Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
2013 Air
Systems
PAGE 40
www.che.com
Kirkpatrick
Chemical Engineering
Achievement Award
PAGE 28
Nominations
Powder Flow
Measurement
Focus on Pressure
Applying ASME Measurement & Control
Boiler Code to Steam
Generation Systems
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COVER STORY
28 Cover Story Waste Heat Recovery Methods And Technologies*
There is significant potential for recovering some of the heat that is
wasted in the chemical process industries. Key requirements, benefits
and drawbacks for numerous techniques are reviewed
NEWS
11 Chementator Scaleup planned for a new carbon-dioxide-capture
process; Improved bioleaching for nickel recovery; Using sunlight to in- 28
corporate carbon dioxide into alpha-amino ketones; Nanoscale particles
help produce steam and generate hydrogen; A step toward artificial
photosynthesis; A starch-based cationic polymer for oil recovery; Mem-
brane reactor may reduce wastage of natural gas; This reactor will pro-
duce methanol directly from methane; and more
ENGINEERING 18
27 Facts at Your Fingertips Non-Chemical Water Treatment
This one-page reference guide describes several techniques for treating E0
water without chemicals, such as by using electrostatic devices, ultra-
sound, and more
e- e-
Current flow
49 Engineering Practice Applying ASME Boiler Code to Steam Gen-
eration Systems Determining when and how the ASME boiler code
applies to steam systems in petrochemicals operations can be difficult. Anode Cathode
Eclipse.magnetrol.com•1-800-624-8765•info@magnetrol.com
Circle 8 on p. 60 or go to adlinks.che.com/45768-08
53 Engineering Practice Use Simplified Lifecycle-Cost Computations
to Justify Upgrades The methodologies presented here can be used
to set goals, and will enable performance comparisons among different
plants or industry segments
COMMENTARY
7 Editor’s Page Changes The publisher of Chemical Engineering outlines
some changes occurring with the brand
DEPARTMENTS
8 Letters
9 Bookshelf
62 Who’s Who
60 Reader Service
63 Economic Indicators
ADVERTISERS
58 Product Showcase
59 Classified Advertising
61 Advertiser Index
26
COMING IN FEBRUARY
Look for: Feature Reports on Environmental Permitting for Dryers and Kilns;
*ONLY ON CHE.COM and Sizing Relief Valves; Engineering Practice articles on Selecting Centrifu-
gal Pumps; and Speeding Up New Process and Product Development; a Focus
Look for Latest News;
on Software; News articles on Motors and Drives; and Phosphorus Recovery;
Additional Waste Heat Recovery
and more
information; and more
Cover: David Whitcher
Therminol TLC Total Lifecycle Care is a complete program of products and services from Eastman
designed to keep your heat transfer system in top operating condition through its entire lifecycle.
© 2013 Solutia Inc., a subsidiary of Eastman Chemical Company. All rights reserved. Therminol®, TLC Total Lifecycle Care®, the Therminol logo, and Solutia are trademarks of
Solutia Inc., a subsidiary of Eastman Chemical Company. As used herein, ® denotes registered trademark status in the U.S. only. *Available only in North America.
Circle 5 on p. 60 or go to adlinks.che.com/45768-05
Circle 13 on p. 60 or go to adlinks.che.com/45768-13
Winner of Eight Jesse H. Neal
Awards for Editorial Excellence
Editor’s Page
I
PUBLISHER ART & DESIGN
BRIAN NESSEN DAVID WHITCHER say “change is good.” By now I’ve come to
Group Publisher Art Director/
bnessen@accessintel.com Editorial Production Manager realize that statement is usually made after
EDITORS dwhitcher@che.com change has taken place, usually without plan-
REBEKKAH J. MARSHALL PRODUCTION ning, and we might as well make the best of it.
Editor in Chief Given an average situation, change is 50–50.
rmarshall@che.com
STEVE OLSON
Director of Production & Given a positive situation, there’s more down-
DOROTHY LOZOWSKI Manufacturing
Managing Editor solson@accessintel.com side risk to change. The trick to successful
dlozowski@che.com
GERALD ONDREY (Frankfurt) JOHN BLAYLOCK-COOKE change is managing that risk. We’ve had a few Young Rebekkah Marshall
Ad Production Manager with early career goals in mind
Senior Editor
jcooke@accessintel.com
changes with Chemical Engineering over the
gondrey@che.com
SCOTT JENKINS
past year and we’ve tried to manage the risk with research and planning.
