8.

1 Introduction

Plastics are used on a daily basis throughout the world. The word plastic is a common term that
is used for many materials of a synthetic or semi-synthetic nature. The term was derived from
the Greek plastikos, which means “fit for molding.” Plastics are a wide variety of combinations
of properties when viewed as a whole. They are used for shellac, cellulose, rubber, and asphalt.
We also synthetically manufacture items such as clothing, packaging, automobiles, electronics,
aircrafts, medical supplies, and recreational items. The list could go on and on and it is obvious
that much of what we have today would not be possible without plastics.

One way plastics changed the world was in cost. It was so much cheaper to manufacture than
other materials and the various ways it could be used was staggering. For instance, the use of
polymers, which are substances with a higher molecule mass and which have a large number of
repeating units, is common today. There are synthetic polymers, which are produced on a large
scale and have many properties and uses. And there are naturally occurring polymers, which
include starches, cellulose, proteins, and latex. Polymers are molecules (monomers) that join
together like a chain with one or more monomers.

The discovery of ebonite by Charles Goodyear in 1839 and the development of colloid by J.W
Hyatt around 1869 marked the beginning of plastic industry. One of the most important mate-
rials, phenol formaldehyde resin, was developed by Dr. L.H. Baekeland and his associates in
1909. Since then research continues and many more synthetic materials have been developed
with widely varying physical properties.

The term plastic is applied to all materials capable of being moulded. Modern usage of this
term has changed its meaning to include a large group of synthetic materials that become plas-
tic by the application of heat and can be formed to shape under pressure. Plastic replaces ma-
terials like glass, wood, and meals in constructions and is used to make coatings and filaments
for weaving. Plastic is strong, light, highly dielectric, resistant to chemicals and durable. It gives
good dimensional tolerances, excellent surface finish, absorbs vibrations and sound. Limitations
include low strength, low heat resistances, soft less ductile. Some plastic is flammable and de-

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forms in sunlight.

Plastics thus give us the possibility of manufacturing well-designed, beautiful products from the

very many different types of plastics materials that are commonly available today. Within man-
ufacturing technology there is a very high degree of technological understanding of plastics and
a range of sophisticated technological processes that enable us to make them and shape them
in numerous ways.

8.2 Sources of Plastic

Plastic has to be sourced and goes through several processes before it is 'workable' and can
be made into the different stock forms ready to be manufactured.

Key points and basics:

 Plastics are either found naturally or are synthetic man-made

 The majority of everyday plastics are synthetic
 From crude oil compounds are formed called polymers - which is plastic

Synthetic plastics

Most plastics used today are man-made, known as synthetic. The main source of synthetic plas-
tic is crude oil, although coal and natural gas are also used.

The process from crude oil

1) During the refining of crude oil petrol, paraffin, lubricating oil and petrol are the bi-products.

2) These are then broken down into monomers. (Which is a chemical substance consisting of
one molecule)

3) When 1000's of monomers are linked together this is called 'Polymerisation' - the com-
pounds formed are called Polymers - and plastic is the common name for Polymers!

Most polymers (plastics) are made from combining the element carbon with one or more other

13
elements such as hydrogen, chlorine, fluorine or nitrogen.

Natural plastics

Plastic can be found naturally and occur in such things as:

Plants - from which cellulose can be extracted.

Trees - from which latex, amber and resin can be extracted.

Animals- from which horn and milk (used to make glues) are obtained.

Insects - from which shellac (used to make polish) is obtained.

8.3 Types of plastics

Plastics are natural/synthetic materials. They are produced by chemically modifying natural substances
or are synthesized from inorganic and organic raw materials. On the basis of their physical characteris-
tics, plastics are usually divided into thermosets, elastomers and thermoplastics. These groups differ
primarily with regard to molecular structure, which is what determines their differing thermal behavior.

I. Thermoplastics

Thermoplastics have a linear or branched molecular structure which determines their strength and
thermal behavior; they are flexible at ordinary temperatures. At approx. 120 - 180°C, thermoplastics be-
come a pasty/liquid mass. The service temperature range for thermoplastics is considerably lower than
that for thermosets.

Examples include polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, PVC, PE. Etc

II. Thermosets

Thermosets are hard and have a very tight-meshed, branched molecular structure. Curing proceeds dur-
ing shaping, after which it is no longer possible to shape the material by heating. Further shaping may
then only be performed by machining. Thermosets are used, for example, to make light switches.

Examples are Phenol formaldehyde, Melamine formaldehyde, Urea-formaldehyde etc

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 III. Elastomers

While elastomers also have a crosslinked structure, they have a looser mesh than thermosets, giving rise
to a degree of elasticity. Once shaped, elastomers also cannot be reshaped by heating. Elastomers are
used, for example, to produce automobile tires.

