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according to IEC
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D
1. rules and regulations EMC1
2. electromagnetic disturbances
2.1 disturbances by conduction EMC2
2.2. radiation EMC8
G
4. local network problems EMC20
EMC
Legislation on EMC throughout the world is
broadly divided into two philosophies. In
"liberal" countries, any parasitic interference
with radio reception is illegal, but no
emission-level limit for the source of
interference is imposed. However, in cases of
litigation the methods of measuring, and the
limits of emission level laid down by the
CISPR, serve as reference. For example,
Japan is a "liberal country" in which the VCCI
standards (that correspond technically to the
international publications of CISPR) assumes
that the attitude of civic responsibility
prevailing is adequate at the present time.
For countries more rigidly "regulated",
emission levels exceeding a standardized
limit are illegal. For example, in the U.S.A.,
Automatic Data Processing (ADP) systems
are protected by obligatory emission-level
standards defined by the Federal law FCC
part 15. Checking procedures differ,
depending on whether the level for class A
(procedure for "compliance") or class B is
concerned. In the case for class B (domestic
environment), certification is then required.
European regulations are effectively placed
between the two foregoing attitudes. The
parasitic-emission level and an excessively-
sensitive reception device are both illegal.
Compliance with the EMC standards,
although only constituting a presumption of
conformity to the essential requirements, is,
nevertheless, the preferred means of
checking. Moreover, the European
regulations are applicable to all apparatuses,
systems and commercialised installations,
without exception.
Appendix EMC - 1
2. electromagnetic disturbances
EMC
Problems of EMC (ElectroMagnetic travelling in space.
Compatibility) often arise when equipment, The magnitudes of electromagnetic
which is highly sensitive to extraneous disturbances are expressed by four
electrical disturbances (commonly referred to parameters: two for the conduction mode and
as "interference" or "parasites") is located in two for the radiation mode.
an environment subject to electromagnetic For the conduction mode, measurements are
disturbances. made in the traditional quantities, viz: volts
Since sources of electromagnetic disturbance (U) and amps (I). For the radiated
are numerous and inevitable, and electromagnetic waves the electric and
desensitizing an equipment (generally magnetic field strengths are measured in
electronic) to counter the effect of volts per metre (E) and in amperes per
disturbances is difficult to achieve, metre (H), respectively.
consideration of the physical layout of the The frequency is one of the principal features
sensitive equipments and related cabling, that characterise an electromagnetic wave.
relative to the sources of disturbance, In EMC studies the solutions adapted differ
becomes necessary. according to whether the disturbance is at low
This is the principal means of ensuring a frequency (LF) or at high frequency (HF).
satisfactory degree of immunity for the large * Stationary (but changing in magnitude) magnetic and
majority of sensitive electronic devices. electric induction fields generally, are only significant in
close proximity to the sources and are easily countered by
There are two recognized modes of placing sensitive equipment at a suitable distance from
electromagnetic interference: them. A notable exception is the case where some tens of
thousands of amps, i.e. short-circuit fault currents, flow in a
c conducted disturbances propagated along power cable.
cables, wires, etc.
c radiated disturbances by stationary
induction (magnetic or electrostatic fields*)
and/or by electromagnetic (radio) waves
I I
2
U equipment
equipment
I
I U
2
fig. EMC-1: signal or disturbance in the
differential mode.
Differential mode disturbances are the most fig. EMC-2: disturbance in common
severe at low frequencies. By low mode.
frequencies (LF) it is understood in EMC
studies to concern all frequencies lower than
9 kHz. This convention means that a very
large number of electrical disturbances are
considered as being LF phenomena.
In electrical power networks disturbances in
the differential mode are numerous. One may
cite, for example, interruptions of supply of
short or long duration, voltage fluctuations
and dips, phase instability, lamp flicker,
variations of frequency: harmonics and
voltage spikes. The effect of an electromagnetic
disturbance depends largely on its duration.
Permanent (maintained) disturbances
principally affect analogue-type circuits, while
transient and impulsive disturbances interfere
especially with digital circuits.
2 - Appendix EMC
EMC
Electromagnetic disturbances couple readily This is the role of insulated and/or
with cables in the common mode, particularly symmetrical connections.
at high frequencies (HF), since they act as A galvanic insulation is only effective at low
radio antennae. Several kinds of coupling frequencies. A symmetrical connection, also
between neighbouring circuits can occur. referred to as "balanced", can remain
The problems of common mode recur effective up to high frequencies. The
frequently in EMC cases. A conducting dissymmetry of a differential connection
environment is always good for EMC, originates mainly from its end circuits. An
due to it equipotential quality. imbalance at an end circuit can be caused by
Only disturbances in the differential mode can an electrical and/or geometric dissymmetry.
be filtered locally, cable by cable. In any case, a connection by simple coaxial
As indicated by its name, the common mode cable to transmit signals at low frequencies is
is common to all the cables of a given not recommended.
equipment. Common mode problems at HF Correcting measures which may produce
are particularly critical in an insulated harmful secondary effects must be combined
environment, or where the mass (the zero- with other precautions in order that the
voltage refernce for all electronic circuits) is system effectively counters the entire range
"floating" with respect to earth (i.e. insulated of disturbances (LF and HF, of large and
from the earth). small amplitudes). The combination of the
A common mode voltage is always different corrective measures (galvanic
detrimental. If it cannot be reduced, it is separation, symmetrical connections and
important, at least, to prevent it from overvoltage protection) is referred to as
developing into a differential mode coordinated protection.
disturbance.
Appendix EMC - 3
2. electromagnetic disturbances (continued)
EMC
2.1 disturbances by conduction (continued)
Flicker drop of voltage, caused principally by
Flicker describes a condition of small but switching loads which, at the instant of
frequently recurring voltage dips caused by energization, require a greater current than
loads which require relatively heavy current the normal rated value, e.g. small-motor
for brief and regularly repeated periods. starting currents, the switching on of large
The impedance of a LV network is made up resistive heating devices and incandescent
mainly of cable impedance and the lamps, etc. Such dips are transitory only, but
impedance of the HV/LV transformer are often more severe than those classed as
supplying the network. The greater the kVA flicker, generally exceeding 10%. The duration
rating of the transformer, the lower its of a "dip" lasts from 10 ms to approximately 1 s.
effective impedance. In public power-supply Voltage reductions which exceed 10% and
systems the flicker problem is more common 1 s, due, for example, to starting large motors,
on rural systems, particularly at the end of or, as previously described, due to system
long lines. It is a problem on a line which is faults, are simply referred to as "voltage drop"
supplying arc furnaces, arc-welding machines and the extent of the drop and its duration are
and, generally, where heavy loads are specified. Voltage fluctuations have little
frequently switched. effect on electronic circuits generally.
