PSU-Physics PH-315 Andrés La Rosa

RLC SERIES CIRCUIT RESONANCE

(Complex impedance)
_______________________________________________________________________________
PURPOSE
To observe the frequency-dependence of impedance in an alternating current (AC)
circuit. We will measure the resonance frequency and use its value to determine the
inductance of a coil, assuming the values of the capacitance and the resistor. The
oscilloscope will be used to measure the phase lags between voltage and the current
across a resistor, a capacitor and an inductor. The analysis is undertaken using
complex variable.

THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS
I. Electrical components
Resistance
Capacitor complex impedance
Inductor complex impedance
II. Kirchhoff law for the RLC circuit
III. How to calculate and measure current amplitude Io() and phase lag () ?
Complex impedance of the RLC-series circuit
Calculation of Io and 
IV. Resonance
Resonance condition
Relative orientation of the phasors input voltage vA and current
response i at different values of 
Example: Analysis at resonance and out of resonance conditions

EXPERIMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
Experimental setup
Measurements
a) Finding L
b) Plot I o as a function of .
VoA
c) Plot the experimental values of | z | = Zo = as a function of 
Io
d) Plot the experimental values of the phase vs frequency,  = ()
e) Influence of the resistance (Repeat the experiments using at least two different
values)
f) Measurement of the complex voltages across R, C and L.

1
I. Electrical components
We will use the following notation:
vA, i, z complex quantities.1
VoA, Io, Zo constant real quantities.
j2 = -1
The circuit in Fig. 1 shows the three elements, C, L and R connected in series.
The connection in series implies that the current i is the same across each element.

Input voltage
The input voltage is given by,

v A  VoA e j t (Input driving voltage) (1)

Here VoA is a positive real number; the input diving voltage is controlled by the user.

Current
Since the driving voltage is changing harmonically with angular frequency , we assume that
the steady current also changes harmonically with the same frequency , except with an
eventual phase difference.
j ( t -  )
i  Io e where I o and  are unknown (2)

Im
i
A C
vA t 

VoA
L
vA Real

Fig. 1 RLC series circuit. Fig. 2 Phasor vA , of amplitude VoA, rotating

with angular velocity 

1
For a brief description on complex variable see the companion file Complex Variable available online at the PH-
315 webpage.
http://www.pdx.edu/nanogroup/sites/www.pdx.edu.nanogroup/files/NOTES_2013__COMPLEX_NUMBERS_for
_Exp_RLC_SERIES.pdf

2
The peculiar characteristic is in this expression is that I o and  depend on the frequency  ;
that is, I o  I o ( ) and    ( )

Given C, L and R, as well as VoA, we have to figure out the values of Io and .

Resistance
Voltage across the resistor: vR  R i (3)

Capacitor complex impedance

Since the current i is the same across each element, we will express their drop of voltage in
terms of that current.

Voltage across the capacitor:

q
On one hand: vC  , which implies
C
d vC i
 (i)
dt C
On the other hand: The voltage across the capacitor should be changing also
harmonically at the frequency  ; like vC  ( vC ) o e j t .


This implies,
d vC
 j ( vC ) o e j t
dt

d vC
 j vC (ii)
dt
Equating the two expressions (i) and (ii), one obtains,
i
j vC  ;
C
Or, equivalently,

 1 
vC   i (4)
 j C 
 e - j  /2)
1
Since
j
 1 - j  /2 ) 
vC   e  i Voltage across the capacitor is
 C
lagging 90o with respect to the
current.

3
 j ( t -  )
Exercise: Assuming i  I o e , draw the phasors vC and i ( together in the
same diagram) for arbitrary fixed values of , , and t.

In (4), the expression

1
zC  (5)
j C

is called the capacitance complex impedance. Thus, one re-writes expression (4) as,

vC  zC i (6)

Notice in (5) that zC changes with the frequency  .

Inductor complex impedance

Voltage induced across the inductor:
di
On one hand: v L  L
dt
On the other hand: Since the current is assumed to be changing according to
i  I o e j ( t- )
Then

 L j I o e j ( t- )
di
v L  L
dt
 L j i
Thus,
v L   jL i (7)

Since j  e j  /2 )
v L  [ Le j  /2 ) ] i Voltage across the inductor
leading 90o with respect to the
current.
j ( t -  )
Exercise: Assuming i  I o e , draw the phasors v L and i (together in the
same diagram) for arbitrary fixed values of , , and t.