8.4 Processing of Plastics

A variety of processes are used to transform raw plastics into the thousands of everyday objects that we
use. To mold or shape thermoplastics, they are basically softened to allow the plastic to flow through a
dye, to be injected into, or formed in or over a mold. These processes usually allow scrap materials to be
recycled as well. The most important of these are as given below:

 Injection moulding
 Compression moulding
 Blow moulding
 Rotational moulding
 Extruder

8.4.1 Injection Moulding Machine

For thermoplastics, the injection molding machine converts granular or pelleted raw plastic
into final molded parts via a melt, inject, pack, and cool cycle. A typical injection molding ma-
chine consists of the following major components, as illustrated in Figure 2-1 below.

 Injection system
 Hydraulic system
 Mold system
 Clamping system
 Control system

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Figure 2-1: A single screw injection molding machine for thermoplastics

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8.4.1.1 Machine components

1. Injection system

The injection system consists of a hopper, a reciprocating screw and barrel assembly, and an in-
jection nozzle, as shown in Figure 2-2. This system confines and transports the plastic as it pro-
gresses through the feeding, compressing, degassing, melting, injection, and packing stages.

FIGURE 2-1.A single screw injection molding machine for thermoplastics, showing the plasticizing screw, a bar-
rel, band heaters to heat the barrel, a stationary platen, and a movable platen.

i. The hopper

Thermoplastic material is supplied to molders in the form of small pellets. The hopper on the
injection molding machine holds these pellets. The pellets are gravity-fed from the hopper
through the hopper throat into the barrel and screw assembly.

i. The barrel

As shown in Figure 2-2, the barrel of the injection molding machine supports the reciprocating
plasticizing screw. It is heated by the electric heater bands.

ii. The reciprocating screw

The reciprocating screw is used to compress, melt, and convey the material. The reciprocating
screw consists of three zones (illustrated below):

o the feeding zone

o the compressing (or transition) zone
o the metering zone

While the outside diameter of the screw remains constant, the depth of the flights on the recipro-

17
cating screw decreases from the feed zone to the beginning of the metering zone. These flights
compress the material against the inside diameter of the barrel, which creates viscous (shear) heat.

This shear heat is mainly responsible for melting the material. The heater bands outside the barrel
help maintain the material in the molten state. Typically, a molding machine can have three or

more heater bands or zones with different temperature settings.

FIGURE 2-2. A reciprocating screw, showing the feeding zone, compressing (or transition) zone, and
metering zone.

iii. The nozzle

The nozzle connects the barrel to the sprue bushing of the mold and forms a seal between the
barrel and the mold. The temperature of the nozzle should be set to the material's melt tem-
perature or just below it, depending on the recommendation of the material supplier. When
the barrel is in its full forward processing position, the radius of the nozzle should nest and seal
in the concave radius in the sprue bushing with a locating ring. During purging of the barrel, the
barrel backs out from the sprue, so the purging compound can free fall from the nozzle. These
two barrel positions are illustrated below.

FIGURE 2-3. (a) Nozzle with barrel in processing position. (b) Nozzle with barrel backed out for purging.

2. Mould system

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 The mold system consists of tie bars, stationary and moving platens, as well as moulding plates
(bases) that house the cavity, sprue and runner systems, ejector pins, and cooling channels, as
shown in Figure 2-4. The mould is essentially a heat exchanger in which the molten thermo

plastic solidifies to the desired shape and dimensional details defined by the cavity.

Figure 2-4. A typical (three-plate) molding system.

An mold system is an assembly of platens and molding plates typically made of tool steel.
The mold system shapes the plastics inside the mold cavity (or matrix of cavities) and ejects
the molded part(s). The stationary platen is attached to the barrel side of the machine and is
connected to the moving platen by the tie bars. The cavity plate is generally mounted on the
stationary platen and houses the injection nozzle. The core plate moves with the moving
platen guided by the tie bars. Occasionally, the cavity plate is mounted to the moving platen
and the core plate and a hydraulic knock-out (ejector) system is mounted to the stationary
platen.

Cooling channels (circuits)

Cooling channels are passageways located within the body of a mold, through which a cooling me-
dium (typically water, steam, or oil) circulates. Their function is the regulation of temperature on
the mold surface. Cooling channels can also be combined with other temperature control devices,
like bafflers, bubblers, and thermal pins or heat pipes.

3. Hydraulic system

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 The hydraulic system on the injection molding machine provides the power to open
and close the mold, build and hold the clamping tonnage, turn the reciprocating
screw, drive the reciprocating screw, and energize ejector pins and moving mold
cores. A number of hydraulic components are required to provide this power, which
include pumps, valves, hydraulic motors, hydraulic fittings, hydraulic tubing, and
hydraulic reservoirs.