Flicker creates an objectionable annoyance Sensitive, precision electronic-control devices,
for persons working under incandescent electronic calculators of early design, and
lighting. The effect is purely physiological, no electronic (HF) fluorescent lighting tubes,
dysfunctioning of electronic equipment will however, may be adversely affected.
occur due to flicker. A well-designed electronic device can
Flicker is objectionable only where heavy tolerate, without difficulty, voltage fluctuations
overloads and frequent switching are up to + 8%.
combined, or where the impedance of the A voltage dip at a point on a HV system is
system is high. Standardized parameter limits generally due to a short-circuit fault
and a flicker meter are described in IEC elsewhere on the same network. The closer
publications 1000-3-3 and 1000-4-15. the fault to the point in question, the more
severe the dip. The severity of the dip is
defined by two parameters: the magnitude of
∆U/Un in % the drop as a percentage of the system
3 nominal voltage, and its duration in
milliseconds.
2
Voltage dips are generally due to wind-blown
debris (tree branches, etc.), electric storms,
or faults on the lines (broken insulators) or
occur on the installation of a neighbouring
1
consumer.
Ueff.
0,5
most influenced beetween the
400 V three phase to phase voltages
0,3 360 V
depth
(% de Un)
clearing
.5 .7 1 10 100 1000 10 time
fig. EMC-3: number of variations per = 0,3 s
minute.
duration time
For industrial installations subject to flicker, a = 0,4 s
modification to the installation is sometimes fig. EMC-4: caracteristics of a voltage dip.
necessary. Among the possible corrective
measures available, the most effective Faults on VHV (very high voltage)
include: separate cables for heavy loads transmission lines are rare and are usually
preferably with each large load supplied due to lightning, or to exceptionally severe
through an individual HV/LV transformer, cold weather.
division of the load, increase the time lags in The consequence of voltage dips (when
automatic control systems, reduction in the followed by an interruption) is a complete loss
work-cycle rate, time-wise staggering and of supply to electronic (and power) devices.
spreading of operations which require Relays will drop out and motors controlled by
impulsive power demands, together with the electronic speed-variation and regenerative-
installation of a static reactive-power braking devices will be deprived of brake control.
compensator. Technically, a reduction in the Even if there is no supply interruption, a large
source impedance is an excellent solution. and long (up to 1 second) voltage dip may
In final general-distribution circuits at LV, the cause similar malfunctions.
3-phase symmetrical short-circuit current is Means of countering these problems at the
usually within the 500-5,000 A range. In least cost requires individual analysis of each
industry, the short-circuit current at LV may case. To overcome the voltage-dip problem,
exceed 10 kA on a circuit of large c.s.a. close many low-power electronic equipments have
to the source substation. This value never, individual power packs with an autonomy of
however, exceeds 100 kA. several hundred milliseconds for 100% loss
of supply voltage.
Fluctuations and voltage dips For heavy-duty power supplies, the period of
A fluctuation of voltage is a rapid change of autonomy amounts only to approximately
supply voltage not exceeding + 10% (the 20 milliseconds, the limiting factor being the
generally accepted limits at distribution level) size of the energy-storing capacitors required.
during normal operation. A "dip" is a sudden Rotating machines (motor/generators) have
4 - Appendix EMC
EMC
sufficient autonomy to cope with voltage dips. Frequency variations
Finally, uninterruptible power supply units can The European network performs, in practice,
suppress voltage dips, and maintain the as an infinite system as far as frequency
power supply during a period of complete stability is concerned, in that load changes do
interruption. not sensibly affect the frequency. On smaller
Unbalance private systems, and especially on single
The amplitude of an ac voltage is expressed generators, where the rotational inertia is
by its rms (root-mean-square) value. The small and the regulating system of the prime
voltage between a phase conductor and the mover is generally rudimentary, the frequency
neutral is referred to as the phase voltage, will vary (within reasonable limits) each time
while that measured between any two phases the load changes abruptly. Diesel engine
is called the line voltage. The line voltage prime movers are less stable, in terms of
equals etimes the phase voltage, on a frequency, than turbines. Frequency
normally balanced 3-phase system variations do not unduly disturb electronic
(e= 1.732). A 3-phase system may be equipments. Converters based on current
defined simply by the amplitude of 3 voltages, chopping principles are insensitive to
either line or phase values. frequency changes. All modern devices and
In order to define a sinusoidal system which components should be capable of correct
is in an unbalanced state, however, the performance during frequency changes of
values of current and voltage of each phase + 4% throughout a 10 minute period.
are then, in the general case, the sum of Only very large systems with transformers
3 rotating vector components. The three operating at the limit of saturation may, when
components of each phase are known as: the system voltage is at its maximum, be
c the positive phase-sequence component subjected to overheating by a long-term low-
c the negative phase-sequence component frequency condition. AC motors (locked to the
c the zero phase-sequence component. frequency) will experience speed variations
A balanced 3-phase system is composed of corresponding to those of the frequency. On
positive phase-sequence components only. the other hand, the inertia of motors tends to
An unsymmetrical system is said to be smooth out other sudden disturbances
unbalanced; its negative- and zero-phase occurring on a network.
sequence components are generally both Harmonics
present, together with the positive phase- Any non-linear load (fluorescent lamp, Graetz
sequence component. bridge, arc furnace, etc.) takes a non-
A common cause of imbalance is that of sinusoidal current from the network. Such a
different levels of loading on the 3 phases. current is composed of a sinusoidal
Unbalanced loading results in unbalanced component at the frequency of the system
voltages being applied to 3-phase motors. and is known as the fundamental component,
Increased losses occur in the rotors of the together with other sinusoidal components
motors, and in cases of excessive imbalance, which are whole-number multiples of the
motors can be destroyed by overheating. fundamental frequency. These latter are
Single-phase (line-to-line) loads are not referred to as harmonic components.
normally adversely affected by imbalance. Conventionally, harmonics up to the rank of
Small degrees of imbalance (0.5-1%) are 40 only are considered in power systems,
inevitable on LV 3-phase 3-wire networks, i.e. 2 kHz for 50 Hz systems and 2.4 kHz for
and up to 2 or 3% can be tolerated for several 60 Hz systems. Supplies to electronic circuits,
minutes by all loads. power regulators based on Graetz bridge,
When an imbalance of voltage is considered and fluorescent lighting equipment, are rich in
to be excessive (> 2% for example), it is harmonics.
advisable to correct the balance of phase Distortion of a voltage waveform is onerous
loading. Where it is not possible to improve for associated equipments; it is expressed as
the balance, the situation may be eased by a percentage. It is proportional to the
increasing the fault level at the circuit harmonic content of the current and to the
concerned by changing the supply impedance of the source. The effect of
transformer. distortion is to increase the heating losses in
An average HV/LV distribution transformer motors. In an ADP environment, a distortion
(> 100 kVA) has a short-circuit voltage of of 5% may be considered to be normal. All
5-6%. Special transformers are available with electronic components can tolerate a global
interlaced windings which limit the leakage factor of distortion including possible inter-
reactance to give a short-circuit voltage of harmonics of at least 8%. An inter-harmonic
approximately 2%. current has a frequency which is not a whole-
A low short-circuit voltage effectively means a number multiple of the fundamental (i.e.