Associate Editor AUDIENCE In the spring we began running a higher quality, heavier, whiter paper. The
sjenkins@che.com DEVELOPMENT
change in paper quality makes the print easier to read and there’s less ink
CONTRIBUTING EDITORS
SARAH GARWOOD
Audience Marketing Director bleed-through. Frankly speaking, my eyes aren’t what they used to be and
SUZANNE A. SHELLEY sgarwood@accessintel.com when it comes to reading, I need all the help I can get. Considering the aver-
sshelley@che.com
GEORGE SEVERINE age age within the industry, I may not be alone.
CHARLES BUTCHER (U.K.) Fulfillment Manager
cbutcher@che.com gseverine@accessintel.com Early in 2012 we moved to a more consistent layout of our articles and
PAUL S. GRAD (Australia) JEN FELLING departments. For some time we had sections of the magazine moving around
pgrad@che.com
List Sales, Statlistics (203) 778-8700 to accommodate production; good for us, bad for the reader, so we made the
TETSUO SATOH (Japan) j.felling@statlistics.com
tsatoh@che.com change. Your time is valuable and by having consistency, we hope it is easier
JOY LEPREE (New Jersey) EDITORIAL for you to find articles and sections quickly, month after month.
jlepree@che.com ADVISORY BOARD
In this issue we have a new, two-page table of contents. Our former one-
GERALD PARKINSON JOHN CARSON
(California) gparkinson@che.com Jenike & Johanson, Inc. page version was crammed with information, making it difficult to find spe-
INFORMATION SERVICES DAVID DICKEY cific topics; much like trying to load everything on the home page of a website.
CHARLES SANDS MixTech, Inc. We made the change to the two-page version to make it easier to read and
Senior Developer to give our editors more room to explain the articles listed. Our intent is to
MUKESH DOBLE
Web/business Applications Architect
IIT Madras, India
csands@accessintel.com make it easier for you to find the information you are looking for.
MARKETING HENRY KISTER These are fairly innocuous changes and, if they do not work, we can change
Fluor Corp.
JAMIE REESBY them back. That is not always the case; sometimes a decision is made or a
Marketing Director TREVOR KLETZ
TradeFair Group, Inc. Loughborough University, U.K.
change occurs and it is difficult or impossible to go back. Often that is the case
jreesby@che.com with personnel changes, which leads me to our latest change. It is with mixed
GERHARD KREYSA (retired)
JENNIFER BRADY DECHEMA e.V. emotions that we bid farewell to Rebekkah Marshall, our Editor-in-Chief for
Marketing Coordinator
TradeFair Group, Inc. RAM RAMACHANDRAN the past six years. She has done a terrific job guiding our editorial team and
jbrady@che.com (Retired) The Linde Group filling the pages of the magazine, our website, our newsletters, and our book-
HEADQUARTERS store with relevant information. She worked closely with the development
88 Pine Street, 5th Floor, New York, NY 10005, U.S. of our ChemInnovations conference and she managed our Plant Cost Index
Tel: 212-621-4900 Fax: 212-621-4694
and economic indicators. And over the total of 12 years with us, she has done
EUROPEAN EDITORIAL OFFICES
much, much more. We will miss her day-to-day interaction, her outgoing and
Zeilweg 44, D-60439 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
Tel: 49-69-9573-8296 Fax: 49-69-5700-2484 positive personality, and her great spirit. Rebekkah has done a tremendous
CIRCULATION REQUESTS: job carrying on the legacy of past editors and preparing the path for our team
Tel: 847-564-9290 Fax: 847-564-9453 and new editors to come, thus addressing the risk of our biggest change.
Fullfillment Manager; P.O. Box 3588,
Northbrook, IL 60065-3588 email: clientservices@che.com Fortunately, we will not lose Rebekkah completely. While she is starting
ADVERTISING REQUESTS: see p. 60 a new chapter of her life on a family business with her husband, we have
For photocopy or reuse requests: 800-772-3350 or info@copyright.com asked her to assist with our Editorial Advisory Board, the ChemInnova-
For reprints: Wright’s Media, 1-877-652-5295, sales@wrightsmedia.com
tions Advisory Board, the Kirkpatrick award and the Chemical Engineering
ACCESS INTELLIGENCE, LLC awards program. She may contribute editorially as she has time.