4. Control system
The control system provides consistency and repeatability in machine operation. It
monitors and controls the processing parameters, including the temperature, pres-
sure, injection speed, screw speed and position, and hydraulic position. The process
control has a direct impact on the final part quality and the economics of the pro-
cess. Process control systems can range from a simple relay on/off control to an ex-
tremely sophisticated microprocessor-based, closed-loop control.

5. Clamping system
The clamping system opens and closes the mold, supports and carries the constitu-
ent parts of the mold, and generates sufficient force to prevent the mold from
opening. Clamping force can be generated by a mechanical (toggle) lock, hydraulic
lock, or a combination of the two basic types.

8.4.1.2 Machine operating sequence

Injection molding is a cyclic process. During the injection molding process, the machine un-
dertakes a sequence of operations in a cyclic fashion. A process cycle is one complete oper-
ation of an injection molding machine.

Process cycle

The basic injection molding machine operations are shown in the series of diagrams below.

1. The mold closes and the screw begins moving forward for injection.
2. The cavity fills as the reciprocating screw moves forward, as a plunger.
3. The cavity is packed as the screw continuously moves forward.
4. The cavity cools as the gate freezes off and the screw begins to retract to plasticize
material for the next shot.

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 5. The mold opens for part ejection.
6. The mold closes and the next cycle begins

Cycle time

Typical process cycle time varies from several seconds to tens of seconds, depending on the
part weight, part thickness, material properties, and the machine settings specific to a giv-
en process.

8.4.1.3 Screw operation

The reciprocating screw is used to plasticize the plastic pellets using various RPMs, inject
the molten plastics as a plunger at various speeds and shot volumes, and control the pres-
sure level in the molten plastic charge in front of the screw. Several of its operations are
discussed in this document.

Back pressure

Back pressure is the amount of pressure exerted on the material volume ahead of the
screw, as the screw is pushed back in preparation for the next shot.

Injection speed

The injection speed (or ram speed) is the forward speed of the screw during its injection
operation.

Screw rotation speed

The screw rotation speed (RPM) is the rate at which the plasticizing screw rotates. The
faster the screw rotates, the faster the material is compressed by the screw flights, increas-
ing the amount of shear heating.

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 Figure 2-5: Hydraulic Injection Moulding Machine

8.4.1.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Injecting Molding

Advantages

 Low costs in mass production

 High precision
 Complex parts. Geometries only limited by mold manufacturability.

Disadvantages

 High initial setup costs

8.4.1.5 Applications

Injection molding is used to create many things such as wire spools, packaging, bottle caps, automotive
dashboards, pocket combs, some musical instruments (and parts of them), one-piece chairs and small
tables, storage containers, mechanical parts (including gears), and most other plastic products available
today. Injection molding is the most common modern method of part manufacturing; it is ideal for pro-
ducing high volumes of the same object.

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 Figure Parts manufactured by Injection moulding machine

8.4.1.6 Quality Issues

The process requires strict control of the mould temperature, speed and pressure of injection, condition
of the molten plastic and dwelling/cooling times to ensure high quality. It is necessary to have a suffi-
cient clamping force proportional to the projected area of the mould to prevent creation of excess flash.

8.4.2 Compression Moulding

Compression molding is a method of molding in which the molding material, generally preheat-
ed, is first placed in an open, heated mold cavity. The mold is closed with a top force or plug
member, pressure is applied to force the material into contact with all mold areas, while heat
and pressure are maintained until the molding material has cured. The process employs ther-
mosetting resins in a partially cured stage, either in the form of granules, putty-like masses, or
preforms. Compression molding is a high-volume, high-pressure method suitable for molding
complex, high-strength fiberglass reinforcements. Advanced composite thermoplastics can also
be compression molded with unidirectional tapes, woven fabrics, randomly oriented fiber mat
or chopped strand.

8.4.2.1 The process

For compression molding, the appropriate amounts of thoroughly mixed polymer and neces-
sary additives are placed between male and female mold members, as illustrated in Figure 2-1.
Both mold pieces are heated; however, only one is movable. The mold is closed, and heat and

23
pressure are applied, causing the plastic to become viscous and flow to con-form to the mold
shape. Before molding, raw materials may be mixed and cold-pressed into a disc, which is called
a perform. Preheating of the preform reduces molding time and pressure, extends the die life
time, and produces a more uniform finished piece. This molding technique lends itself to the
fabrication of both thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers; however, its use with thermo-
plastics is more time-consuming and expensive than the more commonly used extrusion or in-
jection molding techniques.

Figure 2-6 Compression molding: (1) charge is loaded, (2) and (3) charge is compressed and cured, and (4)
opening the mold halves and removing the part from the cavity.

Compression molding presses are oriented vertically and contain two platens to which the mold
halves are fastened. The presses involve either of two types of actuation: (1) upstroke of the
bottom platen or (2) downstroke of the top platen, the former being the more common ma-
chine configuration. They are generally powered by a hydraulic cylinder that can be designed to
provide clamping capacities up to several hundred tons.