low source impedance (with higher fault- system) frequency. A distinction is made
current level) a situation which improves the between "true" inter-harmonics generated at
voltage balance, and (incidentally) improves discrete frequencies, and those forming part
the form of the voltage wave (if it happens to of a continuous spectrum.
be distorted) by reducing the harmonic Even-numbered harmonics are generated
content of the wave. A modern method of only by asymmetrical rectifiers and load
improving a condition of imbalance, though currents which contain a dc component. A dc
presently rather costly, is to install a static component can readily saturate a power-
compensator. It consists of a system which supply transformer. Most non-linear loads
stores energy in an inductor or capacitor, and (satured transformers, fluorescent tubes,
restores this energy to the system at the power supply circuits which use current-
appropriate instants. chopping techniques, etc.) only generate
An active filter constitutes one of the odd-numbered harmonics.
preferred solutions for limiting disturbances
generated by arc furnaces during the start-up
phase.
Appendix EMC - 5
2. electromagnetic disturbances (continued)
EMC
2.1 disturbances by conduction (continued)
Balanced 3-phase loads supplied from The role of an active filter, triggered by an
a 3-phase 3-wire system (i.e no neutral wire) error function, is to inject into the network a
do not generate 3rd harmonic currents or harmonic current exactly equal, but in phase
multiples of 3rd harmonic currents. A Graetz opposition, to that produced downstream.
bridge or a hexaphase thyristor-controlled The principle of operation is comparable to
regulator behave as current generators, that of a static compensator, but at a
which are practically independent of the considerably higher chopping rate. An active
voltage distortion. filter can be called upon to compensate not
Third harmonic currents and multiples of only first (i.e. lower) harmonics, but also
them (known as "triplen" currents) when reactive power (var) and flicker ; it is simply a
generated in the phases of a 3-phase 4-wire question of dimensioning.
system, present a particular problem in that, Overvoltages
being of zero-phase sequence (i.e. in phase Overvoltages that affect industrial-supply
with each other), they add arithmetically and power networks in the differential mode
complete their circuit through the neutral (between phases) can occur for numerous
conductor. The current in the neutral reasons.
conductor due to this cause is at 150 Hz and The energizing of a bank of capacitors can
can exceed, in unfavourable circumstances, generate an overvoltage transient associated
the current flowing in the phase wires. This with an energy level of several hundred
aspect should be borne in mind when Joules. The inductance of the system and the
considering supplies to ADP loads and loads capacitance of the bank behave as a series
made up of fluorescent lighting tubes. If the LC circuit which oscillates transiently at its
neutral is not distributed, i.e. the system is natural frequency, typically below 1 kHz.
3-phase 3-wires, then 3rd harmonic currents The value of the first peak (the sum of the
cannot flow. A transformer with a delta- transient and system peaks) can reach
connected primary winding, however, allows almost twice the value of the power system
the circulation of 3rd harmonic currents, a peak voltage, i.e. the transient can have a
feature that practically negates the distortion peak value almost equal to the system peak.
of the LV voltage wave, which would A second cause of overvoltage may occur on
otherwise contain a large 3rd harmonic the blowing of a wire-type fuse. A sudden
component. release of the magnetic energy stored in the
Reduction of the source impedance is not system inductances can be as much as a
always effective in reducing distortion : thousand Joules, which, when converted into
power-factor correcting capacitors can cause electrostatic form in the system capacitances,
a problem, if, together with the source can raise the voltage sufficiently to damage
impedance (which is predominantly inductive) associated equipment. The effect is
the combination should form a resonant (or considerably less with cartridge fuses or with
partially resonant) circuit at one of the a circuit breaker.
harmonic or inter-harmonic frequencies. Any manœuvre on a power transmission
The parallel combination of inductive system (opening or closing a circuit breaker,
reactance L and capacitive reactance C can isolating switch, etc.) results in an operational
present a high impedance at its resonant disturbance. The energization of a
frequency, particularly at low-load periods. transmission line is characterized by a wave
The distortion can therefore become front of voltage which (at approximately the
excessive due to the amplification effect of speed of light) propagates and reflects along
the resonance. the line to produce a voltage-doubling
A harmonic filter is a series LC circuit phenomenon.
connected in parallel with the source and acts The frequency of this highly-damped short-
as a short-circuit to currents at its resonant duration oscillation varies between 10 kHz
frequency. The capacitor and inductor must and 1 MHz. The phenomenon is related to
be capable of carrying the maximum value of that of energizing a capacitor, but the
the harmonic current, while the capacitor frequency in this case is much greater
must withstand the elevated harmonic (depending on the length of the line) while the
voltage plus the system normal-frequency energy level is lower. The risk of damage to
voltage. The inductor is adjusted to cause the equipment from this phenomenon is much
combination to resonate at the exact less than that from overvoltages of longer
frequency of the harmonic in question. It must duration, but the risks of malfunctions are
not saturate or overheat. The rating of a greater.
harmonic filter varies according to the size of Overvoltages have little effect on
the installation from some kvar to several electrotechnical equipments, but can disturb,
Mvar. weaken and even destroy electronic
A problem with harmonic filters is that their equipments. A LF overvoltage in common
resonant frequencies change from one point mode has no effect on supply circuits that are
on the network to another due to cable galvanically isolated, provided that the
inductance. The longer the cabling, the lower isolating dielectric can withstand the voltage
the frequency at which the filter resonates. stress without rupturing. At HF, principally by
It is advisable moreover, to check that the its common-mode component, an
currents in a number of paralleled filters are overvoltage can disturb (i.e. interfere with)
satisfactorily shared. sensitive electronic systems. The solution is
A modern means of limiting distortion is by simple: filter each equipment with respect to
the use of active filters. These filters are its own mass (metallic structure of the
inverters based on PWM (Pulse Width equipment).
Modulation) techniques, together with
reactive-energy storage.
6 - Appendix EMC
EMC
The installation engineer has practically only New overvoltage surge arresters based on
one way to protect the installation against the use of varistors of high energy-dissipation
overvoltages, and that is to install overvoltage ratings allow an effective protection of all LV
limiting devices on the supply-circuit systems and equipments downstream of the
conductors. Overvoltages occurring on public point of arrester installation.
LV distribution networks are lower in energy Failure of the zinc-oxide varistor will cause a
than those occurring in heavy-current thermal fusing element (which is connected in
industrial networks: the energy on public series with it) to blow, and open the circuit,
networks rarely exceeding 100 Joules. thereby avoiding a short-circuit to earth via a
The only really dangerous case is that of a faulty or damaged arrester. The cable from
lightning stroke on a line close to the this device must be connected by the
installation. shortest possible route to the mass of the
distribution board, i.e. the common earthing
bar, and not to the earthing electrode, which
is generally too far away (see Sub-clause
L 1.4).