DON PAZOUR ROBERT PACIOREK As of this publication, the Chemical Engineering editorial team, contrib-
Chief Executive Officer Senior Vice President,
ED PINEDO
Chief Information Officer uting editors, and support staff are filling the gaps as we search for a new
Executive Vice President SYLVIA SIERRA editor to join the group. We wish Rebekkah great success with her new
& Chief Financial Officer Senior Vice President,
MACY L. FECTO
Corporate Audience Development business and we look forward to working with her, at least periodically, for
Exec. Vice President, MICHAEL KRAUS a long time to come.
Human Resources & Administration Vice President,
HEATHER FARLEY
Production and Manufacturing Change is not always good but if you make plans, manage the risk, pre-
Divisional President, STEVE BARBER pare contingencies, and keep an open mind, it can be. We hope you are
Access Intelligence Vice President,
Financial Planning and Internal Audit pleased with Chemical Engineering and, as always, we welcome your input
GERALD STASKO on how we can improve. ■
Vice President/Corporate Controller
Brian Nessen, Publisher
4 Choke Cherry Road, Second Floor
Rockville, MD 20850 • www.accessintel.com CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JANUARY 2013 7
Letters
Krytox® Florinated
Release Agent Krytox® Florinated Release Agent Synthetic Lubricant
Synthetic Lubricant
Release Agent
Dry Lubricant
m m
s m
s s Farewell to CE readers
Last month, after almost 12 years with Chemical Engineer-
ing, I resigned as this magazine’s Editor in Chief. I have
been given an opportunity to work in my husband’s archi-
tectural design business, and the benefit of spending more
Fluorinated Oils, Greases, time with my young children is simply too good to pass up.
PTFE Release Agents and For almost six years, I have had the honor of serving as
Dry Film Lubricants this magazine’s Editor in Chief, and I hope to be involved
Miller-Stephenson offers a complete line of inert high
with it in an advisory capacity moving forward. Starting
performance fluorinated lubricants that include Dupont™ with this issue, however, the editorial leadership is now
Krytox® Oils and Greases, as well as a family of PTFE Release being handled by Dorothy Lozowski, in whom I have great
Agents/Dry Lubricants. They provide superior lubricity, while confidence. She can be reached at dlozowski@che.com.
being thermally stable, non-flammable, non-migrating, and Professionally, I have essentially “grown up” here at Chem-
contain no silicone. Krytox® offers extreme pressure, anti-
corrosion and anti-wear properties, with oxygen compatibility ical Engineering. I started as an Assistant Editor in January
and low outgassing. Our PTFE creates a superior release for of 2001. I later became an Associate Editor in 2003, Manag-
plastics, elastomers and resins with multiple releases ing Editor in 2005 and Editor in Chief in 2007, following the
between applications. For technical information and passing of my friend and mentor, Nick Chopey. So, in a lot of
sample, call 800-992-2424 or 203-743-4447.
ways, it feels like I am leaving home. It has been an honor
m and a privilege to serve with the Chemical Engineering team
s of editorial, production, circulation, marketing and sales staff
— past and present — and observe the deep sense of owner-
California - Illinois - Connecticut - Canada ship, responsibility and more than 110 years of tradition
e-mail: support@miller-stephenson.com that they uphold. Meanwhile, I have thoroughly enjoyed the
interactions I have had with readers, authors and technol-
www.miller-stephenson.com
ogy providers. Working as an editor for this magazine has
Circle 9 on p. 60 or go to adlinks.che.com/45768-09 put me in a unique position to observe the very wide range
of benefits that chemical engineers continue to bring to our
society. That awareness will always be with me.
Sincerely,
Rebekkah Marshall
Editor in Chief (2007–2012)
Postscripts, corrections*
October, A Steamy Situation, pp. 20–22: The Website for Spi-
rax Sarco was incorrect. Our apologies. The correct address
is www.spiraxsarco.com. ■
* The online version of these article have been amended and can be found
at http://www.che.com/archives/extras/ps_and_corrections/
Circle 1 on p. 60 or go to adlinks.che.com/45768-01
8 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JANUARY 2013
Bookshelf
Sustainable Energy Management. By Mirjana Golusin, Pressure Vessels Field Manual: Common Operat-
Stevan Popov and Sinasa Dodic. Elsevier Inc., 225 Wyman ing Problems and Practical Solutions. By Maurice
Street, Waltham, MA. 02451. Web: elsevier.com. 2013. 436 Stewart and Oran Lewis. Elsevier Inc., 225 Wyman Street,
pages. $79.95. Waltham, MA. 02451. Web: elsevier.com. 2012. 498 pages.
