Proving Derivatives from First Principles

A. Definition
The derivative of a function f at any given value x in the domain is defined as:
d f ( x + h) − f ( x)
f ( x ) = f ’( x ) = lim
dx h →0 h
provided this limit exists.

B. Basic Derivatives

Derivative of a constant

If f ( x ) = c , where c is a constant independent of x, then f ’( x ) = 0 .

Proof
c−c
f ’( x ) = lim
h→0 h
= lim 0 = 0
h→0

The power rule for positive integer powers

The case for the power being 1 is very simple. It is consistent with the idea of
the gradient of the line y = x being equal to 1.

If f ( x ) = x , then f ’( x ) = 1 .

Proof
f ’( x ) = lim
( x + h) − x
h →0 h
h
= lim
h →0 h

= lim1 = 1
h →0

If f ( x ) = x n , then f ’( x ) = nx n −1 .

The case for higher powers requires more work. Those who have done a
course on calculus might be tempted to prove this result using the product rule
repeatedly. Although it is not considered to be a proper “proof from first principles”,
there is nothing stopping you to try it as an exercise on mathematical induction.

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 Proof (Method One – Binomial Theorem)
Recall the Binomial Theorem for positive integers:
i =n
n
( a + b ) = ∑   a n −i b i
n

i =0  i 

Applying this to the derivative function gives:

( x + h) − xn
n

f ’( x ) = lim
h →0 h

= lim
( x + nxn−1h + 12 n ( n − 1) x n−2 h2 + L + nxhn−1 + hn ) − xn
n

h →0 h
nx h + 12 n ( n − 1) x
n −1 n−2
h + L + nxh n −1 + h n
2

= lim
h →0 h
= lim ( nx n −1
+ 12 n ( n − 1) x n−2
h + L + nxh n − 2 + h n −1 )
h →0

= lim nx n −1 + lim 12 n ( n − 1) x n − 2 h + L + lim nxh n − 2 + lim h n −1

h →0 h→0 h→0 h →0
n −1
= nx + 0 +L + 0 + 0
= nx n −1

Proof (Method Two – Change of Variable)

Let a = x + h .
Then h = a − x and h → 0 ⇒ a − x → 0 ⇒ a → x .
So the derivative can be written in the form:
f ( x + h) − f ( x)
f ’( x ) = lim
h →0 h
f (a) − f ( x)
= lim
a→ x a−x
Now a − x = ( a − x ) ( a n −1 + a n − 2 x + L + ax n − 2 + x n −1 )
n n

So the derivative becomes:

f (a) − f ( x)
f ’( x ) = lim
a→ x a−x
a − xn
n
= lim
a→ x a − x

= lim ( a n −1 + a n − 2 x + L + ax n − 2 + x n −1 )
a→ x

= lim a n −1 + lim a n − 2 x + L + lim ax n − 2 + lim x n −1

a→ x a→ x a→x a→x
n −1 n−2 n−2 n −1
=x +x x + L + xx +x
= nx n −1

Note that these proofs make use of various properties of limits. If you are not
familiar with these properties (or how they are derived) please refer to “Laws of
Limits”.

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C. Linear Combinations of Derivatives

The constant multiplier rule

d
If c is a constant and f is a differentiable function, then cf ( x )  = cf ’( x ) .
dx 

Proof
Let g ( x ) = cf ( x ) .
g ( x + h) − g ( x)
g ’( x ) = lim
h →0 h
cf ( x + h ) − cf ( x )
= lim
h →0 h
 f ( x + h) − f ( x) 
= lim c  
h →0
 h 
 f ( x + h) − f ( x) 
= c lim  
h→0
 h 
= cf ’( x )

The sum rule

d
If f and g are both differentiable, then  f ( x ) + g ( x )  = f ’( x ) + g ’( x ) .
dx 

Proof
Let F ( x ) = f ( x ) + g ( x ) .
F ( x + h) − F ( x)
F ’( x ) = lim
h→0 h
 f ( x + h ) + g ( x + h )  −  f ( x ) + g ( x ) 
= lim 
h→0 h
 f ( x + h) − f ( x) g ( x + h) − g ( x) 
= lim  + 
h→0
 h h 
f ( x + h) − f ( x) g ( x + h) − g ( x)
= lim + lim
h→0 h h →0 h
= f ’( x ) + g ’( x )

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The difference rule

d
If f and g are both differentiable, then  f ( x ) − g ( x )  = f ’( x ) − g ’( x ) .
dx 