The expression
z L  j L (8)

is called the inductance complex impedance.

4
 v L  z L i (9)
Notice z L changes with the frequency  .

II. Kirchhoff law for the RLC circuit

Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 1 Kirchhoff law states that, at any instant of time, the addition
of the three voltages v R , vC , and vL should be equal to vA..

v A  v R + vL + vC
1
 Ri + jL i + i
j C

1
vA  [ R  j L  ]i . (10)
j C

Experimental assignment: Place the sinusoidal driving voltage in channel-1 of the oscilloscope.
In channel-2 monitor, one at a time, the voltage across R, C, and L, respectively. Plot all the
waveforms in a single graph, for comparison.

One can write expression (10) more explicitly,

VoA e j t  [ R  j L  ] I o e j ( t -  )
1
j C

Cancelling the factor e j t ,

1
VoA  [ R  j L  ] I o e- j  , (11)
j C
where I o and  are still unknown.

Equivalently,
1
VoA  [ R ] I o e - j   [ j L ] I o e - j   [ ] I o e- j 
j C
(12)
1
VoA  [ R] I o e- j   [ L ] I o e- j   j / 2
 [ ] I o e - j  j / 2
C
where I o  I o ( ) and    ( )

Expression (12) is very convenient for answering the questions that appear in the experimental
section below [in particular see the requirement f ) in that section].

5
For a given , you have to measure both Io and , and subsequently verify that those
experimental values fulfill expression (12).
Notice, the left side in expression (12) is a real quantity; therefore the right side has to be real
as well (i.e. when entering the experimental values the right side has to be a real number).

III. How to calculate and measure current amplitude Io() and phase lag () ?
We have to calculate Io and  in terms of R, L, C, and VoA . It is convenient to calculate first the
total complex impedance of the circuit.
 Complex impedance of the RLC-series circuit
In expression (10),
1
v A  [ R  j L  ] i,
j C
we identify the total impedance of the circuit z  v A / i as,

1 1
z  R  j L   R  j ( L  ) (13)
j C ωC

Total impedance RLC series circuit.

Exercise. Show that z can alternatively be written in the form,

z  Z o e j (14)
where
 1 
 L  
C
  arctan 
R
and
1 2
Z o  R 2  ( L  )
C

6
 Im

 L

 L– 1/( C)
 


R Real
1/(C)

Fig. 3 Representation in the complex plane of the total

complex impedance z, given by expression(14).

 Calculation of Io and 
From expression (11)
1
VoA  [ R  j L  ] I o e- j 
j C
Using (13) and (14),

VoA  [ z ] I o e -j 

VoA  [ Z o e j ] I o e -j 

Since VoA is a real number, the right side of the last expression has to be real as well. This
requires that:

  has to be equal to .
(15)
 The latter also implies that IoA = VoA / Zo.

That is,

VoA VoA
I o ( )  =
Zo 1 2
R 2  (L  )
C
and (16)
 1 
 (L   C ) 
 ( )    arctan  
 R 
 

7
In summary, for the RLC-series circuit in Fig. 1 above,

v A  VoA e j t , i  Io e j ( t -  ) (17)

VoA
where Io   I o ( )
1 2
R  ( L 
2
)
C

 1 
 ( L   C ) 
 ( )  arctan  
 R 
 

IV. Resonance
Resonance condition
Notice in (14) and (16) that,
when L  1 /(C ) ,
the impedance Z o is minimum, and the current I o is maximum
Hence,
1
  o  (18)
LC
is called the resonance frequency.



 
Fig. 6 Resonance curve (from expression (16).