EMC
2.2 radiation
Electrical energy propagation is not only conductor (which acts as a receiving
confined to conductors. It can also propagate antenna), give rise to minute emfs and
in space without material support. Such currents in the conducting material, i.e. in the
propagation is referred to as electromagnetic form of disturbance by conduction. For cable
fields or waves, or Hertzian waves. Such a circuits, these disturbances are in common
wave is made up of an electric component E mode. It is therefore possible to protect
in volts per metre, and a magnetic against these radiated fields by means of a
component H in amperes per metre. Faraday cage arrangement or by (very often)
These radiated fields, when encountering a low-pass filters.
8 - Appendix EMC
3. cabling of equipment and systems
EMC
In order to cable an electronic system achievement of EMC in modern electronic
correctly or to correct an unsatisfactory systems. Many practices which are
installation, it is often sufficient to apply some satisfactory at LF have proved to be poor or
simple elementary rules. From experience, even catastrophic at HF. Certain cabling
the most important factor is a clear options can be chosen with confidence.
understanding of the phenomena and the The interconnection of all the non-functional
recognition of their limits. The strict earths of a single site is one example.
observance of traditional rules for correct Factors which are always favourable should
installation and cabling has become become standard practice.
necessary. This is the price to pay for the
3.1 earthing
The expressions "earth", "earth electrode", These currents, and short-circuit-to-earth fault
"earth plate", "earth rod" all refer to a currents, flow mainly through the protective
conductor which is buried, and in intimate earthing PE conductors (coloured with yellow
contact with the soil. The word «mass» refers and green stripes) and finally back to the
to metal parts of equipment (electrical or not - source substation, via the earth (TT system)
for example, water pipes) which, under or via the earth path and (mainly) through the
normal conditions, are not intended to carry neutral conductor in parallel (TN system).
current. Bonding conductors, which are used Since, in the TN case, practically all of the
to interconnect masses are also referred to fault (and leakage) currents return to the
as "mass". Although all masses in normal LF source via the neutral conductor, the
installation practice are connected to earth, resistance of the installation earth electrode is
the two words, "earth" and the above-noted not of primary importance (unless lightning
equivalents should not be confused with arresters are to be connected to it).
"mass". "Mass" is commonly called "ground" For the protection of electronic equipments, it
in some countries. is strongly recommended that common-mode
currents entering the building from external
3.1.1 the role of earthing cables be diverted to earth at the point of entry.
The basic role of an earth electrode is to A simple galvanic isolation is often
maintain all masses in an installation at a insufficient: the overvoltage withstand
voltage close to zero, whether the power capability of a galvanic isolation transformer
source is earthed or not. This is achieved in a is typically less that 10 kV. This value is
properly designed installation, regardless of insufficient on days of intense electrical
whether a faulty condition (which would storms.
otherwise raise the voltage of the installation The installation of non-linear voltage-limiting
masses) occurs in the installation circuits or devices then becomes a necessity.
on the power-supply network, or other It is important that all incoming metallic pipes,
sources external to the installation. ducts, trunking, etc., be connected to earth at
The role of earthing, therefore, is that of the their entry into the building. This policy can
protection of persons against the dangers of avoid the circulation of currents (from outside
electrocution. The severity of an electric the building) in the conductors bonding the
shock is a function of the current which masses.
passes through the body, and equally The installation of overvoltage-protection
important is the path of the current flow devices must be carried out with the
through the body. Established IEC rules of minimum possible common impedance
protection against electric shock set safe between the external circuit and the circuit to
limits of voltage (referred to as conventional be protected. The length of conductor in
voltage limits) above which masses are series with the voltage limiter must,
considered to be unacceptably dangerous. consequently, be the shortest possible.
For normal 50 Hz or 60 Hz power systems, The residual voltage "seen" by the protected
these values are 50 Vrms for dry locations equipment is then independent of the
and 25 Vrms for wet locations, for example impedance of the earth.
bathrooms and laundries (see Chapter L of Even with a "bad" earth, it is possible to
the main text for more details). protect an equipment effectively against
It is recognized that a low contact resistance external overvoltages: it is necessary and
of an earth electrode with the mass of the sufficient to connect the voltage limiter to the
earth cannot always be obtained. mass of the equipment using the shortest
Furthermore, its value is rarely constant, practical length of cable.
depending largely on soil humidity (and so
prone to seasonal changes). An essential electric-power line
factor in maintaining safety to personnel in protected
the event of a high earthing resistance, is that voltage
limiter electronic
of the equipotential concept. If, for example, earthing conductor equipment
all masses are at a common (even normally
dangerous) potential, and the earth below the yes
building is at a similar potential, a person can
touch any or several masses at the same protected
time without danger. This is why electrical electronic
appliances with long leads (hedge trimmers, equipment
lawn mowers, etc.), which allow the user to
leave the equipotential environment of the no
house, must be of Class II insulation level
(i.e. doubly insulated).
So-called normal leakage currents (no fig. EMC-5: a voltage limiter must be
insulation is perfect) also include the minute connected to the mass and not to earth.
capacitive currents of the wiring to earth.
Appendix EMC - 9
3. cabling of equipment and systems (continued)
EMC
3.1 earthing (continued)
When a voltage limiter is correctly connected An electronic equipment is not affected by the
to the mass, the impedance of the earth value of earth resistance. At worst, there is a
electrode is immaterial. risk of exposure to overvoltages from an
A direct lightning stroke on the supply line external cable, if its protection is insufficient,
close to the installation requires the or is badly cabled. So that the role of the
dissipation of (typically) 10 kA to 100 kA of masses is essential, and more important than
stroke current, most of which passes to earth that of the earthing. The only requirement for
through lightning arresters on the line a satisfactory performance of the electronic
external to the installation. Overvoltages equipments is a high degree of
within an installation where external arresters equipotentiality.
are provided rarely exceed 6 kV due to It is evident that two earths are always less
atmospheric causes. equipotential than one. Any separate earth,
even if said to be «interference free» is
always detrimental to equipotentiality, and so
direct-stroke current
to the safety of persons and to the
satisfactory functioning of interconnected
lightning protection equipments. Two non-functional earth-
conductors electrode systems on a common site should
internal equipments must always be interconnected.
be maintained at In practice, care must be taken that there is
equipotential no touch-voltage existing when working on an
electronic equipment interconnection
between two buildings (video, access control,
local network, information technology (ADP)
fig. EMC-6: the entire equipotential devices...) if the earthing systems of the two
"cage" will be at a high absolute potential buildings are not solidly interconnected. It is,
during the brief flow of stroke current. as already noted, not possible to be sure of
the equipotentiality of two separate earths.