$79.95
Chemical Process Equipment: Selection and Design,
3rd ed. By James Couper, W. Roy Penney and James Fair. Testing Adhesive Joints. Edited by Lucas da Silva,
Elsevier Inc., 225 Wyman Street, Waltham, MA. 02451. David Dillard, Bamber Blackman and Robert Adams. John
Web: elsevier.com. 2012. 864 pages. $150.00. Wiley & Sons Inc., 111 River St., Hoboken, NJ 07030. Web:
wiley.com. 2012. 468 pages. $140.00.
Gas and Oil Reliability Engineering: Modeling and
Analysis. By Eduardo Calixto. Elsevier Inc., 225 Wyman Advances in Water Desalination. Edited by Noam Lior.
Street, Waltham, MA. 02451. Web: elsevier.com. 2012. 544 John Wiley & Sons Inc., 111 River St., Hoboken, NJ 07030.
pages. $99.95. Web: wiley.com. 2012. 712 pages. $175.00.
“ WE DELIVER
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Innovative Solutions Cashco, Inc., P.O. Box 6, Ellsworth, KS 67439-0006, Ph. (785) 472-4461, Fax: (785) 472-3539
Circle 3 on p. 60 or go to adlinks.che.com/45768-03
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JANUARY 2013 9
Bookshelf
Troubleshooting Vac-
uum Systems: Steam
Turbine Surface Con-
densers and Refinery
Vacuum Towers. By
Norman Lieberman. John Wiley & Sons Inc., 111 River Cleaner Combustion and Sustainable World. Edited
St., Hoboken, NJ 07030. Web: wiley.com. 2012. 280 pages. by Haihing Qi and Bo Zhao. Springer Publishing Co., 11
$175.00. West 42nd Street, 15th floor, New York, NY 10036. Web:
springerpub.com. 2013. 1412 pages. $399.00.
Physics and Chemistry of Graphene: Graphene to
Nanographene. Edited by Toshiaki Enoki. Pan Stanford Understanding Distillation Using Column Profile
Publishing, 8 Temasek Blvd., Tower three, Singapore, Maps. By Daniel Beneke, Mark Peters, David Glasser, Diane
038988. Web: panstanford.com. 2012. 476 pages. $149.95. Hildebrandt. John Wiley & Sons Inc., 111 River St., Hobo-
ken, NJ 07030. Web: wiley.com. 2012. 384 pages. $149.95.
Boilers: A Practical Reference (Industrial Combus-
tion). By Kumar Rayaprolu. CRC Press, Taylor and Fran- Propylene Production via Propane Dehydrogena-
cis Publishing Group, 6000 Broken Arrow Parkway, NW, tion. By Intratec Inc., Intratec, 5847 San Felipe Street,
Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487. Web: crcpress.com. 2012. Suite 1752, Houston, TX 77057. Web. Intratec.us. 2012. 80
649 pages. $249.95. pages. $829.00.
Fault-Tolerant Process Control: Methods and Appli- Functional Safety in the Process Industry: A Hand-
cations. By Prashant Mhaskar, Jinfeng Liu and Panagiotis book of Practical Guidance in the Application of
Christofides. Springer Publishing Co., 11 West 42nd Street, IEC61511 and ANSI/ISA-84. By K.J. Kirkcaldy and D.