Proof
Write f ( x ) − g ( x ) = f ( x ) + ( −1) g ( x ) .
Then by the sum rule:
d d
 f ( x ) − g ( x )  =  f ( x ) + ( −1) g ( x ) 
dx dx
d
= f ’( x ) + ( −1) g ( x ) 
dx
But by the constant multiplier rule:
d d
( −1) g ( x )  = − g ( x )
dx dx
= − g ’( x )
So combining the two results give:
d d
 f ( x ) − g ( x )  = f ’( x ) + ( −1) g ( x ) 
dx dx
= f ’( x ) + ( − g ’( x ) )
= f ’( x ) − g ’( x )

D. The Product Rule and the Quotient Rule

The Product Rule

If f and g are both differentiable and their product is defined for all values of x
d
in the domain, then  f ( x ) g ( x )  = f ( x ) g ’( x ) + g ( x ) f ’( x ) .
dx 

Proof
Let F ( x ) = f ( x ) g ( x ) .
f ( x + h) g ( x + h) − f ( x) g ( x)
F ’( x ) = lim
h→0 h
f ( x + h) g ( x + h) − f ( x + h) g ( x) + f ( x + h) g ( x) − f ( x) g ( x )
= lim
h→0 h
 g ( x + h) − g ( x) f ( x + h) − f ( x) 
= lim  f ( x + h ) + g ( x) 
h→0
 h h 
g ( x + h) − g ( x) f ( x + h) − f ( x)
= lim f ( x + h ) + lim g ( x )
h→0 h h →0 h
Since g ( x ) is a constant with respect to the variable h, lim g ( x ) = g ( x ) .
h →0

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 Since f is differentiable, it follows that it is also continuous hence by definition
of a continuous function lim f ( x + h ) = f ( x ) .
h →0

Now substituting these two limits into the derivative gives:

g ( x + h) − g ( x) f ( x + h) − f ( x)
F ’( x ) = lim f ( x + h ) lim + lim g ( x ) lim
h→0 h →0 h h→0 h →0 h
= f ( x ) g ’( x ) + g ( x ) f ’( x )

The Quotient Rule

If f and g are both differentiable, and that the function g does not equal to zero
d  f ( x )  g ( x ) f ’( x ) − f ( x ) g ’( x )
for all values of x in the domain, then  = .
dx  g ( x )   g ( x ) 
2

Proof
Let F ( x ) = f ( x ) g ( x ) .
f ( x + h) f ( x)
−
g ( x + h) g ( x)
F ’( x ) = lim
h→0 h
f ( x + h) g ( x) − f ( x) g ( x + h)
= lim
h→0 g ( x) g ( x + h) h
f ( x + h) g ( x) − f ( x) g ( x) + f ( x) g ( x) − f ( x) g ( x + h)
= lim
h→0 g ( x) g ( x + h) h
f ( x + h) − f ( x) g ( x + h) − g ( x)
g ( x) − f ( x)
= lim h h
h→0 g ( x) g ( x + h)
Since f ( x ) , g ( x ) are constants with respect to the variable h, the limits equal
the functions; lim f ( x ) = f ( x ) , lim g ( x ) = g ( x ) .
h →0 h →0

Since g is differentiable, it follows that it is also continuous hence by

definition of a continuous function lim g ( x + h ) = g ( x ) .
h →0

Substituting these limits into the derivative gives:

f ( x + h) − f ( x) g ( x + h) − g ( x)
lim g ( x ) lim − lim f ( x ) lim
F ’( x ) =
h →0 h →0 h h→0 h →0 h
lim g ( x ) lim g ( x + h )
h →0 h →0

g ( x ) f ’( x ) − f ( x ) g ’( x )
=
 g ( x ) 
2

Note that while the quotient rule can be proved from the product rule with
−1
f ( x )  g ( x )  it requires a result which has yet to be proved from first principles,
namely the chain rule (see below).

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E. The Chain Rule

Let y = f ( x ) . The corresponding increment in y given an increment in x by

∆x is ∆y = f ( x + ∆x ) − f ( x ) .
Hence another way to define the derivative is:
∆y
f ’( x ) = lim
∆x → 0 ∆x

∆y ∆y
Now let ε = − f ’( x ) . (Note that lim ε = lim − lim f ’( x ) = 0 .)
∆x ∆x → 0 ∆x → 0 ∆x ∆x → 0

Rearranging this gives:

∆y = f ’( x ) ∆x + ε∆x (provided the derivative of f exists)

Let y = f ( u ) , u = g ( x ) . The corresponding increment in u and y given an

increment in x by ∆x is ∆u and ∆y respectively.