For transmission and distribution lines at high * This statement is not true in certain circumstances, notably
in rural areas, where a small transformer supplies an
voltage, the fault current for one phase to isolated community, for example. The neutral earth
earth returns to the source through the earth electrode must necessarily have the lowest possible
and (where provided) through the shielding resistance in such cases. If not, potential gradients on the
surface of the ground can be dangerously high in the vicinity
conductors above the phase conductors of of the electrode during an earth fault.
the lines. Animals are frequently killed due to this cause.
The provision of an equipotential condition on
the surface of the ground at the base of
transmission towers and, more importantly, at
substations (the source of the fault current) is
a primary concern of design engineers. The
principle of equipotential bonding is identical
to that required for a low-voltage installation
in a building.
A functional earth means an earth electrode
which is designed to pass load current
through the earth, i.e. the earth path acts as
one of the circuit conductors. There are
several installations around the world that
utilise this method. In some countries, d.c. is
used in this (economic) way to operate a
service of facsimile transmission.
It may be of interest to note that when
telephone cables (which use paper insulation
on the conductors) have a high degree of
leakage current and consequently doubtful
symmetry, a low earth resistance allows the
quality of the transmitted signals to be
preserved. Although the magnitude of
telephone signals is low (millivolts to less
than 1 volt), the quality of modern cables
overcomes the constraints of a "good" earth.
To summarise, the protection of persons does
not depend directly on a low value of earth
resistance*; it is rather the establishment of a
condition of equipotential between masses
that is of prime importance. Thus, an aircraft
in an electric storm presents no danger to the
passengers, who are in a metallic envelope
which is (within a few volts) perfectly
equipotential. For persons or animals, the
danger is not the magnitude of the absolute
potential, it is the difference of potential
between metal parts which can be touched
simultaneously that is dangerous.
10 - Appendix EMC
EMC
3.2 masses
The majority of malfunctions in safety limit (of 50 Vrms in dry locations and
electromagnetic devices, sometimes wrongly 25 Vrms in wet conditions for ac systems).
imputed to software problems or human error, These values are the maximum allowed that
are found to be due to an insufficient level of can exist indefinitely in specified conditions of
equipotentiality between interconnected units external influences.
(probes, cards, actuators). A dangerous touch voltage can arise during a
There are two differences between a buried fault if the resistance of the equipotential
conductor and a mass conductor. A buried conductors is not sufficiently low. In some
conductor will dissipate its common mode cases, it is necessary to install supplementary
currents, but it is always too far from the equipotential conductors in parallel with
equipments to be effective at HF. existing conductors to satisfy the UL criterion.
A mass conductor above ground level It should be noted that access to two (or
presents two essential virtues to the good more) masses is illegal, even if they are
performance of electronic systems, viz: it is associated with different installations, if they
physically close to the circuits, and it is are connected to different earthing systems
accessible. which are not interconnected.
The equipotentiality of equipments and their The respect of safety rules is obligatory but
masses is a functional objective. not sufficient, in themselves, to ensure
As long as interference signals circulate in satisfactory EMC of an installation. In fact, the
the masses and not in the electronic circuits, risk of electrocution only exists by a voltage
they are harmless. On the other hand, if the of a high value and relatively long duration
masses are not all equipotential and are appearing between adjacent masses.
connected to earth in star*, for example, HF An electronic equipment is sensitive to an
interference currents will circulate through extensive range of frequencies, or to very
any available path, i.e. via signal cables. brief impulses. An electrostatic discharge, for
Some circuits will therefore be subjected to example, is generally of no consequence for
interference and even be destroyed. its source, but it could be catastrophic for an
Networking the mass conductors to form a electronic device. Normal earths, commonly
closely-connected low-impedance bonding connected in «star» (i.e. radial) configuration
system is the only economical way to ensure for example, guarantee the safety of persons
a satisfactory level of equipotentiality to install when the relevant standards are respected,
all sensitive equipments in a "Faraday cage" but not the satisfactory operation of an
arrangement (a room enclosed in a mesh of installation which includes sensitive electronic
conductors) would be technically ideal, but is components.
generally not economically justified. It is certain that more and more electronic
By definition, a "mass" is any conducting equipments are, or will be, connected to other
material which can be touched by any part of apparatuses and devices for the exchange of
a human body, that is not normally alive, but information. The best way of ensuring a
which may become alive as the result of a successful and durable installation
fault. Two masses which are accessible and performance is to establish a high degree of
within human reach must present a potential equipotentiality throughout the entire
difference, under any conceivable fault installation.
condition, that does not exceed the IEC- * i.e. by one of a number of conductors radially connected to
recommended conventional voltage (UL) the main earth bar, the ensemble resembling a "star".
3.2.1. loops of mass and between masses If a current circulates around a mass loop,
A loop of mass is the area included between such a current in common mode may either
a working cable (metering cable, control superimpose «noise» (interference) on useful
cable, power-supply cable, local-network signals (in differential mode, by conversion
system cable) and the mass conductor from common mode to differential mode) or
(generally the nearest PE conductor). There disturb the electronic circuits at each
are, therefore, as many loops of mass as extremity.
there are cables. This is inevitable, whether The risk is equally present for radiation from a
the conductors are galvanically isolated or loop as for reception of interference by the
not. A galvanic isolation reduces the loop. The output stages of electronic circuits
circulation of LF currents without, however, are as sensitive to interference as the input
reducing the area of the loop. A loop can stages, and are more difficult to filter.
oscillate strongly at HF, so that large-area The areas enclosed by mass conductors
loops constitute the major problem in EMC. must not be confused with those referred to
above as "mass loops". It is preferable to
equipment 1 equipment 2 allow parasitic currents to propagate in the
masses rather than in the signal cables.
signal These loops between mass conductors are
cable called "loops between masses".
mass conductor
fig. EMC-7: there is an inevitable mass
loop per cable. loop between masse
mass conductor
fig. EMC-8.
Appendix EMC - 11
3. cabling of equipment and systems (continued)
EMC
3.2 masses (continued)
If two neighbouring masses are not The more this policy is developed, the more
connected together, the differential potential effective is the resulting state of
difference between them may be significant. equipotentiality, both at LF and at HF.
A direct connection from one to the other will Connecting the masses to a mesh of
always improve the equipotential condition. interconnecting mass cables is always
At least, the masses of all equipments which beneficial, regardless of the nature of the
exchange data between them should be equipments concerned.
interconnected by mass conductors. An even
more certain way of improving the state of equipment 1 equipment 2
equipotentiality is to interconnect all greater immunity
against
equipment masses, whether they exchange radiation fields by
data or not. reduction
"Mass loops", also called "ground loops", of area of the mass loop
should never be confused with «loops
between masses». A mass loop is never
favourable, and its area must be reduced to
the minimum attainable, to reduce as far as
possible the interference effects of disturbing greater immunity from conducted
fields. On the other hand, it is always good interference by multiplication and reduction
practice to increase the number and reduce in area, of loops between masses.
the areas of loops between masses. fig. EMC-9.