15th floor, New York, NY 10036. Web: springerpub.com. Chauhan. Self-published on lulu.com. 214 pages. $25.00. ■
2013. 284 pages. $129.00. Scott Jenkins
•Workson3phase,fixedorvariable 18
frequency,DCandsinglephasepower 16
POWER
SENSOR
14
SENSITIVE
•10timesmoresensitivethan 12
0
BATCH 1 BATCH 2 BATCH 3
Circle 7 on p. 60 or go to adlinks.che.com/45768-07
Stack Stack
Cyclone
Cyclone
bon dioxide from power-plant fluegas, while
Carbonator T = 650°C
Calciner T = 900°C
reducing both the energy input and operat-
Coal FGD
ing costs by 50% compared to conventional CaCO3 Coal
amine-based CO2-scrubbing technology. Air
The so-called carbonate-looping process CaCO3
Fan Filter
has undergone four years of testing in a
CaO
1-MWth pilot plant at the Technical Uni-
versity (TU) of Darmstadt (Germany; www. Coal combustor
Fluegas
tu-darmstadt.de). Now, with support from
the German Federal Economics Ministry
O2
and industrial partners, a new project has Fan
Ar OH
High energy
Using sunlight to incorporate CO2 intermediates
into alpha-amino ketones Sun
N
R
O O
synthesized a promising pharmaceutical Me O
precursor using only sunlight (as energy N Ar
source) and CO2 (as co-reagent). The solar- Ar R
driven process involves two consecutive re- Starting substances CO2 incorporated products NHR
actions (diagram): first, light transforms an
a-methylamino ketone into an energized, cy- and that even diffuse sunlight on cloudy
(Continued from p. 11)
clic intermediate through intramolecular re- days is enough to drive the process. Also,
arrangement; then, CO2 is incorporated into the process is very adaptable because a wide never reached before. moFs
a highly strained (thus highly reactive) ring variety of a-methylamino ketones could be are highly ordered molecular
to form a cyclic amino-substituted carbonic used as starting materials, he says. systems with metal atoms at
acid diester, which could be a useful precur- Although the Murakami consecutive pro- nodes and organic compo-
sor for chemical syntheses. cess does not involve CO2 reduction into nents as rods. The pores in
these frameworks are freely
The second step, which occurs in the dark, carbohydrates, its mechanistic energy pro-
accessible. moF powders
can be carried out in the same glass reaction file (diagram) resembles that of photosyn- are used to store smaller
vessel by simple addition of a base (cesium thesis, and presents a simple model of the molecules, such as h2, Co2
carbonate), and heating to 60°C. An 83% chemical utilization of solar energy for CO2 or Ch4. For more complex
yield is achieved after 7-h sunlight irradia- incorporation. The group is now investigat- applications, such as the stor-
tion and 10 h for CO2 capture. Murakami ing the reaction using easily available start- age and release of antibiotics,
says the technique is very simple to perform ing materials. moF coatings are required.
at iFg, the team uses a
technique known as liquid-
phase epitaxy to make a new
Nanoscale particles help produce steam . . . class of moFs called surface-
mounted moFs (SurmoFs
HART + Foundation
. . . and generate hydrogen Speciications for transfer
blocks for harT and Wire-
Circle 11 on p. 60 or go to adlinks.che.com/45768-11
C HEMENTATO R (Continued from p. 12)
mote operations management)
system. This revision to the
Foundation ieldbus speciica-
tion is signiicant because now
A step toward artificial photosynthesis suppliers can creat FF trans-
ducer blocks that enable harT
www.achemasia.de
Circle XX
Circle 4 on
onp.p.60
XXoror
gogo
toto
adlinks.che.com/45768-04
adlinks.che.com/230XX-XX
16 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JANUARY 2013
Newsfront
KIRKPATRICK
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
ACHIEVEMENT AWARD
Nominations for the 2013 round are now open
M
any of you know of a com-
pany — perhaps your own 2011 — Veolcys Inc. and Oxford Catalyst Group. For their small scale, modular syn-
employer — that has re- thetic fuel technology
cently commercialized an 2009 — Lucite International UK Ltd. For its Alpha process for making methyl meth-
innovative process, product, or other acrylate (MMA)
chemical-engineering development. 2007 — Axens. For its Esterfip-H process for making biodiesel fuel
If so, we would like to hear from you. 2005 — Chevron Phillips Chemical. For advances in alpha-olefins technology
Nominations are open for this maga-
2003— Cargill Dow LLC. For producing a thermoplastic resin based on corn as the
zine’s 2013 Kirkpatrick Chemical starting material
Engineering Achievement Award. We
2001— BOC Group, Inc. For low-temperature NOx absorption out of fluegases
aim to honor the most-noteworthy
1999 — CK Witco Inc. For a streamlined organofunctional alkoxysilanes process
chemical engineering technology com-
mercialized anywhere in the world 1997— Membrane Technology & Research, Inc. For a system to recover monomer
from polyolefin purge streams
during 2011 or 2012.
For a full list of winners, see www.che.com/kirkpatrick.
