LINKERS

TO ADD INFORMATION
Moreover / Furthermore (formal)
Además Besides / in addition to (standard)

Also (middle position): He also plays football (standard)

También Too (final position): He plays football too (informal)
As well (final position): He plays football as well (formal)

· Y = And · Además de = As well as / besides / in addition to

Notas: Si tenemos que usar un verbo después de “además de”, éste irá en –ing:
As well as
Besides playing football, he coaches the team
In addition to

TO GIVE EMPHASIS
· De hecho = In fact · En realidad = Actually · Lo que es más = What is more
· De verdad = Certainly · Definitivamente = Definitely · Por supuesto = Of course
· Sin duda = Without a doubt · Con seguridad = Surely · De verdad = Indeed
· Absolutely = Absolutamente · Exactamente = exactly
Expressions: (pay attention to the structure, you can use any verb)
We could do nothing but run away = No pudimos hacer nada más que huir /sólo pudimos huir
We had no choice but to run away = No tuvimos otra elección que huir / sólo pudimos huir
The only thing we could do was run away = Lo único que pudimos hacer fue huir
It is nothing else but an inoffensive insect = No es más que un bicho inofensivo

TO GIVE EXAMPLES
· Por ejemplo = For example / For instance · Como = Like · Tales como = such as
· Es decir = That is / that is to say · En otras palabras = In other words / To put it differently
· Sobre todo = Especially · A saber = namely (formal) · En concreto = specifically
· Entre otros = Among others
Notas:
1- Cuidado con “especially”, “specially” y “specifically”. Aunque sus significados se solapan un poco, vamos a
intentar usarlos de la siguiente forma:
Especially = especialmente, sobre todo = I love sports, especially tennis
Specially = expresamente = I came here specially to see you
Specifically = específicamente, en concreto = One of you, John specifically, really needs to improve

TO EXPRESS CAUSE
· Porque = because · Ya que = Since/as · Puesto que = Since/as · Como = since/as
· Por = because of · Debido a = Due to · Debido a = Owing to · En vista de = In view of
· En tanto que = Insofar as / Inasmuch as / In that
Notas:
1- A veces “como” indica causa y significa “ya que” cuando va al principio de la oración:
Como no dijiste nada, di por hecho que no sabías la respuesta (since you didn’t say anything,…
2- “because of“ , “due to”, “owing to” y “in view of” no pueden ir seguido de oraciones, solo van seguido de
sustantivos (sintagmas nominales):

We were late because of the heavy rain We were late because of it was raining
3- “Due to” lo usaremos sólo con el verbo “to be” y “owing to” cuando no aparezca el verbo “to be”

His success was due to his ambition His success was owing to his ambition

We succeeded owing to his ambition We succeeded due to his ambition

Expressions:
That is the (main) reason why… = Esa es la razón(principal) por la cual…

TO EXPRESS CONSEQUENCE
· Así que = So · Así pues = So · Por lo tanto = Therefore · Por lo que = Which is why
· Por eso = That is why · A raiz de eso = As a result · De ahí = Hence (archaic) · De esta forma = Thus
· Consequentemente = Consequently · En consecuencia, en correspondencia = Accordingly
Notas:
1- Igual que pasa con los relativos, “which is why” se usa después de una coma, y “that is why” se usa después de un
punto. Los dos significan lo mismo:
I don’t get on well with him, which is why I didn’t go to his party
I don’t get on well with him. That is why I didn’t go to his party

TO EXPRESS OPPOSITION
· Sin embargo = However No obstante = Nevertheless/however · Aunque = Although
· Y eso que = Even though · Pero = but · Por el contrario = by contrast / on the contrary/conversely
· A pesar de = Despite / In spite of/notwithstanding · Mientras que = Whereas / While
·A pesar de que = Despite the fact / In spite of the fact · En lugar/vez de = Instead of / rather than
Notas:
1.- “In spite of” y “Despite “ significan lo mismo y se usan de la misma forma. No pueden ir seguidos de una
frase (como los del punto 2 de “cause”),así que si queremos usar una frase, tendremos que añadir “the fact
that”:

We kept playing despite the rain We kept playing in spite of the rain

We kept playing despite it was raining We kept playing despite the fact that it was raining
2- Para expresar contraste podemos usar tanto “whereas” como “while”, pero para expresar simultaneidad
solo nos vale “while”:

My brother is tall while yours is short My brother is tall whereas yours is short

The phone rang while I was having a shower The phone rang whereas I was having a shower

3- “Notwithstanding” es una palabra de registro formal. Fijaos en que está formada por 3 palabras: not- with-
standing. Significa lo mismo que “despite”, pero puede ir tanto delante como detrás del sustantivo:
· Notwithstanding some major financial problems, the school has had a successful year.
· The bad weather notwithstanding, the event was a great success.

TO EXPRESS PURPOSE
· Para = To · Para = In order to · Para = So as to · para que = So that
· Para = For (followed by gerund) · Para no = in order not to · Para no = So as not to
· Con la intención de hacer = With the aim/intention of doing · Con miras a hacer = With a view to doing
Notas:
1- “to”, “in order to”y “so as to” expresan finalidad y significan lo mismo. Usaremos “in order to” y “so as to”
preferiblemente para decir “para no”, de lo contrario, con “to” es suficiente. También se prefieren esas dos formas
con verbos estáticos: (appear, seem, know, understand, have)
· I went to the hotel to see him · I went to the hotel in order not to see him / so as not to see him
· I talked to him in order to have a better understanding of the situation
2- Cuando queramos decir “para que”, usaremos “in order that” o “so that”
Advice is given in order that students can choose the best option (formal)
Advice is given so that students can choose the best option (standard)
3- “to” es lo que normalmente usaremos a la hora de traducir “para”. Usaremos “for” sólo para indicar “uso” o
“función”, no finalidad. Así que irá normalmente con objetos en vez de con personas. Si leéis las frases de abajo,
veréis que la función se ve como algo general, mientras que la finalidad como algo específico.
· These pills are good for getting rid of headaches · This knife is used for cutting bread
· I took the pills to get rid of my headache · I used the knife to cut the bread
TO EXPRESS TIME
· Cuando = When · Para cuando = By the time · Mientras = While
· En cuanto = As soon as · Tan pronto como = As soon as · Antes = Before
· Después de = After · Después = Later/afterwards · Hasta = Until
· Últimamente = Recently · Desde = since · Entonces = Then
· Desde entonces en adelante = From then on · A partir de ahora = From now on
· Hace X años = X years ago · Hace tiempo = long time ago · Allá por los 90 = back in the 90s

TO EXPRESS CONDITION
· Si = If · Si… o no = Whether or not · A menos que = Unless · A no ser que = Unless
· Siempre y cuando = As long as · A condición de que = Provided /providing that
· Con la condición de que = On condition that · Incluso si = Even if
· En caso de que = In the event that Por si = In case · Por si acaso = Just in case
Notas:
1.- Podemos usar “whether”, además de “if”, cuando solo haya dos opciones posibles:
· I don’t know whether John is coming or not · I don’t know whether or not John is coming
Tenemos que usar “whether”, y no “if”, después de preposiciones:

· We talked about whether she was nice or not · We talked about if she was nice or not
2- No confundir “en caso de que” con “in case”:
· Run away in the event that those people try to rob you = corre en caso de que intenten robarte
· Take an umbrella in case you need it later = coge un paraguas por si lo necesitas luego

TO INTRODUCE A SUBJECT
Informal: · As for
Standard: · In relation to · In regard to · Regarding · Concerning
More formal: · With reference to ·With respect to ·With regard to

TO START A PARAGRAPH
· Para empezar = To start/begin with · En primer lugar = In the first place
· Primero = Firstly · Por un lado = On the one hand · Por otro lado = On the other hand
· Además = Moreover, furthermore, besides, in addition
· Sin embargo = However/nevertheless

TO CONCLUDE
· Finalmente = Finally · En conclusion = In conclusion ·En definitiva = In short
· Para concluir = to sum up / to conclude / summing up · En resumen = In summary