Applying the previous result:

∆u = g ’( x ) ∆x + ε1∆x =  g ’( x ) + ε1  ∆x where ∆x → 0 ⇒ ε1 → 0
∆y = f ’( u ) ∆u + ε 2 ∆u =  f ’( u ) + ε 2  ∆u where ∆u → 0 ⇒ ε 2 → 0

Substituting the expression for ∆u into ∆y gives:

∆y
∆y =  f ’( u ) + ε 2   g ’( x ) + ε1  ∆x ⇒ =  f ’( u ) + ε 2   g ’( x ) + ε1 
∆x 

Taking limits give the derivative for function of a function:

dy ∆y
= lim
dx ∆x → 0 ∆x
= lim  f ’( u ) + ε 2   g ’( x ) + ε1 
∆x → 0

= f ’( u ) g ’( x )

dy dy du
The Chins Rule is often written in the form = .
dx du dx

F. Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

In order to find the derivative function for trigonometric functions, two

important limits must first be established.

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 Consider a sector of a circle with center O, central angle θ and radius 1.
(refer to diagram below) By definition of the radian measure, arc AB = θ . Drop the
altitude from B and let the point of intersection on OA be C. Note that
BC = OB sin θ = sin θ , and that BC < AB (which follows from Pythagoras).
Clearly AB < arc AB , so BC < arc AB ⇒ sin θ < θ .

Let the tangents at A and B intersect at E, from the diagram it can be seen that
arc AB < AE + EB . So:
θ = arc AB
< AE + EB
≤ AE + ED
= AD
= OA tan θ
= tan θ

sin θ sin θ sin θ

Now sin θ < θ ⇒ < 1 and θ < tan θ ⇒ θ < ⇒ cos θ < .
θ cos θ θ
Combining the two inequalities give:
sin θ
cos θ < <1
θ

Since the cosine function is continuous, lim cos x = cos 0 = 1 . But lim1 = 1 as
x →0 x→ 0
well so by the squeeze theorem (if you are unfamiliar with this theorem please refer to
“Analysis and Approximations”) it follows that:
sin θ
lim+ =1
θ →0 θ
The function ( sin θ ) θ is even therefore its right and left limits at zero must equal.
Hence:
sin x sin x sin x
lim+ = lim− = lim =1
x →0 x x →0 x x →0 x
which is the first limit required. (Remember that trigonometric functions must be in
radians!)

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 The second limit can be deduced algebraically as follows:
cos x − 1  cos x − 1 cos x + 1 
lim = lim 
x →0 x x → 0
 x cos x + 1 
cos 2 x − 1
= lim
x → 0 x ( cos x + 1)

− sin 2 x
= lim
x→0 x ( cos x + 1)
sin x sin x
= − lim
x →0 x cos x + 1
sin x sin x
= − lim glim
x →0 x x →0 cos x + 1
 0 
= −1 =0
 1+1 

Derivative of the Sine Function

Let f ( x ) = sin x , then f ’( x ) = cos x .

Proof
Recall the double angle formula for the sine function:
sin ( A + B ) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
Applying this result in the derivative yields the two limits established above:
f ( x + a) − f ( x)
f ’( x ) = lim
a →0 a
sin ( x + a ) − sin x
= lim
a →0 a
sin x cos a + cos x sin a − sin x
= lim
a →0 a
 sin x cos a − sin x cos x sin a 
= lim  + 
a →0
 a a
  cos a − 1   sin a  
= lim sin x   + cos x  
a →0
  a   a 
 cos a − 1   sin a 
= lim sin x glim   + lim cos x glim  
a →0 a →0
 a  a →0 a →0
 a 
= sin x ( 0 ) + cos x (1)
= cos x
Note that lim sin x = sin L, lim cos x = cos L follows from the definition of
x→ L x→L
continuous functions.

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Derivative of the Cosine Function

Let f ( x ) = cos x , then f ’( x ) = − sin x .

Proof
Recall the double angle formula for the cosine function:
cos ( A + B ) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B
cos ( x + a ) − cos x
f ’( x ) = lim
a →0 a
cos x cos a − sin x sin a − cos x
= lim
a →0 a
 cos x cos a − cos x sin x sin a 
= lim  − 
a →0
 a a
  cos a − 1   sin a  
= lim  cos x   − sin x  
a →0
  a   a 
cos a − 1 sin a
= lim cos x glim − lim sin x glim
a →0 a →0 a a →0 a →0 a
= cos x ( 0 ) − sin x (1)
= − sin x

Derivative of the Tangent Function

If f ( x ) = tan x , then f ’( x ) = sec 2 x .

Proof
While the tangent function can be differentiated by using the definition of a
derivative, it is much easier to use three results which have already been established;
namely the derivative of sine and cosine and the quotient rule:

( tan x ) = 
d d sin x 

dx dx  cos x 
d d
cos x ( sin x ) − sin x ( cos x )
= dx dx
2
cos x
cos x ( cos x ) − sin x ( − sin x )
=
cos 2 x
cos 2 x + sin 2 x
=
cos 2 x
1
= 2
= sec2 x
cos x

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