3.2.2 unity of the mass network Earthing in "star" can create a common
The mass must be unique to be equipotential. impedance between two interconnected
There are three methods of connecting equipments.
masses which preserve this unity. It is sometimes also assumed that the "star"
1 - Earthing connections in "star": each system of earth connections suppresses the
equipment has its own earthing cable, which mass loops. Between two interconnected
terminates with all other individual earthing equipments, it is evidently not the case; the
cables on a unique earthing bar. area enclosed by the mass loop can, in fact,
be considerable. An electromagnetic field
due, for example to a lightning discharge, will
induce voltage in the mass loop greater than
that occurring in any other method of
earthing.
earth cables
inevitably long strong
equipment 1 equipment 2
d.p.d.
signal
cable
authorized method, but costly and not electro-
good for EMC, particularly for magnetic
interconnected equipments wave large area
earth cables radiating from the main earth bar,
figuratively similar to a star
fig. EMC-10.
The justification of such a philosophy is over-
simple: when an equipment develops a leakage fig. EMC-12.
current to mass, the remaining equipments This long-established "star" earthing method
are assumed to remain at earth potential. is now only possible for an equipment which
But "earth" potential has no real meaning in is, and will remain, isolated from any other.
practical electronics, all potentials are relative The method can be suitable only for
one to another, the concept of absolute zero electronic analog systems (as opposed to
potential (i.e. "remote earth") is abstract. digital systems) with floating sensors, and the
It is often assumed that the "star" configuration electronic circuits completely isolated from
of earthing overcomes the problem of any other. Such cases are becoming
common impedance. It is, in fact, quite the increasingly rare.
opposite! Earthing in the "star" configuration With the generalisation of information-data
increases the common impedance (that is, transmissions over great distances, local
forms a point of common coupling) between networks, shared peripherals and, in general,
interconnected equipments. the exchange of signals between
equipments, the "star" method of earthing
high value of must be abandoned. Moreover, even if the
differential earth connection of each equipment by an
potential
equipment 1 difference equipment 2 individual conductor is not detrimental, it still
disturbance (d.p.d.) remains a costly method that requires large
on cable amounts of copper and many hours of
I mc installation work.
signal The only reasonable application for the "star"
PE cable PE arrangement of earthing (in fact, connection
high impedance if the
to mass) is the connecting cable between an
Z
conductor is long equipment and power-supply socket-outlet, or
the nearest distribution board. Thus, in an
I ADP environment, it is reasonable to use the
green-and-yellow PE conductor of the power-
fig. EMC-11. supply circuits to connect each equipment to
12 - Appendix EMC
EMC
the general distribution board, located in the 3 - The shortest connection to the nearest
room. From the common earth bar of the mass.
board, a single protection cable is taken to This third method of connection to the
the main earth electrode for the installation. nearest mass is better than those previously
This conductor can be common to other described. It is based on the mesh
devices, and may, with advantage, be connection of masses. The areas of mass
connected to neighbouring masses. loops are reduced to the strict minimum and
the degree of equipotentiality of the masses
PE conductor for is excellent.
other installations
sensitive
main distribution equipments
board
earth bar
main earth
terminal
local mass
earth-electrode structures of adjacent masses
system (mass grid, conducting false floor, cable trays,
ducts, troughs, etc)
fig. EMC-13: a good earthing-system fig. EMC-15.
arrangement.
Note: concerning the safety of persons, this
Even if a strong source of interference is
type of local connection is not generally a
installed in the same environment as
substitute for PE conductors. It is appropriate,
sensitive equipment, a separate earthing
therefore, to superimpose the methods 2 (or
system for the sensitive equipment is
even 1) for the safety of persons, and n° 3 for
detrimental and not recommended. At the
EMC.
most, it is desirable to supply the two
incompatible systems on separate cables Mesh connecting the masses is even more
from the power-supply network. In any case, important as the area covered by the
mesh-connecting the masses is favourable. installation increases, with long
Such a mesh of PE conductors has the merit interconnecting cables, or when the
of avoiding involuntary loops which can equipments are divided between several
become catastrophic if not successfully storeys.
countered. The mesh connecting of masses does not
"Star"-system earthing can be accepted only reduce the favourable policy of supplying
for low-frequency installations that are, and sensitive equipments by different supply
will remain, independent and isolated from cables than those used to supply strongly
any other installation. polluting loads. However, the use of different
supply cables does not signify "star" -
2 - Connection to the nearest PE
connected masses.
conductor: a unique protection (PE)
The lengths of protective conductors (PE)
conductor, associated with several
mean that, at HF, their impedance is
equipments.
generally too high to effectively improve the
equipotential situation. For example, a PE
conductor 100 metres long is incapable of
passing significant currents at frequencies
exceeding 100 kHz.
The PE conductors and earthing conductors
alone are not sufficient to ensure the EMC of
a single PE conductor an installation. Additional conductors and
short inter-mass connections are also
necessary.
PE cables, even long, and short-circuited at
one end by a mass grid, function correctly at
fig. EMC-14.
LF for the protection of persons. No
By using this cabling scheme, the mass loops interconnection between masses and no
have a small area and the common protective conductor should ever be
impedance between interconnected removed, even if they appear to have
equipments is less than that with a "star"- become redundant following a careful
connected earthing scheme. This economic meshing (close interconnection of
method is also recommended for safety equipments and other masses to form a
reasons. It is easy to prove that the touch "mesh") of all adjacent masses.
voltage between two masses connected to A PE conductor is not to be considered as an
the same PE conductor remains less than the earthing conductor but as a "bonding"
conventional (UL) value. The risk of using the conductor, or "earth-bonding" conductor, the
same PE conductor for earthing two systems, principal function of which is to ensure that UL
one "noisy" and the other sensitive, is not (i.e. the maximum allowable touch voltage) is
negligible. Although the low impedance of the never exceeded.
PE conductors and the good level of Furthermore, there should never be more
immunity to LF interference in common mode than one earthing system per installation (i.e.
together limit the risks, the HF currents per site) similarly for the mass system which
generated by strongly polluting sources must be unique, and connected to the unique
(power converters in particular) cannot be earthing system. If this policy is not adopted,
dissipated efficiently by a single PE then EMC problems will certainly be
conductor. In such cases, it is necessary to experienced via the inevitable links between
install additional (supplementary) PE adjacent installations (entry controls, video,
conductors in the form of a meshed network. alarms, safety measures, etc.).