Molds for compression molding are generally simpler than their injection mold counterparts.
There is no sprue and runner system in a compression mold, and the process itself is generally
limited to simpler part geometries due to the lower flow capabilities of the starting thermoset-
ting materials. However, provision must be made for heating the mold, usually accomplished by
electric resistance heating, steam, or hot oil circulation. Compression molds can be classified as
hand molds, used for trial runs; semiautomatic, in which the press follows a programmed cycle
but the operator manually loads and unloads the press; and automatic, which operate under a

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fully automatic press cycle (including automatic loading and unloading).

Common plastics used in compression molding processes include

 Polyester
 Polyimide (PI)
 Polyamide-imide (PAI)
 Polyphenylene Sulfide (PPS)
 Polyetheretherketone (PEEK)
 Fiber reinforced plastics

There are four primary factors in a successful compression molding process:

 Amount of material
 Heating time and technique
 Force applied to the mold
 Cooling time and technique

8.4.2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Compression Moulding

Advantages

 Low initial setup costs

 Fast setup time
 Capable of large size parts beyond the capacity of extrusion techniques

 Allows intricate parts

 Good surface finish (in general)
 Wastes relatively little material
 Can apply to composite thermoplastics with unidirectional tapes, woven fabrics, ran-
domly orientated fiber mat or chopped strand
 Compression molding produces fewer knit lines and less fiber-length degradation than
injection molding.

Disadvantages

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  Production speed is not up to injection molding standards
 Limited largely to flat or moderately curved parts with no undercuts
 Less-than-ideal product consistency

Figure Compression Moulding Machine

8.4.2.3Applications
Compression molding is commonly used for manufacturing electrical switches and socket, flatware,

gears, buttons, buckles, knobs, handles, electronic device cases, helmets, appliance housing, and large
container.

Figure Parts manufactured by compression moulding machine

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8.4.2.4 Quality Issues

The process requires a controlled quantity of raw material placed in the cavity with the exception of
flash moulds. During production internal cavity stresses are minimal and low die maintenance is neces-
sary but problems may be encountered with the possibility of air entrapment. Tumbling may be re-
quired for finishing to remove flash but the surface detail is good.

8.4.3 Blow Moulding

Blow molding is a manufacturing process widely used to create hollow thin-wall plastic objects
such as bottles, cases, containers, and bellows.

Not all plastics are suitable for blow moulding. The most frequently used materials in blow
molding are

 Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE), High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)

 Polypropylene (PP)
 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
 Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET)

The products manufactured by blow molding, although limited to hollow shaped plastics, are
widely used in many industrial fields and everyday lives.

8.4.3.1 Types of Blow Moulding

There are three most popular types of blow molding:

 Extrusion blow moulding

 Injection blow moulding
 Stretch blow moulding

1. Extrusion blow molding

It is the oldest, simplest, and most common type of blow molding. Common gallon or larger size gas
tanks and water tanks are often manufactured using extrusion blow molding. Its procedures are:

1. A hot hollow tube of thermoplastic material is dropped from an extruder. This tube is usually
called parison.
2. The parison is then captured in the closed chamber of a divided mold which seals one end of the

27
 parison and leaves the other end open.
3. Compressed air is injected through the open end of the parison. The parison is expanded like an
inflated balloon.
4. Compressed air continues to blow in until the parison reaches the wall of the mold. The hollow
parison now conforms to the shape of the mold cavity.
5. The moulded plastic stays in the mold until it cools and hardens. Once released from the mold,
further handlings such as rimming and trimming can be performed.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Extrusion Blow Molding

Advantages

 Simple
 Low costs
 Fast to setup to begin production
 Allows a wide variety of container shapes
 Can produce large size containers

Disadvantages

 Production speed is slower than other newer blow molding methods.

 Not suitable for precision parts. Wall thickness is difficult to control.
 Limited to hollow parts.

2. Injection Blow Molding

Injection blow molding is a process combining injection molding and blow molding. Its procedures are
described below:

1. The blow stem is placed in an injection mold.

2. The melted thermoplastic material is injected into the injection mold and formed around the
blow stem.
3. The blow stem is now wrapped with the "preform".

4. The perform along with the blow stem are then placed in the blow molding chamber.
5. Compressed air is injected through the blow stem into the preform. The preform is expanded
like an inflated balloon.
6. Compressed air continues to blow in until the preform reaches the wall of the mold.
7. The molded plastic stays in the mold until it cools and hardens.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Injection Blow Molding

Advantages

o Faster production speed than extrusion blow molding

o Higher precision than extrusion blow molding, but still not exactly a precision process
o Net cost may be lower in high volume production

Disadvantages

o Higher setup costs due to two different molds.

o May take longer to setup to produce the first product.
o Limited to smaller containers.
o Limited to simple shapes with no handles.

