australian Coal Industry-Future Developments B Robertson 1057
Chapter 46 Carbon Capture and Storage N Williams 1075
Index 1080
 Publications of The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy
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Key: * Out of print