Appendix EMC - 13
3. cabling of equipment and systems (continued)
EMC
3.2 masses (continued)
In practice, any conductor can be included Except for the installation of a (very costly)
usefully in the equipotential network of the "Faraday cage" type of enclosure, the mesh
masses: metallic tubes, pipes, drains, cable- connecting of masses is the only practical
trays and ladders, structural members way to guarantee a sufficient level of
(girders, beams, reinforcing rods, etc.). Such equipotentiality to counter effectively all types
a mesh of interconnected metal improves of electromagnetic interference.
considerably the EMC of systems, as well as The notion of equipotentiality is more and
favouring the measures for safety of persons. more localised as the frequency increases.
The nature of the conductors has little The equipotential condition is only obtained at
importance in equipotentiality. A steel HF by the free circulation of the common-
conductor at HF has approximately the same mode currents in all directions, i.e. by
inductance as a copper conductor of dispersion.
equivalent cross-sectional-area and length. Thus, in an industrial environment, it is
These connections to any and all masses in recommended to connect routinely all
buildings are authorized and desirable. conducting structures to neighbouring
It is simpler, and ensures the best results, to conducting parts of the building by the
interconnect all masses of every kind shortest possible "bonding" conductors and,
routinely, rather than to limit the where appropriate (e.g. in multi-storey
interconnections to the masses of the buildings) in three dimensions. This is the
equipments and devices, of the electrical and most economic way to improve the
electronic systems only. In this way a "mesh equipotentiality of an installation at all
of masses" or a "mass grid" (both terms are frequencies, despite some inevitable currents
used) is formed. It is rarely useful to install an in the masses.
electrical conductor; it is sufficient to simply Only desk-top equipments in an office
interconnect, at as many points as possible, environment and not connected to a network
all metallic pipes, tubes, ducts, structural have no need be connected to a mass grid.
girders, beams, reinforcing rods, etc. It is They must, on the other hand, be very
recommended to connect every large rack, carefully screened.
frame, or structure, to the mass grid at
intervals of approximately 1 metre.
In conclusion, an effective equipotential
condition of all masses favours the
satisfactory performance of any electronic
system, especially for rapid or highly-polluting
digital systems. Whether it be for the
improvement in immunity from
electromagnetic interference, or for the
reduction of radiation from the equipments of
the installation, the mesh connection of
masses affords a simple, relatively
inexpensive and efficient solution for
frequencies up to several tens of megahertz.
If the public power-supply system benefits
from 3-phase star-connected operation, it is
because the supplies are (and must remain)
galvanically isolated each one from the
others. It should be understood that factors
which are favourable for phase conductors,
are not necessarily so for the masses.
A HF current cannot flow easily through a
phase conductor: it is only possible at low
frequencies. To divide the inevitable HF
common-mode currents through the multiple
paths of numerous conductors of a mass grid
is a guarantee of protection for the signal
cables. Experience shows that when a
system functions correctly in the absence of
HF interference, regardless of the cabling
philosophy of its masses, the routine meshing
of masses has no adverse effect on the
correct operation of the system; on the
contrary, it often decisively improves the
system performance.
14 - Appendix EMC
EMC
3.3 attenuation effects
The attenuating effect of a conducting lower strength than that of the original field.
structure (mass) is defined by the amplitude A cable in close proximity to conductive mass
of the common-mode interference appearing from end to end is therefore less exposed to
on a cable installed at a location remote from the most severe type of interference, viz: that
any masses, with respect to the amplitude of of common mode.
the interference on the same cable due to the Attenuation effects can be made more
same disturbance, but with the cable installed effective by arranging the mass, where
in close proximity (i.e. clamped firmly) to possible, to envelop the conductors to be
mass, throughout its length. protected. In this way, a woven metallic
screen, incorporated in signal cables and
connected to mass, protects the envelopped
victim cable conductors above a frequency of 1 MHz with
an attenuation factor of at least 300.
10 V It is difficult and expensive to shield all the
I
interconnections in a installation, but it is
often easy to select cable routes which
mass conductor provide good attenuation. To benefit from the
attenuation effect, it is sufficient to fix cables
on conductive mass throughout the entire
victim cable cable length. Such masses must be carefully
bonded together electrically and to all nearby
I 2V structural framework. The quality (i.e. the low
impedance) of interconnecting bonds is of
fig. EMC-16: example of attenuating primary importance. The most efficient is a
effect (in this case equal to 5). direct contact of sheet metal on sheet metal.
The attenuating effect is one of the key dB attenuation effect of a perforated steel sheet
metal, type "dalle marine"
factors in EMC, being effective and not too direct contact, sheet metal on sheet metal
costly. In order to exchange signals in good 40
conditions, i.e. in limiting the interference
picked up by the signal cables, it is important (same connection
to reduce common-mode coupling. at 2 extremities)
20
Any metallic structure, close to, i.e. in contact metal flexible-connection
with, and longitudinally parallel to a signal tresses
10
cable, from one end to the other, can provide cable
frequency
two favourable effects: (MHz)
1 - A more effective meshing of the masses. 0,1 0,3 1 3 10 30 100
For d.c. currents, the mesh does not act as fig. EMC-17.
an attenuator; its role is to reduce the
resistance between masses, not to provide a Electrical continuity from one end to the other,
shielding effect. The galvanic effect of the and the correct connection to mass at
mesh is independent of the proximity of the extremities, guarantee an effective
signal cables with the mass. attenuation factor. It is recommended to
2 - An attenuation (shielding) effect. The connect cable ways to conductive building
effect of proximity adds to that mentioned in structures at intervals along the cable route.
above, if the word "impedance" replaces The attenuation factor is not reduced by
"resistance". It is achieved by connecting these additional contacts between masses,
equipments, which are interconnected to the but the mass mesh is improved. In a single
mass of conducting structures which are cable tray, in order to limit "cross-talk", power
close to the signal cables. The benefit is an cables or, for example, cables of speed
efficient shielding which is practically cost- controllers should not be placed beside small-
free. The attenuation effect being directly signal cables.
attributed to mutual induction, there is no The ideal, in an industrial environment, would
attenuation of d.c. interference, as noted in 1. be to install three separate cable trays, i.e.