3. Stretch blow molding

It is a two-stage process similar to that of injection blow molding. First, a test-tube like preform is made
using injection molding or a similar process. The neck of the preforms is fully finished but the diameter
and length of the body portion are much smaller than the final product. The preform then undergos a
stretch-and-blow process

The single most important product made by stretch blow molding is the 2-liter PET bottle for carbonated
soft drinks introduced in 1978 and updated to one-piece bottle in early nineties. The PET bottles are vir-
tually unbreakable, lightweight, transparent. They and have various (good) barrier properties. The tradi-
tional glass containers cannot compete with PET bottles and are almost extinct from the field of car-
bonated soft drinks.

8.4.3.2 Applications

Blow moulding commonly produces products that are hollow with relatively thin walls such as drinks
bottles, water drums and ducting.

The below fig. shows some of the applications of blow moulding machine

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8.4.3.3 Quality Issues

Control of cross sections is difficult and it is important to consider/monitor the creep and chemical sta-
bility of the component material. Residual stresses may decrease with time causing the part to distort.
The surface finish of the product can be good and the higher the pressure during manufacture the bet-
ter the finish.

8.4.4 Rotational Moulding

Rotational moulding or roto-molding is a relatively slow process that is capable of making large one-
piece hollow plastic objects at a cost lower than most other plastic moulding processes.

The rotational moulding process starts with a closed split mould. The moulding compound, usually a
thermoplastic in the form of pellets or granules, is pre-measured and loaded into the moulding cham-
ber. The chamber is then sealed and mounted on a multi-axial rotation station. The chamber is heated
and the compound inside is melted. Preferably, the molten material has low viscosity and can be distrib-

30
uted easily. The rotation station begins to rotate slowly on multiple axes simultaneously such that the
molten material is evenly coated on the internal surfaces of the mould while the temperature continues
to drop in a controlled manner. The rotation and cooling continue until the moulding compound solidi-
fies. The mould can then be opened and the finished part is released.

The rotational speeds, heating and cooling rates need to be carefully controlled throughout the process.
Unlike other common plastic moulding methods, such as injection, extrusion, and compression mould-
ings, there is no external pressure applied during the entire moulding process. Again, this is a very slow
process and each cycle usually takes about an hour or more.

Figure Typical Rotational Moulding process

8.4.4.1 Materials

The process may use fluoropolymers and thermoplastics, such as: low density polyethylene (LDPE), pol-
ypropylene (PP), ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), Acrylonitrile Butadiene Sty-
rene (ABS), Polystyrene (PS).

8.4.4.2 Considerations for Rotational Moulding

Deign Related

 Sharp corners and edges should be avoided as they create stress points/lines.
 Internal features need to be adequately separated (at least 3~5 times the wall thickness of the
part) to allow proper melt flow.

Process Related

 The heating period should be just long enough to melt the polymer thoroughly without damag-
ing the plastic's molecular structures.
 Rapid cooling may introduce extra thermal stresses and/or shrinkages, resulting in warped

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 parts.

8.4.4.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Rotational Molding

Advantages

 One-piece product design reduces or eliminates assembly cost.

 Allows complex mold split lines.
 Allows molded threads and mold-in inserts.
 Allows a wide range of surface finishes (textured, smooth, or polished).
 Very little waste in material.
 Low residual stresses. There are thermal stresses during the cooling process but (almost) no
forming stresses because no external pressure is ever applied.
 Tooling is less expensive. Due to its low pressure operation, the wall thickness of the molding
chamber can be thinner than those for other molding methods.
 Suitable for both low-volume prototypes and high-volume production runs.

Disadvantages

 Slow production speed. It usually takes about one hour to finish a cycle, as opposed to just a few
seconds for a typical injection molding process.
 Lower precision.

8.4.4.4 Applications

Typical applications for rotationally moulded products are those with a large hollow such as: water
tanks, storage vessels ,drums, garden furniture and sporting products. The process is often used for pro-
totyping.

Figure Parts manufactured by Rotational Moulding Machine

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8.4.4.5 Quality Issues

The moulding process is practically free from residual stresses and dimensions can be distorted if the
curing time is not sufficient before the part is removed from the die cavity and the raw material is not
monitored correctly.

Surface detail of the final component is fairly good and reflective of the surface of the mould but it is
important to know that there is no control of the inside surface quality.

Figure Rotational Blow Moulding Machine

8.4.5 Extrusion
Plastics extrusion is a high volume manufacturing process in which raw plastic material is melted and
formed into a continuous profile. Extrusion produces items such as pipe/tubing, weather stripping,
fence, deck railing, window frames, plastic films and sheet, thermoplastic coatings, and wire insulation.

8.4.5.1 Process

In the extrusion of plastics, raw thermoplastic material in the form of nurdles (small beads, often called
resin in the industry) is gravity fed from a top mounted hopper into the barrel of the extruder. The pro-
cess has much in common with plastic injection moulding from the point of the extruder technology
though it differs in that it is usually a continuous process.