Chemical Engineering has awarded
this biennial prize continuously since
1933. The 2013 winner will join a long novelty, as well as the difficulty of the ceive the most votes become the finalists
and distinguished roster, studded with chemical-engineering problems solved. in the competition. Each finalist com-
such milestones as Lucite International It must specify how, where and when pany will then be asked to submit more-
for its Alpha process for making methyl the development first became commer- detailed information — for instance,
methacrylate (2009); Cargill Dow LLC: cial in 2011 or 2012. a fuller description of the technology,
For its production of thermoplastic If you know of an achievement but do performance data, exhibits of press cov-
resin from corn (2003); Union Carbide not have information to write a brief, erage, and/or a description of the team-
low-pressure low-density polyethylene contact the firm involved, either to get work that generated the achievement.
(1979); M.W. Kellogg single-train am- the information or to propose that the The Secretary will send copies of
monia plants (1967); the U.S. synthetic company itself submit a nomination. these more-detailed packages to a
rubber industry (1943) and Carbide & Firms are also welcome to nominate Board of Judges, which, meanwhile,
Carbon Chemical’s petrochemical syn- achievements of their own. will have been chosen from within,
theses (1933). The most-recent achieve- and by, the Committee of Award. In
ments appear in the table. The path to the winner late summer, the Board will inform the
After March 15, the Secretary will Secretary as to which one of the five
How to nominate review the nominations to make sure finalist achievements it has judged
Nominations may be submitted by any they are valid — for instance, that the most noteworthy. The company
person or company, worldwide. The the first commercialization did in fact that developed that achievement will
procedure consists simply of sending, take place during 2011–2012. Then he be named the winner of the 2013
by March 15, an unillustrated nomi- will submit copies to more than 100 Kirkpatrick Chemical Engineering
nating brief of up to 500 words to: senior professors who head accred- Achievement Award. The four other
Gerald Ondrey, Secretary ited university chemical engineering finalist companies will be designated
Kirkpatrick Award Committee departments and, accordingly, consti- to receive Honor Awards. Sculptures
c/o Chemical Engineering tute the Committee of Award. Work- saluting the five achievements will be
11000 Richmond Ave, Suite 500 ing independently of each other, each bestowed with appropriate ceremony
Houston, TX 77042 professor will vote for what he or she at ChemInnovations, which takes
Email: awards@che.com considers to be the five best achieve- place in Galveston, Tex. this Septem-
The nomination should summarize ments, without trying to rank them. ber (www.cpievent.com). ■
the achievement and point out its The five entries that collectively re- Rebekkah Marshall
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JANUARY 2013 17
Freeman Technology
Newsfront
WANTED: REPEATABILITY
AND CONSISTENCY
Brookfield
measurement test
equipment that provides
repeatable, consistent
results is key to a
successful process
I
n the processing environment,
powders often appear to exhibit
variable flow behavior, which can
be the cause of significant ineffi-
ciency in the form of unplanned shut FIGURE 2. The Freeman Technology
downs or compromised product qual- FT4 Powder Rheometer, a universal
ity. However, the reality is that pow- powder tester, offers three instruments
der flow properties are influenced by in one. It combines a patented blade
methodology for measuring flow energy
a diverse array of parameters from air with a range of shear cells, wall friction
and moisture content to particle size, modules and other accessories for mea-
shape and surface charge. FIGURE 1. The new Brookfield PFT
suring bulk properties
This complexity often makes it dif- Powder Flow Tester delivers quick and
ficult to predict behavior from the easy analysis of powder flow behavior niques range from the simple, such as
physical properties that are routinely in industrial processing equipment. It is angle of repose, to the more sophisti-
measured, such as particle size or com- suitable for manufacturers who process cated, as exemplified by shear testing.
powders daily and want to minimize or
position. As a result, materials that eliminate both downtime and expense “Unfortunately many techniques or
appear to meet a specification may go that can occur when hoppers discharge instruments suffer from poor repro-
on to perform poorly in the process, erratically or fail to discharge altogether ducibility and, by trying to capture
simply because the specification is not the complexity of powder behavior
defined in terms of parameters that Specifically, there is the issue of how with just a single figure, a large num-
correlate with process performance, to characterize flow in a way that relates ber fail to provide data that correlates
says Tim Freeman, managing direc- to how the powder will behave in the with processing performance,” says
tor, Freeman Technology (Tewkesbury, process. Also, there is a need to ensure Freeman. “Both of these issues are
U.K.; http://www.freemantech.co.uk). that powder measurement techniques increasingly limiting at a time when
Vinnie Hebert, product manager for effectively address that same potential manufacturers are targeting the very
powder flow testers with Brookfield for variability that is observed in pro- highest levels of process efficiency.”
