6.2.

1 Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis: the process by which plants manufacture carbohydrates from raw

materials using energy from light.
light c
Word equation: carbon dioxide a + water b >> glucose e + oxygen f
chlorophyll d

a
Enters leaf through the stomata from the air.
b
Enters root hair cells from the soil.
c
Energy source
d
Green pigment contained in chloroplasts, traps light energy.
e
Simple sugar, converted to sucrose for transport, starch for storage.
f
Waste product.

Balanced equation: 6CO2 + 6H2O >> C6H12O6 + 6O2

chlorophyll

Photosynthesis Practicals

Starch Test: we can show that photosynthesis has been taking plane in a leaf by
testing it for starch:

1 Transfer the leaf to a beaker of boiling water for about one minute.
Stops chemical reactions.
2 Turn off the Bunsen burner.
Ethanol gas is inflammable.
3Transfer the leaf to a large test-tube which is half-full of ethanol. Place the
test- tube into the recently-boiled water, and allow the heat of the water to
bring the ethanol to the boil.
This removes chlorophyll from the leaf, but the leaf becomes brittle.
4 Remove the leaf from the ethanoll, and rinse it in the hot water.
This will soften the leaf.
5 Spread the leaf on a white tile and add iodine solution.
The tile supports the leaf and iodine is the test for starch. If starch is
present, the leaf will turn blue/black. If not, it will stain brown..

Experiments to show the factors needed for photosynthesis to take place.

Destarching: before the experiment, the plants should be kept in a dark place
(e.g. a cupboard) for 24-48 hours, so that any starch present in their leaves has
been used up. This is important because these types of plants immediately turn
any glucose they make during photosynthesis into starch, and we will be testing
the leaves after the experiment to see if any starch is present. We must make
sure there is no starch present before we begin the experiment to make the
experiment a fair test.

Sunlight (1)

Destarched plant has part of a

leaf covered with a cork or
aluminum foil, is then exposed to
light for 8-24 hours.
pin
cork
Starch test shows that the area
exposed to light contains starch,
Pelargonium the dark area does not.

Sunlight (2)

Place one set of apparatus in the light and one in

the dark, leave for 48 hours.

One in the light will contain oxygen, which can be

tested with a glowing splint.

Carbon Dioxide

Set up apparatus as in
the diagram using a
destarched plant.

Expose to light for 8-24

hours.

Test for starch, the one

with carbon dioxide will
contain starch, the one
without will not.
Chlorophyll

Use a destarched variegated plant

(one with green and white parches
on the leaves.

Expose to light for 8-24 hours.

Green areas contain chlorophyll,

photosynthesize and will contain
starch, white areas will not.

Limiting Factors
Something present in the environment (or in the plant) in such short supply that it
restricts life processes. We can never be certain, without experimental evidence,
which factor is limiting at any one time but typically:
 At night – light
 Cold day – temp
 Summer day – carbon dioxide

Light as a Limiting Factor

We can do experiments to test the effects of varying amount to light:

Counting the number of bubbles per

minute will give an indication of the
rate of photosynthesis.

The sloping part of the graph shown

that increasing light increases
photosynthesis.
The flat part shown that more light
does not increase photosynthesis
ie, it is not limiting, something else
is!
 Carbon Dioxide as a Limiting Factor

By keeping the light constant and

using varying concentrations of
sodium hydrogen-carbonate, we can
investigate the effect of carbon
dioxide.

A similar pattern results.

Temperature as a Limiting Factor

Using a water-bath, we can change the

temperature.

 Typically from 0-40 ºC, the rate

increases, as photosynthesis involves
enzyme catalased reactions.

 Above 40 ºC, the rate decreases as

the enzymes denature.

Interacting Factors
1 Increasing temp from 15-25 ºC at
0.03% CO2 has no effect as it is CO2
rather than temp which is the limiting
factor.

2 Increasing CO2 from 0.03 to 0.15%

whilst keeping temp at 15 ºC , does,
however increase the rate.

3 At this higher level of CO2 , increasing

temp does now increase the rate, as temp
is now limiting.
Manipulation of Limiting Factors
 Growing plants in greenhouses, allows farmers to manipulate the environment
and increase plant growth by controlling potentially limiting factors.
 Temperature – the greenhouse effect means that a greenhouse is traps solar
energy during the day and can be heated at night. Windows can be opened to
reduce temperatures.
 CO2 - in a sealed structure, natural gas can be burned, increasing CO2 levels.
 Light – artificial light can be used (although it is expensive), or shading applied
to help stop plants wilting.

6.2.2 Leaves are well adapted to the process of photosynthesis:

Adaptations shown by a whole leaf

Feature Function
Thin Rapid diffusion of gases
Large surface area Absorption of sunlight
Stomata Exchange of gases with the atmosphere
Xylem Support, and transports water and mineral ions
Spongy mesophyll Diffusion of gases within leaf
Chloroplasts Concentrated in palisade cells

Adaptations shown by the palisade cells

Feature Function
Many chloroplasts Absorption of sunlight
Elongated Fewer cell walls for light to pass
through
Tightly packed Ensures no light misses cells
Close to upper surface Close to source of light
Motile chloroplasts Arranged for light absorption.
 You need to know the structure of a palisade
cell.