The material enters through the feed throat and comes into contact with the screw. The rotating screw
(normally turning at up to 120 rpm) forces the plastic beads forward into the barrel which is heated to
the desired melt temperature of the molten plastic (which can range from 200 °C to 275 °C depending
on the polymer). In most processes, a heating profile is set for the barrel in which three or more inde-
pendent PID controlled heater zones gradually increase the temperature of the barrel from the rear

33
(where the plastic enters) to the front. This allows the plastic beads to melt gradually as they are pushed
through the barrel and lowers the risk of overheating which may cause degradation in the polymer.

Extra heat is contributed by the intense pressure and friction taking place inside the barrel. In fact, if an
extrusion line is running certain materials fast enough, the heaters can be shut off and the melt temper-
ature maintained by pressure and friction alone inside the barrel. In most extruders, cooling fans are
present to keep the temperature below a set value if too much heat is generated.

At the front of the barrel, the molten plastic leaves the screw and travels through a screen pack to re-
move any contaminants in the melt. The screens are reinforced by a breaker plate (a thick metal puck
with many holes drilled through it) since the pressure at this point can exceed 5000 psi (34 MPa). The
screen pack/breaker plate assembly also serves to create back pressure in the barrel. Back pressure is
required for uniform melting and proper mixing of the polymer.

After passing through the breaker plate molten plastic enters the die. The die is what gives the final
product its profile and must be designed so that the molten plastic evenly flows from a cylindrical pro-
file, to the product's profile shape. Uneven flow at this stage would produce a product with unwanted
stresses at certain points in the profile. These stresses can cause warping upon cooling. Almost any
shape imaginable can be created so long as it is a continuous profile.

The product must now be cooled and this is usually achieved by pulling the extrudate through a water
bath. In a tube or pipe extrusion line, a sealed water bath is acted upon by a carefully controlled vacuum
to keep the newly formed and still molten tube or pipe from collapsing. For products such as plastic
sheeting, the cooling is achieved by pulling through a set of cooling rolls.

Plastic extruders are also extensively used to prepare recycled plastic waste and/or raw materials after
cleaning, sorting and/or blending into filaments suitable for chopping into the 'resin' bead or pellet stock
used by the plastics industry at large.

8.4.5.2 Materials

The process uses thermoplastics, such as: polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene
(PP).

8.4.5.3 Types

1. Sheet/film extrusion

For products such as plastic sheet or film, the cooling is achieved by pulling through a set of cooling rolls
(calender or "chill" rolls), usually 3 or 4 in number. Running too fast creates an undesirable condition
called "nerve"- basically, inadequate contact time is allowed to dissipate the heat present in the extrud-
ed plastic. In sheet extrusion, these rolls not only deliver the necessary cooling but also determine sheet

34
thickness and surface texture

A common post-extrusion process for plastic sheet stock is thermoform-

ing, where the sheet is heated until soft (plastic), and formed via a mold
into a new shape. When vacuum is used, this is often described as vacuum
forming.

Thermoforming can go from line bended pieces (e.g. displays) to complex

shapes (computer housings), which often look like they have been injec-
tion moulded

Plastic extrusion onto paper is the basis of the liquid packaging industry
(juice cartons, wine boxes...); usually an aluminum layer is present as well.

Figure Sheet Extruder Machine

2. Blown film extrusion

The manufacture of plastic film for products such as shopping bags and continuous sheeting is
achieved using a blown film line

This process is the same as a regular extrusion process up until the die. The die is an upright cyl-
inder with an annular opening similar to a pipe extrusion die. The opening diameter can be a
few centimetres to more than three metres across. The molten plastic is pulled upwards from
the die by a pair of nip rolls high above the. Changing the speed of these nip rollers will change
the gauge (wall thickness) of the film. Around the die sits a cooling ring that blows air onto the
film tube as it travels past. The air flow cools the film as it travels upwards. In the centre of the
die is an air outlet trough which compressed air can be forced into the inside of the extruded
cylindrical profile, adjusting the bubble volume. This expands the extruded circular cross section

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by some ratio.

The nip rolls flatten the bubble into a double layer of film whose width (layflat) is equal to half
the circumference of the bubble. This film can then be slit, spooled, printed on or cut into
shapes and heat sealed into bags or other items.

An advantage of blown film extrusion over traditional film extrusion is that in the latter there
are edges where there can be quality (thickness) variations.

8.4.5.4 Applications

Continuous extrusion produces components that may have complex profiles. Rods, bar, tubing
and sheets e.g. pipes, laminates, guttering, window sills, insulation on wires, cling-film and tyre
reinforcement.

