Chapter 6: Hydraulic Conductivity

Hydraulic Conductivity – is a property of vasculat plants, soils and rocks that describes the ease with
which a fluid (usually water) can move through pore spaces or fractures.
Hydraulic conductivity of soils depends on several factors:

 Fluid viscosity
 Pore-size distribution
 Grain-size distribution
 Void ratio
 Roughness of mineral particles
 Degree of soil saturation

In clayey soils, structure plays an important role in hydraulic conductivity. Other major factors
that affect the hydraulic conductivity of clays are the ionic concentration and the thickness of
layers of water held to the clay particles.
The value of hydraulic conductivity, k, varies widely for different soils. Some typical values for
saturated soils are given below.

The hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils is lower and increases rapidly with the degree of
saturation.
The hydraulic conductivity of a soil is also related to the properties of the fluid flowing through it
by the following equation:
𝛾𝑤
𝑘= 𝐾
ƞ

Where
𝛾𝑤 = unit weight of water
ƞ = viscosity of water
K = absolute permeability
The absolute permeability, K, is expressed in units of length squared (that is, 𝑐𝑚2 ) and the
viscosity of water, which is in turn a function of the temperature at which the test is conducted.
Therefore,
𝑘𝑇1 ƞ 𝑇2 𝛾𝑢(𝑇1)
= ×
𝑘 𝑇2 ƞ 𝑇1 𝛾𝑢(𝑇2)

Where
𝑘𝑇1 , 𝑘𝑇2 = hydraulic conductivity at temperatures 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 , respectively
ƞ 𝑇1 , ƞ 𝑇2 = viscosity of water at temperature 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 , respectively
𝛾𝑢(𝑇1) , 𝛾𝑢(𝑇2) = unit weight of water at temperature 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 , respectively

It is conventional to express the value of 𝑘 at temperature of 20° 𝐶. Within the range of test
temperatures, we can assume that 𝛾𝑢(𝑇1) ≅ 𝛾𝑢(𝑇2) .

Therefore,
ƞ
𝑘20° 𝐶 = ƞ 𝑇°𝐶 × 𝑘𝑇°𝐶
20° 𝐶

ƞ 𝑇°𝐶
The variation of ⁄ƞ ° with the test temperature 𝑇 varying from 15 to 30°C is given in the
20 𝐶
table below.
Laboratory Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity
Two standard test are used to determine the saturated hydraulic conductivity of soil: constant
head test and falling head test. The constant head test is used primarily for coarse grained soils
where water flow rates are high. For fine-grained soils, the water flow rates are generally very
low and falling head tests, with or without pressurization, are preferred.

1. Constant Head Test

During constant head testing, a fixed hydraulic gradient 𝒊 = 𝒉⁄𝑳 (𝐿⁄𝐿) is established through a
cross-sectional area 𝑨 of soil and water flow is continued until a steady-state flow rate is
obtained. Outflow water is then collected for a period of time, with the total volume of flow
𝑸 (𝐿3 ) collected over time period t (T) used to determine the saturated hydraulic conductivity of
the soil by a re-arrangement of Darcy’s equation as:
𝑄𝐿
𝑘𝑠 =
𝐴ℎ𝑡
Where
A = area of cross section of the soil specimen
t = duration of water collection
 2. Falling head test

Falling head test are typically set up by introducing water flow into a saturated soil through a
standpipe of water with a reduced cross-section a compared to the cross-sectional area of a soil
A. Initial and final water heads, ℎ1 and ℎ2 in the standpipe are recorded for times 𝑡1 = 0 and 𝑡2
and used to calculate the saturated hydraulic conductivity by:
𝑎𝐿
𝑘𝑠 = 2.303 ( ) log(ℎ1 ⁄ℎ2 )
𝐴𝑡
5.5 Modified Proctor Test
 ASTM D-1557, AASHTO T-180
 For conducting the modified Proctor test, the same mold is used with a volume of 943.3 𝑐𝑚3 , as
in the case of the standard Proctor test. However, the soil is compacted in five layers by a hammer
that weighs 44.5 N (4.536kg). The drop of the hammer is 457.2 mm. The number of hammer
blows for each layer is kept at 25 as in the case of the standard Proctor test.

Figure 6.7 shows a comparison between the hammers used in standard and modified Proctor tests.

 The compaction energy for this type of compaction test can be calculated as 2700 kN-m/𝑚3
(56,000 ft-lb/lb3).
𝒃𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒔
(𝟐𝟓 )(𝟓 𝒍𝒂𝒚𝒆𝒓𝒔)(𝟓𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑲𝑵)(𝟎.𝟒𝟓𝟕𝟐𝒎𝒎)
𝒍𝒂𝒚𝒆𝒓
𝑬= = 2696 KN-m/𝒎𝟑
𝟗𝟒𝟑.𝟑𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝒎𝟑

 Because it increases the compactive effort, the modified Proctor test results in an increase in the
maximum dry unit weight of the soil. The increase in the maximum dry unit weight is
accompanied by a decrease in the optimum moisture content.