Relative orientation of the phasors vA and i at different values of 

 At very low frequencies:  0  - 
j ( t  /2 )
i  I o ( ) e (current i leads the voltage vA)

8
 1
 at   o  : = 
LC
j ( t )
 i  I o (o ) e (current i in phase with the voltage vA)

 at very high frequencies  


 

j ( t  /2 ) v(current
i  I o ( ) e i lags the voltage vA)

Im Im Im
 vA 
vA 
i Real i i Real

vA 
~ 0 ~ 0   ∞
Fig. 4 Phasor vA and phasor i rotate with the same frequency. Their phase difference
remains constant at fixed frequency, but changes as the frequency  varies. Here
v A  VoA e j t

A similar diagram is shown in Fig. 5.

Im Im vA
 vA 

i i
Real Real
is measured relative to
Case: <o Case:  >o

< 0 > 0
Fig. 5 The phasor voltage and the phasor current rotating counterclockwise.
Left: The current leads the voltage. Right: The current lags the voltage.

Example: Analysis at resonance and out of resonace conditions

(Taken from James Brophy, “Basic Electronics for Scientists,” McGraw Hill).

9
Calculate the current in the circuit and the voltages across each component for the circuit in Fig.
7. Consider a) the case of resonance, and b) a case out of resonance.

Io (mA)

i
A C= 0.1 F

L= 250 mH
10V

R= 100 

Fig. 7 RLC series circuit. Fig. 8 Resonance curve of circuit 7.

The input voltage is v A  10 Volts e j t

VoA
After substituting the values for R, C and L into Eq. (17), I o ( )  , it is
1
R 2  (L  )2
C
found that the current in the circuit changes with frequency as illustrated in Fig. 8.
The maximum current is I0.max = 10/100 = 0.1 Amps (which occurs at the resonance frequency).
1 1
fo    1006 Hz
2 LC 6.28 250  10 -3  0.1  10 -6

a) Case of resonance
The voltage drop across each element at resonance illustrates an important feature of
alternating currents. Let’s see.
Current at resonance: I = 0.1 Amp

Voltage amplitude across the resistor: VR = R I = 100   0.1 A = 10 Volts

1 1
Voltage amplitude across the capacitor: VC = I =  0.1 A = 158 Volts
C 2  1006 Hz  10-7 F

Voltage amplitude across the inductor: VL =  L I = 2  1006 Hz  0.25 H  0.1 A = 158 Volts

It is evident the amplitude voltage drops around the circuit do not add up to zero.

Notice however that,

10
 According to expression (4), the phase angle at the capacitor voltage vC
is -90o with respect to the current.
According to expression (7), the phase angle of the voltage across the
inductor is, +90o with respect to the current.
According to expression (16), the phase difference between the applied
voltage and the current is zero;  = 0.

From (17), the current at resonance (f=1006 Hz) is: i = 0.1 Amp  e j  t

Voltage across the resistor: vR = Ri = 100  i = 10 Volts  e j  t

1
Voltage across the capacitor: vC = i =  j 158 Volts  e j  t
j C
Voltage across the inductor: vL = j L i = j 158 Volts  e j  t
Notice, the instantaneous voltage drop across the two reactances (capacitor and inductor)
cancel each other out.

Thus , adding the three voltages vR + vC + vL one obtains 10 Volts  e j  t ,
which equals the input voltage v A  10 Volts e j t .

This confirms the Kirchhoff law.

Kirchhoff’s voltage rule is valid when both the magnitude and phases of
the currents and voltages are taken into account.

b) Case: Selecting a frequency different than the resonance frequency

Of course Kirchhoff’ law is equally valid at frequencies away from resonance.
Consider the voltage drop around the circuit in Fig. 7 at a frequency of f= 1200 Hz.
According to expression (17), at f=1200 Hz the phase angle is,
 1 
 ( 2  1200  0.25 )  2  1200  10 -7 ) 
  arctan  
 100 
 
 1885  1326 
 arctan   =  arctan  5.5865  = 79.85o or 1.39 radians.
 100 

According to expression (17), at f=1200 Hz the current is,

j ( t -  )
i  I o ( ) e = I o ( ) e -j   e j  t
VoA
= e -j   e j  t
1 2
R 2  ( L  )
C