Engineering Laboratories, Inc. (Middle- cessing. Therefore, achieving high re- Hebert agrees. “No company can
boro, Mass.; www.brookfieldengineer producibility in testing, which equates have downtime,” he says. “Downtime
ing.com), agrees. “The biggest challenge to accuracy and high sensitivity, relies costs money and trying to fix a problem
is characterizing powder products effi- on controlling all of the variables that due to a jam in a hopper or clog caused
ciently and definitively,” he says. “Espe- may have an impact on flow properties, by poor flow characteristics can’t be tol-
cially in the food and pharmaceutical says Freeman. erated. So, to have an instrument that
industries, there is a lot of mixing and can measure all the important powder
blending of product that comes into play Test methods flow characterizations accurately and
or testing of raw material as it comes in Because the measurement of powder consistently, and stop those things from
the door. The challenge is to make sure flow has been challenging processors happening before they come to fruition,
the product is consistent and will flow for years, different test methods have is a challenge for industry.”
properly all the time.” been developed. Traditional tech- One of the biggest roadblocks has
18 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JANUARY 2013
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Circle 2 on p. 60 or go to adlinks.che.com/45768-02
MEASURING FLOW PROPERTIES: 101
hen chemical processors need to measure powder flow, ment is available on the market. However, Carson warns, “One
Newsfront
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For more than 37 years,
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professionals- engineers,
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manager and technicians,
have used Chemical
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Eriez Manufacturing
plant construction costs
efficiently from small hoppers to large from one period to another.
bunkers. They are designed for quiet,
This database includes all
trouble-free operation. The elliptical
action of the ERVs helps settle ma- annual archives (1947 to
terial in bags, boxes or other materi- present) and monthly data
als for shipping or storage. Standard archives (1970 to present).
models are constructed for wet or and loss-free powder induction and Instead of waiting more
dusty environments. These vibrators wetting under vacuum and dispersing than two weeks for the
feature a durable powder-coat finish, in one package. An exchange of mix-
tropicalized windings and adjustable ing tools also allows inline dispersing print or online version of
eccentric weights to set force output. with multi-stage shear ring systems. Chemical Engineering to
They offer continuous operation at Modular capabilities of the PiloTec arrive, subscribers can
100% force output. — Eriez Manufac- allow problem-free upgrades to a Pilo- access new data as soon as
turing Co., Erie, Pa. Tec plant processing system including it’s calculated.
www.eriez.com Ystral mixing system, powder and liq-
uid handling systems, incorporating Resources included with
An integrated drive makes this measuring and weighing technology, Chemical Engineering’s
conveyor flexibile lifting devices and other modular com-
Plant Cost Index:
The design of the Chain-Vey tubular ponents. — Powder Technologies, Inc.,
drag conveyor (photo) incorporates an Hainesport, N.J. • Electronic notiication of
integrated drive unit to provide flex- www.powdertechusa.com monthly updates as soon
ibility. The new drive feature uses one as they are available
pipe (instead of two), making it suit- Weighing system accurately
• All annual data archives
able for transport in tight spaces. It of- weighs product in transfer
(1947 to present)
fers gentle conveying capabilities, low The Conweigh weighing system can
maintenance and energy efficiency, a accurately weigh powders, granules, • Monthly data archives
loop-style layout for multiple pickup food particles, pellets, capsules, tab- (1970 to present)
and discharge point configurations and lets and other bulk materials being • Option to download in
an explosion-proof rating. — Modern transferred into and out of produc- Excel format
Process Equipment, Inc., Chicago, Ill. tion processes via Volkmann convey-
www.mpechicago.com ors. Conweigh registers weight within
±1% or better, allowing adjustments Subscribe today at
Mixing and dispensing for to be made to avoid weight gains or
smaller, lab-scale applications losses during transfer and to improve www.che.com/pci
The multi-functional Ystral PiloTec production outcomes. — Volkmann,
17817
processing system (photo) for induc- Inc., Hainesport, N.J.
tion, mixing and dispersing offers dust www.volkmannusa.com ■
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JANUARY 2013 21
FOCUS ON
Pressure Measurement
& Control
A compact pressure transmitter
for easy reading
Rangeable industrial pressure trans-
mitters in the PX5100 Series (photo)
are compact and feature a backlit dis-
play for easy reading that rotates for
its location. Wetted parts are made of
stainless steel, and the device features
a program lock function, as well as
rapid ranging with internal push-but-
tons, and thin-film sensor technology.