8.4.5.5 Advantage and Disadvantages of Extrusion Molding

Advantages

3. Low initial setup costs

4. Fast setup time
5. Low production costs

Disadvantages

 Moderate production speed

 Mediocre precision
 Limited to parts with a uniform cross section

8.4.5.5 Quality Issues

Components made by the process are prone to shrinkage and distortion so that the accurate
control of uniformity and cooling rate is important to reach accurate dimensions. The extruded
product may increase in size as it leaves the die and may be compensated by decreasing extru-
sion rate or the melt temperature. One problem that affects the output and quality of extrusion
is the possibility of trapped gases in the extrusion screw which is particularly common when
using powdered raw materials.

8.5 Testing of Plastics

The plastics testing centres (PTC) of CIPET are well equipped and fully devoted for fulfilling the
objectives of offering best services to the plastic industries by undertaking testing assignments

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viz: plastics materials/ products/ composites testing as per the National and International
standards.

8.5.1 Izod Impact Testing

Notched Izod Impact is a single point test that measures a materials resistance to impact from a
swinging pendulum. Izod impact is defined as the kinetic energy need-
ed to initiate fracture and continue the fracture until the specimen is
broken. Izod specimens are notched to prevent deformation of the
specimen upon impact. This test can be used as a quick and easy quali-
ty control check to determine if a material meets specific impact prop-
erties or to compare materials for general toughness.

 Test Procedure

The specimen is clamped into the pendulum impact test fixture with the
notched side facing the striking edge of the pendulum. The pendulum is re-
leased and allowed to strike through the specimen. If breakage does not occur, a heavier hammer is
used until failure occurs. Since many materials (especially thermoplastics) exhibit lower impact strength
at reduced temperatures, it is sometimes appropriate to test materials at temperatures that simulate
the intended end use environment.

Figure An Izod Impact Testing Machine

 Specimen size

The standard specimen for ASTM is 64 x 12.7 x 3.2 mm. The most common specimen thickness is 3.2
mm, but the preferred thickness is 6.4 mm because it is not as likely to bend or crush. The depth under
the notch of the specimen is 10.2 mm.

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8.5.2 Rockwell Hardness

The Rockwell Hardness test is a hardness measurement based on the net in-
crease in depth of impression as a load is applied. Hardness numbers have no
units and are commonly given in the R, L, M, E and K scales. The higher the
number in each of the scales, the harder the material.

 Test Procedure

A standard specimen is placed on the surface of the Rockwell Hardness tester. A minor load is applied
and the gauge is set to zero. The major load is applied by tripping a lever. After 15 seconds the major
load is removed. The specimen is allowed to recover for 15 seconds and then the hardness is read off
the dial with the minor load still applied.

 Specimen size:

A standard specimen of 6.4mm thickness is either moulded or cut from a sheet.

 Data

The hardness is read directly from the dial with either, R, L, M, E or K scales. The higher the
number in each scale, the harder the material. R and M scales are commonly used with plastics.

8.5.3 Coefficient of thermal expansion

Linear Thermal Expansion is used to determine the rate at which a material expands as a func-
tion of temperature. This test can be used for design purposes and to determine if failure by
thermal stress may occur. Understanding the relative expansion/contraction characteristics of
two materials in contact can be important for application success.

 Test Procedure

In a TMA (Thermo-mechanical analysis), the specimen is placed in the holder at room tempera-
ture. The height is measured by the probe. The furnace is raised and the temperature is
brought to 20 degrees below the lowest temperature of interest. The specimen is heated at a
specified rate, often ten degrees a minute, over the desired temperature range. A graph is pro-
duced. Alternatively, a dilatometer can be used. The specimen is placed in the Dilatometer at
room temperature, and the height gauge is positioned and zeroed. The apparatus is placed in a
temperature bath and the movement of the sample is measured from -30° C +30° C.

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  Specimen size:

For the TMA, the test specimen should be between 2 and 10 mm. in length and shall not exceed
10 mm in lateral dimension. The specimen must be flat on both ends. For the dilatometer, the
test sample should be approximately 12.7mm (0.5") wide x 75mm (3") long.

8.5.4 Shore Hardness

Durometer Hardness is used to determine the relative hardness of soft materials, usually plastic
or rubber. The test measures the penetration of a specified indentor into the material under
specified conditions of force and time. The hardness value is often used to identify or specify a
particular hardness of elastomers or as a quality control measure on lots of material.

 Test Procedure The specimen is first placed on a

hard flat surface. The indenter for the instrument is
then pressed in- to the specimen making sure that it
is parallel to the surface. The hardness is read within
one second (or as specified by the customer) of
firm contact with the specimen.

 Specimen size

The test specimens are generally 6.4mm thick. It is pos-

sible to pile several specimens to achieve the 6.4mm thickness, but one specimen is pre-
ferred.

 Data

The hardness numbers are derived from a scale. Shore A and Shore D hardness scales are com-
mon, with the A scale being used for softer and the D scale being used for harder materials.