11
 10
= e -j 1.39  e j  t
100  (1885  1326)
2 2

10
= e -j 1.39  e j  t
567.9

= 1.76  10-2  e -j 1.39  e j  t

= 1.76  10-2  [ cos(1.39) - j sin (1.39) ]  e j  t

Voltage across the resistor:

vR = R i = 100  i = 1.76 Volts  [ cos(1.39) - j sin (1.39) ]  e j  t

= [ 0.31 - j 1.73 ]  e j  t

Voltage across the capacitor:

1 1
vC = i =j i = e -j /2 1326  i
j C 2  1200  10-7

= e -j /2 1326  1.76  10-2  e -j 1.39  e j  t

= 23.3 e -j 2.96  e j  t

= 23.3 [ cos(2.96) - j sin (2.96) ]  e j  t

= [ -22.91 - j 4.2 ]  e j  t

Voltage across the inductor:

vL = j L i = j ( 2  1200  0.25 ) i = e j /2 1885 i

= e j /2 1885  1.76  10-2  e -j 1.39  e j  t

= 33.17  e j 0.18  e j  t

= 33.17  [ cos(0.18) + j sin (cos(0.18) ]  e j  t

= [ 32.63 + j 5.9 ]  e j  t

v R + vL + vC = { [ 0.31 - j 1.73 ] +

[ 32.63 + j 5.9 ] +
[ -22.91 - j 4.2 ] }Volts  e j  t

12
 = { 10.03 - j 0.03 }  e j  t

 10 Volts  e j  t

which is equal to v A  10 Volts e j t , thus verifying Kirchhoff law

In summary, for two different driving frequencies, f = 1006 Hz and 1200 Hz, we have verified
that the Kirchhoff’s voltage rule is valid for the circuit in Fig. 7.

EXPERIMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
Experimental setup
Build the circuit shown in Fig. 9. A two-channel oscilloscope is our basic measuring tool in
alternating current (AC) circuits.
The resistor Ro is a known resistor (whose value is on the order of 100 ).
The ground of the oscilloscope will be connected to G.
Channel-1 will monitor the input voltage at A.
Channel-2 will monitor the voltage at B.

v A  VoA e j t VA(t) = Real { v A }

= Real { VoA e j t }
=VoA cos ( t ) 
C= 10 nF
VoA is a constant real-value.
(It is the amplitude of your sinusoidal A
input voltage). L

i  I o e j ( t- ) I(t) = Real { i }

Ro
= Real { I o e j ( t- ) } Ground
= Io cos ( t-)

G
Io = Io() is a real-value. Fig. 9 RLC series circuit.

Suggestion: use C~ 10 nF , 100 nF (or higher) for this experiment.

Note: If a capacitor is, for example, labeled 473G, it means C = 47  103 picoFarads.
Pico means 10-12.

13
Measure the frequency of the input voltage using the oscilloscope. (Do not trust the reading
from the signal generator knob.)

In Fig. 9 the voltage at B is the voltage across the resistor VR = VR (t). This is the trace you see in
your oscilloscope.
Since VR(t) = R0 I (t), then the current I= I (t) can be obtained.

VR ( t )
I (t )  (18)
R
The voltage at A is the driving voltage VA = VA(t). It is the trace you see in your oscilloscope.

Measurements
a) In order to compare your results to the theory, determine first the value of the inductance
L. This is best done early on by locating the resonance frequency =o, the one that
makes i) the impedance Zo minimum, ii) the phase between VA and VR equal to zero, and iii)
the current I0 maximum. (See expressions 14 and 15 above.)
Select values of  around o (that is the frequency region where a majority of your data
need to be taken).

b) Plot I o as a function of .
(At the bottom of this file see the suggestion about how to overcome the unwanted
variability of the input voltage amplitude as the frequency changes).
c) Plot the experimental values of | z | = Zo as a function of .
Here Zo is the magnitude of the complex impedance z of the RLC circuit (see expression 14).
Zo, is determined experimentally from the ratio of amplitudes of the two signals VA(t), and
I(t) (see expression (15):
Amplitude of the signal VA (t ) VoA
| z |= Zo = =
Amplitude of the signal I(t ) Io

Compare your experimental results with the ones obtained using expression (14) above.
Plot the theoretical (curve) and experimental values (discrete points) of Zo as a function of
 (both in the same graph, for comparison).

d) The phase can be measured on the oscilloscope as a distance between the points where the
two traces cross the horizontal axis, and converted to degrees by comparing the half (or
full) wavelength as shown on the oscilloscope. See figure 10 below.
Pay attention during the measurements to verify if  is positive or negative. That is,
whether the VR is lagging or ahead of VA.
Plot the experimental values of the phase vs frequency,  = ().
Plot also the theoretical values for the phase predicted by expression (17).