6.2.3 Mineral Ions

Mineral ions are taken up by the root hairs from the soil dissolved in water, often by
active transport. Not needed for photosynthesis, but to convert carbohydrate into a
range of other useful substances.
 Magnesium needed to make chlorophyll.
 Nitrate needed to make proteins and DNA.

Chemical nitrate fertilisers can be used to increase crop yields. Excess can leach into
rivers and lakes, resulting in eutrophication:

• Excess fertilisers leach from the soil and are washed into waterways.
• Plants and algae in the waterways start to grow rapidly.
• There is competition between algae and water plants.
• Many plants die and start to decompose.
• The number of microbes that fed on dead organisms increases.
• The bacteria take more oxygen out of the water as they respire.
• Fish and other animals die of suffocation.

High levels of nitrate can also cause ‘blue baby syndrome’ and have been linked to
stomach cancer.
7 Transportation
7.1
The vascular bundles are the transport system of a plant. Each contains:
 Xylem – transports water and dissolved minerals UP the plant (never down).
It also has strong walls and helps to support the plant.
 Phloem – transports food in the form of sucrose (never starch or glucose)
and amino acids up and down the stem.

You need to know where the xylem and phloem are found in the root stem and leaves.

7.1.1 Water Uptake

Root Hair Cells (revision)

Root hair cells are located towards to tips of

roots. They have two functions:
 Uptake of water.
 Uptake of minerals.

Adaptations:

1. Large surface area to increase the rate

of uptake of substances.
2. Protein pumps in the membranes for
active uptake of minerals.
3. Many mitochondria to produce ATP for
active transport.
How it all works:

1 Cell walls are fully permeable to water and solutes.

2 All cell membranes are partially permeable.
3 The cell sap of root hair cells has a relatively low water potential because
of dissolved sugar and mineral ions.
4 Soil water has a relatively high water potential.
5 Water molecules will move across the membrane by osmosis into the cytoplasm.

Investigating the pathway:

Stand a stalk of leafy celery in a jug of water containing ink. The water will rise up
through the xylem, staining the tissue. Cutting across the stem will allow you to see
how far the dye has risen in a given time.

7.1.2 Transpiration: evaporation of water at the surfaces of the mesophyll

cells followed by loss of water vapour from plant leaves, through the stomata.

Xylem Functions and Adaptation (revision from earlier)

Vessels support the plant and conduct water and mineral ions up the stem. They are
highly adapted to their functions:

Adaptation How it helps

 Lignin reinforces the cells walls.
 No end walls water can pass from cell to cell.
 Elongated form continuous tubes.
 Dead no cytoplasm to prevent water flowing

Movement of water up to the leaves:

Tha Pathway Water Takes

 Water moves from cell to cell from the root hairs, through the cortex cells into
the xylem in the centre of the root then in the vascular bundles in the stem and
the leaf veins.
 From there, it moves between the spongy mespophyll cells when it evaporates
from their surface into the air spaces.
 Water vapour diffuses out through the stamata along a water potential
gradient.
What powers transpiration?

1 Transpiration pull; water evaporating from the surface of spongy mesophyll

cells in the leaf reduces their water potential, so water moves out of the xylem by
osmosis to replace it. This lowers the water potential in the xylem at the top of the
stem, and as water molecules stick to one another by cohesion, this ‘tension pull’
draws water up the stem.

(The mechanism above is the main force driving transpiration, but these is also root
pressure, although it is only important in very small plants)

Potometers

The rate of transpiration can be measured using a photometer:

Environmental Factors can change the rate of transpiration:

 Air movement: blows water molecules away from the leaf, increasing diffusion
gradient an rate of transpiration.
 Temperature: gives water molecules more energy, increasing evaporation from
the spongy mesophyll cells.
 Light intensity: opens the stomata, allowing rapid diffusion out of the leaf.
  Wilting

When individual cells lose water they plasmolyse; the cell wall no longer presses
against the cell wall and the cell loses turgidity, becoming flaccid. Stomata close in
order to reduce water loss. The plant becomes soft, stems and leaves wilt.

Adaptations to Environment

Adapation How it helps

Desert
Thick waxy cutucle Impermeable to water
Hairy leaf Traps layer of moist air
Thick waxy cutice Impermeable to water
Long roots Finds water deep underground

Pond
Hollow stems Float at surface, more light.
Finely divided leaves Greater s/a for absorbtion of light and CO2
Reduced xylem No need for suport or transport of water.
Reduced roots Water and minerals taken up through stem and leaf

NB The syllabus also asks you to know about adaptations to a garden, but does not
specify where in the world or what type of garden. Use common sense

7.1.3 Translocation

Translocation
The movement of food (sucrose and amino acids) from regions of production
or storage (source) to regions of usage for respiration, growth or storage
(sink).
It occurs in the phloem, living cells found on the outer side of the vascular
bundles.

Translocation can occur in any direction (transpiration is always upwards).

Souce and Sink: may vary with the seasons:

 On summer days when plants are photosynthesising, leaves are the source and
the sink can be developing leaves, fruit or roots.
 In spring, when growth starts, the roots containing stored food may act as a
sink, the developing steom and leaves are the sink.
Systemic Pesticides
 Systemic pesticides can be applied to any
part of the plant, They are translocated to
every part of the plant in the phloem and
are not washed off by rain.

 When pests eat any part of the plant or
suck the sap, they are poisoned by the
pesticide.