It should be borne in mind that any cable is one for measurements and similar functions,
potentially an excellent wide-band antenna, one for control and indication circuits, and
especially in the metric range. In order to one for power cables.
reduce its radiation ability, a simple, efficient A copper conductor provides an attenuation
and inexpensive method consists in placing factor of the order 5 if it is installed throughout
the cable as close as possible to a mass the entire length close to the protected signal
structure throughout its length, i.e. close to a cable. It is therefore an advantage to
mass cable, metal ducting, structural girder, associate signal cables with interconnecting
etc. The attenuation effect produced by a earthing cables in a common cable way (for
mass conductor close to a signal cable is instance, between two buildings). This is still
simply explained, as follows. On the occurrence true even if the earths are interconnected
of an electromagnetic-wave disturbance, a elsewhere. It is always possible to add a
current is induced in the mass conductor. mass cable adjacent to a particularly
This current generates, according to Lenz’s sensitive signal cable if necessary. The mass
law, a magnetic field which acts in the cable is then referred to as a "cable of
opposite sense to the field that produced the accompaniment".
current. A signal cable close to the mass A buried cable which is passing an a.c.
conductor will therefore be affected by the current in common mode creates a magnetic
difference only of the original field and the field in the surrounding soil. This (concentric)
reactive field of the mass-conductor current. field gives rise to (Foucault) currents in the
The resulting field affecting the signal cable is earth and the magnetic energy is dissipated
known as the residual field and is evidently of in the form of heat. The common-mode
Appendix EMC - 15
3. cabling of equipment and systems (continued)
EMC
3.3 attenuation effects (continued)
currents are damped by this effect, which is particularly effective where the interference is
not exactly the same as that of the due to repetitive trains of transient damped
attenuation described above, but is rather oscillations (i.e. "bursts"). The Foucault
analogous to the action of a transformer with currents in the soil increase the degree of
a resistive load. This damping action is damping.
∆ transformer ∆ ∆ ∆
PE
conductor
transformer main
earth
bar
Appendix EMC - 17
3. cabling of equipment and systems (continued)
EMC
3.5 EMC components and solutions (continued)
plated. An electromagnetic shield need not output connectors at any convenient point. If,
necessarily be earthed to be effective. For a on the contrary, a screen performs badly, with
magnetic field simply its presence is excessive leakage (display, keyboard,
sufficient. For electric fields, it is enough that printed-circuit board or disk reader) then, it is
the screen acts as potential reference for the an advantage to group all the input and
input and output circuits. It may be concluded output connectors on a common chassis,
that a shield prevents the fields from remote from the leakage, the role of this
penetrating the protected space, but also, chassis being that of a reference-potential
and especially, prevents parasitic currents point. It may be noted that all modern
from entering. Thus, shields and filters are microcomputers have their cables grouped at
not rivals, but are complementary, one with the rear face, remote from the disk units
the other. which are mounted on the front face.
If a screen is of excellent quality, with no
leakage, it is possible to install input and
18 - Appendix EMC
EMC
3.5.3 overvoltage protection public service supply line, the low arc-voltage,
The role of an overvoltage limiter, sometimes several tens of volts, requires the installation
referred to as "surge diverter" or "lightning of a varistance in series, to extinguish the arc
arrester" (depending on its intended location) when the surge has been dissipated.
is to reduce the risk of destruction to Analogous components exist at high voltage
components or entire equipments by ("horned spark-gaps" for example). At low
interferences which may occur at excessive voltage, "silicon spark-gaps" such as "Trisil"
voltage levels. of Thomson (a triac controlled by a Zener
An overvoltage limiter is generally a non- diode in the trigger circuit) are well adapted to
linear unilateral device: it limits the peak value the protection of telecommunication lines and
of voltage at a level which is much lower than circuits.
that of the incoming surge. This reduced level The highly non-linear metal-oxide varistance
being, in principle, lower than the rated components are well adapted to the
impulse withstand capability of all protection of supply-circuits. A disk of zinc-
downstream plant and equipment. oxide becomes conductive when the voltage
The limiting of the voltage peak, however, applied to its two faces exceeds a
does not reduce the HF radiation field "knee-point" value. That voltage, proportional
strength. Conversely, a low-pass filter does to the thickness of the disk, varies from some
not limit the voltage peak, the duration of tens of volts to several kilovolts. The energy
which, at half-peak level, considerably that a component can tolerate depends on
exceeds the response time of the filter. the volume of the disk: from tens of Joules to
Thus, an efficient filter which suppresses some tens of thousand Joules. The main
frequencies above 10 kHz would have a rise- drawback of varistances is their degradation
time of about 35 µs. This filter cannot limit an during periods of conduction.
overvoltage due to lightning, the tail-time of Zener diodes of very low dynamic resistance
which to half-peak is standardized at 50 µs. have a precise knee-point voltage and a short
The first voltage limiters used in telephone response time. Their low energy handling
systems were gas-filled discharge devices. capacity, of a fraction of a Joule to several
A gas-filled glass envelope contains two Joules, limits the use of these components to
electrodes separated one from the other by a the protection of signal circuits. Failure of
calibrated space. An overvoltage ionizes the such a diode always occurs as a short-circuit,
gas which allows a discharge to occur a condition that guarantees "fail-safe"
between the electrodes, thereby reducing the protection for the circuits.
potential and allowing the gas to de-ionize. In all cases, an overvoltage device in
Such a component is robust and has only a common mode should be connected directly
small parasitic effect. at the mass of the item to be protected, and
Its occasional failure, often by short-circuiting not, as is still often the case, by a long cable
of the electrodes (i.e. following an connected radially from a distant earth bar.
overvoltage discharge, the ionized gas The response time of an overvoltage limiting
sometimes provokes a short-circuit at normal device depends on the length of its
working voltage) means that its reliability connections.
cannot be guaranteed. In order to protect a
Appendix EMC - 19
4. local network problems
EMC
Local networks present at least one particular ∆I/∆t = 100 kA/µs
signal cable protected
problem: the numerous equipments are electronic
spread out, relatively distant one from equipment
∆H
another, and are installed for user
∆t
convenience rather than for EMC aera ≈ 300 m2
coordination considerations, are often
supplied from different lines, and 400 m
interconnected by conventional wiring protected
practices. electronic
equipment
insulation
stressed by 15 kV
20 - Appendix EMC
list of "cahiers techniques"
EMC
N° CT English French Spanish
114 Residual current devices X X X
141 Les perturbations électriques en BT X X
144 Introduction to dependability design X X
145 Etude thermique des tableaux électriques BT X X
147 Initiation aux réseaux de communication X
numérique
148 High availability electrical power distribution X X
149 EMC: Electromagnetic Compatibility X X
150 Development of LV circuit breakers X X X
to standard IEC 947-2
152 Harmonics in industrial networks X X X
154 LV circuit breaker breaking techniques X X X
155 MV public distribution networks X X X
throughout the world
156 Sûreté de fonctionnement et tableaux électriques BT X X
158 Calculation of short-circuit currents X X X
159 Inverters and harmonics X X X
(case studies of non-linear loads)
160 Harmonics upstream of rectifiers in UPS X X
161 Automatic transfering of power supplies X X
in HV and LV networks
162 Les efforts électrodynamiques X X
sur les jeux de barres en BT
163 LV breaking by current limitation X X
166 Enclosures and degrees of protection X X X
167 Energy-based discrimination X X X
for low-voltage protective devices
172 Earthing systems in LV X X X
173 Earthing systems wolrdwide and evolutions X X X
179 Surtensions et parafoudres en BT, X
Coordination de l'isolement en BT
Appendix EMC - 21