14
 Real voltages Complex analysis
measured by the oscilloscope Phasors

vA
VA vR t
 v
R

time

180o

VA =VoA Cos (t); VR = VoR Cos (t - ) Phasors vA and vR rotating with
The traces show VR lagging VA by . angular velocity vR lags vA by .

Fig. 10 Methodology to measure the phase using the oscilloscope.

e) During the course of measurements you take enough data to make a graph of both
impedance Zo and phase  as a function of frequency . (as requested above).
How do the graphs change when using a higher or lower value of the resistance Ro? Repeat
the experiments using at least two different values

f) Measurement of the complex volages across R, C and L.

By swapping C with R, and L with R, it is possible to measure the voltage across C and
across L respectively.
f1) Measurement at resonance condition:
 Measure the amplitude and phase (relative to vA) of the current i. Express the
experimental value of i in phasor format.

 Measure the amplitude and phase (relative to vA) of the individual voltages vc, vL, vR.
Express their experimental values in phasor format.
Verify if Kirchhoff law is fulfilled
1
 Verify if vC  i.
j C
Verify if v L   jL i

f2) Measurement at out of resonance condition

Choose a frequency * at which Io() is ~50% of the current obtained at resonance.
 Measure the amplitude and phase (relative to vA) of the current i. Express the
experimental value of i in phasor format.

 Measure the amplitude and phase (relative to vA) of the individual voltages vc, vL, vR.
Express their experimental values in phasor format.

15
 Verify if Kirchhoff law is fulfilled.
1
 Verify if vC  i.
j C
Verify if v L   jL i

_______________________________

OVERCOMING some SHORTCOMINGS ENCOUNTERED in the EXPERIMENT

Problem: Variability of the input voltage amplitude
Solution: By the normalization method.
While sweeping the frequency of the driving voltage VA around the resonance frequency, it is
observed that the amplitude VoA also changes. Ideally, it would be desirable that this amplitude
remains constant.
The instability of the VoA makes somewhat inaccurate the procedure of locating the resonance
frequency by monitoring the frequency at which the current is maximum. (When you do this,
you may find that at the frequency where the current is maximum, VA(t) and I(t) are not in
phase.) Still this is still a good preliminary step, since it helps to identify the frequency range
where we have to take a closer look.
Next, sweep the frequency a bit, until you find that the phase between VA and I is zero.
Now we suggest to manually normalize the input voltage VA. By this we mean to choose a fixed
amplitude value for VA, let’s call it VA, fixed. Then:
For a given frequency, record the current amplitude and phase.
Move to another frequency (you may notice that the amplitude of VA has changed.) Turn
the knob that controls the amplitude of VA until you obtain back the predetermined fixed
value VA, fixed. Then record the current amplitude and phase.
And so on, repeat the procedure for each frequency around the resonance frequency.

16
17
 v 1
Or, i   v , which gives,
Z R  j (L  1 )
C

1
i e j v
1 2
R 2  (L  )
C
where
 1 
 (L   C ) 
  arctan  
 R 
 
Notice,
at very low frequencies:  + 

at   o 
1
we have: =  
LC

at very high frequencies  - 

Thus we have,
v  Vo e jt (driving voltage)

j (t  )
iIe  I e jt e j (current)

dq I j (t  ) I j (t  ) I j (t   / 2) j (t   / 2)

i implies q  e j e  e Qe
dt j  

q  Q e j (t   / 2)  Q e j (t  )Q e-j / 2 (charge)

q lags the current i by /2

Using the phasors representation, k

A
Im x
z
jt m
z  Ae t

Real

18
 Real

Im

v v v
q Real q
q

At ~ 0 At ~ 0 At   ∞

Real

Im

i
v v v
Real i
i

At ~ 0 At ~ 0 At   ∞

19