5.6 Empirical Relationships

𝑘𝑔
𝝆𝒅(𝒎𝒂𝒙) ( 3 ) = [𝟒, 𝟖𝟎𝟒, 𝟓𝟕𝟒𝑮𝑺 − 𝟏𝟗𝟓. 𝟓𝟓(𝑳𝑳)𝟐 + 𝟏𝟓𝟔, 𝟗𝟕𝟏(𝑹#𝟒)𝟎.𝟓 − 𝟗, 𝟓𝟐𝟕, 𝟖𝟑𝟎] 𝟎.𝟓
𝑚

𝒍𝒏(𝝎𝒐𝒑𝒕 ) = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟗𝟓𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟒 (𝑳𝑳)𝟐 + 𝟏. 𝟗𝟔𝟒𝑮𝑺 − 𝟔. 𝟔𝟏𝟕𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟓 (𝑹#𝟒) + 𝟕. 𝟔𝟓𝟏

where
𝝆𝒅(𝒎𝒂𝒙) = maximum dry density
𝛚𝐨𝐩𝐭 = optimum moisture content (%)
𝑮𝑺 = specific gravity of soil solids
LL = liquid limit (%)
R#4 = percent retained on No. 4 sieve

𝑫𝒓 = 𝑨𝑫𝟓𝟎 −𝑩
𝑨 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟏𝟔𝒍𝒏𝑬 − 𝟎. 𝟖𝟓𝟎
𝑩 = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝒍𝒏𝑬 + 𝟎. 𝟑𝟎𝟔
where
𝑫𝒓 = maximum relative density of compaction achieved with compaction energy E(kN −m/𝑚3 )
𝑫𝟓𝟎 = 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒

𝛚𝐨𝐩𝐭 (%) = [𝟏. 𝟗𝟓 − 𝟎. 𝟑𝟖(𝐥𝐨𝐠𝐄)](𝐏𝐋)

𝐤𝐍
𝛄𝐝(𝐦𝐚𝐱) ( 𝟑 ) = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟔𝟖𝐞−𝐨.𝟎𝟏𝟖𝟑𝛚𝐨𝐩𝐭(%)
𝐦
where
PL= plastic limit (%)
E = compaction (kN-m/𝑚3 )

For modified Proctor test, E=2700 kN-m/𝑚3 , hence

𝛚𝐨𝐩𝐭 (%) ≈ 𝟎. 𝟔𝟓(𝑷𝑳)

𝐤𝐍
𝛄𝐝(𝐦𝐚𝐱) ( 𝟑 ) ≈ 𝟐𝟐. 𝟔𝟖𝒆−𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝟐(𝑷𝑳)
𝐦

𝛚𝐨𝐩𝐭 (%) = [𝟏. 𝟗𝟗 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟔𝟓(𝐥𝐧𝐄)](𝐏𝐈)

𝐤𝐍
𝛄𝐝(𝐦𝐚𝐱) ( 𝟑 ) = 𝐋 − 𝐌𝛚𝐨𝐩𝐭 (%)
𝐦
where
L= 14.34 + 1.195lnE
M= -0.19 + 0.073lnE
PI= plasticity index (%)

𝑳𝑳
𝝎𝒐𝒑𝒕 (%) = −𝟎. 𝟖𝟔(𝑳𝑳) + 𝟑. 𝟎𝟒 ( ) + 𝟐. 𝟐
𝑮𝑺
𝒌𝑵
𝜸𝒅(𝒎𝒂𝒙) ( 𝟑 ) = 𝟒𝟎. 𝟑𝟏𝟔(𝝎𝒐𝒑𝒕 −𝟎.𝟐𝟗𝟓 )(𝑷𝑰𝟎.𝟎𝟑𝟐 ) − 𝟐. 𝟒
𝒎
where
𝑮𝑺 = specific gravity of soil solids
LL = liquid limit (%)
PI = Plasticity Index (%)

5.7 Field Compaction

Four most common types of rollers:

1. Smooth-wheel rollers (or smooth-drum rollers)

-suitable for proof rolling subgrades and for finishing operation of fills with sandy and clayey soils. These
rollers provide 100% coverage under the wheels, with ground contact pressures as high as 310 to 380
kN/𝑚2 (45 to 55 lb/𝑖𝑛2 ). They are not suitable for producing high unit weights of compaction when used on
thicker layers.

2. Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers

-are better in many respects than the smooth-wheel rollers. The former is heavily loaded with several rows
of tires. These tires are closely spaced—four to six in a row. The contact pressure under the tires can range
from 600 to 700 kN/𝑚2 (85 to 100 lb/𝑖𝑛2 ), and they produce about 70 to 80% coverage. Pneumatic rollers
can be used for sandy and clayey soil compaction. Compaction is achieved by a combination of pressure
and kneading action.

3. Sheepsfoot rollers
 -are drums with a large number of projections. The area of each projection may range from 25 to 85 𝑐𝑚2 (4
to 13𝑖𝑛2 ). These rollers are most effective in compacting clayey soils. The contact pressure under the
projections can range from 1380 to 6900 kN/𝑚2 (200 to 1000 lb/𝑖𝑛2 ). During compaction in the field, the
initial passes compact the lower portion of a lift. Compaction at the top and middle of a lift is done at a later
stage.

4. Vibratory rollers
-are extremely efficient in compacting granular soils. Vibrators can be attached to smooth-wheel,
pneumatic rubber-tired, or sheepsfoot rollers to provide vibratory effects to the soil. The vibration is
produced by rotating off-center weights. Handheld vibrating plates can be used for effective compaction of
granular soils over a limited area. Vibrating plates are also gang-mounted on machines. These plates can be
used in less restricted areas.

 Factors Affecting Field Compaction

These factors include the thickness of lift, the intensity of pressure applied by the compacting equipment, and the
area over which the pressure is applied. These factors are important because the pressure applied at the surface
decreases with depth, which results in a decrease in the degree of soil compaction. During compaction, the dry unit
weight of soil also is affected by the number of roller passes. The dry unit weight of a soil at a given moisture
content increases to a certain point with the number of roller passes. Beyond this point, it remains approximately
constant. In most cases, about 4 to 6 roller passes yield the maximum dry unit weight economically attainable.