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8.5.5 Tensile test
Universal testing machines allow you to stretch (tensile), bend (flexural), squash (compression)
or pull (shear) a sample until it breaks.

 Scope:
Tensile tests measure the force required to break a specimen and the extent to which
the specimen stretches or elongates to that breaking point. Tensile tests produce a
stress-strain diagram, which is used to determine tensile modulus. The data is often
used to specify a material, to design parts to withstand application force and as a quality
control check of materials. Since the physical properties of many materials (especially
thermoplastics) can vary depending on ambient temperature, it is sometimes appropri-
ate to test materials at temperatures that simulate the intended end use environment.
 Test Procedure:
Specimens are placed in the grips of the Instron at a specified grip separation and pulled
until failure. For ASTM D638 the test speed is determined by the material specification.
For ISO 527 the test speed is typically 5 or 50mm/min for measuring strength and elon-
gation and 1mm/min for measuring modulus. An extensometer is used to determine
elongation and tensile modulus.

 Elevated or Reduced Temperature Test Procedure:

A thermal chamber is installed on the Instron universal test machine. The chamber is
designed to allow the test mounts from the base and crosshead of the Instron to pass
through the top and bottom of the chamber. Standard test fixtures are installed inside
the chamber, and testing is conducted inside the controlled thermal environment the
same as it would be at ambient temperature. The chamber has internal electric heaters
for elevated temperatures and uses external carbon dioxide gas as a coolant for reduced
temperatures. The size of the chamber places a limitation on the maximum elongation
that can be reached, and extensometers are generally limited to no more than 200° C.

 Specimen size:
The most common specimen for ASTM D638 is a Type I tensile bar. The most common
specimen for ISO 527 is the ISO 3167 Type 1A multipurpose specimen. ASTM D882 uses
strips cut from thin sheet or film.

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  Data:

The following calculations can be made from tensile test results:

1. tensile strength (at yield and at break)

2. tensile modulus
3. strain
4. elongation and percent elongation at yield
5. elongation and percent elongation at break

8.6 Tool Room

CIPET centers are well equipped with ultramodern, state-of-the-art Tool Room machines and it
is an ideal Tool Room for any Tool Maker. CNC machinery and extended its facilities for taking
up commercial job assignments for mould fabrication, high precision machining and manufac-
turing of standard mould bases. Besides manufacturing of moulds, the tool rooms also under-
take job orders of varying magnitude such as repair of moulds and dies, CNC machining, CNC
spark erosion, grinding, drilling, designing, development of jigs and fixtures, tool parts etc.

CNC Machines
• Universal milling and boring Machine
• Die sinking - EDM
• Universal lathe with hydrobar feeder
• High precision surface and profile grinder
• Wire cut EDM
• HAAS USA Make turning Centre
• HAAS USA High Speed 5 Axis machining centre
• HAA USA High Speed 3 Axis Machining Centre
• CNC EDM Spark erosion Machine

Special purpose Machines

• Jig boring machine
• Co-ordinate drilling and boring machine
• Rigid die sinking machine Center lathe with hydro copying attachment
• Rotary surface grinding Cylindrical grinder

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• Optical profile grinding machine

Inspection facilities
• Co-ordinate measuring machine
• Profile projector
• Ultrasonic flaw detector Surface tester

8.7 DESIGN/CAD/CAM

Good design is important for any manufactured product but for plastics it is absolutely vital. We
have no instinct for plastics. Most of those we use today have been around for little more than
two generations. Compare that with the thousands of years of experience we have with metals.
And plastics are more varied, more complicated. For most designs in metals, there is no need to
worry about the effects of time, temperature or environment. It is a different story for plastics.
They creep and shrink as time passes; their properties change over the temperature range of
everyday life; they may be affected by common household and industrial materials. The philos-
opher Heidegger defined technology as a way of arranging the world so that one does not have
to experience it. We can extend his thought to define design as a way of arranging technology
so that we

do not have to experience it. In other words, good design delivers function, form and technolo-
gy in objects that meet the needs of users without making demands on them. The well-
designed object gives pleasure or at least satisfaction in use, and does what it should do with-
out undue concern.

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Good design combines concept with embodiment. Unless the two are considered together, the
result will be an article that cannot be made economically or one that fails in use. This is partic-
ularly important for plastics. It is vital to choose the right material for the job. When that is
done, it is equally important to adapt the details of the design to suit the characteristics of the
material and the limitations of the production process. Plastics come in a bewildering variety.
There are a hundred or more distinct generic types. On top of that, advanced techniques with
catalysts and compounding are creating new alloys, blends and molecular forms. All of these
materials can have their properties modified by control of molecular weight and by additives
such as reinforcements. The number of different grades of plastics materials available to the
designer now approaches 50,000. The importance - and the difficulty - of making the right
choice is obvious.

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