The PX5100 can monitor a wide vari- Omega Engineering
Focus
ing Valve Co., Port Arthur, Tex. for oil and gas applications. The PT-400 meet customer requirements by pro-
www.burlingvalves.com transmitters provide a minimum of viding a combination of economic value
10 million operating cycles with high and performance for general extrusion
Use these pressure transducers accuracy in temperatures from −40 applications, while providing a ±0.2%
in hazardous locations to 180°F. The product is designed for repeatability when measuring process
PT-400 heavy duty pressure transduc- applications in oil drilling, water and pressures. Echo Series sensors should
ers (photo) have received ATEX and wastewater industries. — Automation be used when the application requires
IECEx certification for use in hazard- Products Group Inc., Logan, Utah a quality measurement for optimized
ous locations throughout the world. www.apgsensors.com control, but not the costs of all the
With all stainless-steel laser-welded extra features, says the company. Echo
construction, these pressure transduc- These pressure sensors are de- sensor diaphragms are coated with
ers deliver reliable high-pressure sens- signed for plastics processing titanium aluminum nitride as a stan-
ing in harsh environments that are The Echo Series of melt pressure sen- dard offering, providing superior per-
prone to shock, vibration and pressure sors offers quality performance and formance over less effective coatings.
spikes over a range of operating tem- value for plastic processing, utilizing — Dynisco LLC, Franklin, Mass.
peratures. This company also now of- standard configurations and pressure www.dynisco.com ■
fers a larger-sized pressure transducer ranges. Echo sensors are designed to Scott Jenkins
Receive
Receive full
full access todaybyby
access today visiting
visiting http://store.che.com/product/
www.omeda.com/cbm/facts
Yokogawa
This Coriolis flowmeter is
the smallest of its kind
The RotaMass LR (photo) is claimed
to be the world’s smallest dual bent-
tube Coriolis mass flowmeter. The
unit is designed to be self-
draining and to measure
both liquids and gases, with Bürkert
a mass flow measurement
span from 0 to 40 kg/h. The
accuracy is ±0.15% for liquids and
±0.5% for gases. This low-flow Coriolis
meter is based on a proven dual bent-
tube design designed to overcome the
shortcomings of single-tube low-flow
meters, such as susceptibility to exter-
nal vibrations and changes in ambient
or process fluid temperatures, which
Siemens
lead to less accurate and stable mea-
surements. The RotaMass LR uses an
inline temperature sensor, ensuring
exact and fast measurements in pro-
cess temperatures ranging from –50 to
150°C. — Yokogawa Corp. of America,
Newnan, Ga.
www.yokogawa.com/us
New Products
Metso
Radio Frequency
on-chemical water treatment methods and viruses, albeit at high power and pro-
Water
out
erly applied, non-chemical water-treatment the design flowrate is a challenge. Further,
technologies help plants reduce chemical the antimicrobial properties of the device are
consumption, minimize waste and possibly limited to free-floating organisms. Ultrasonic
save water and energy. The following waves are incapable of limiting the growth Reaction chamber
descriptions outline several types of non- of biofilms and algae. FIGURE 1. The efficacy of magnetic ields for
chemical water-treatment methods. reducing scaling, such as those produced by
Electrochemical methods passing current through coils wrapped around
Magnetic ields Several classes of water treatment equipment a pipe, has been controversial for many years
When wrapped around a length of pipe, are designed around fundamental electro-
E0
metal induction coils (solenoids) can form a chemistry principles (Figure 2). Corrosion is
reaction chamber in which an electromag- considered to be an electrochemical process
netic field can be produced (Figure 1). The whereby current flows from the anode
strength of the magnetic field is proportional to the cathode. Oxidation occurs at the e- e-
to the current flowing through the coil and anode, causing metal to be dissolved into
the number of wire loops. the water (corrosion occurs at the anode,
Magnetic fields are said to control scale and reduction occurs at the cathode). No
in heat exchangers by modifying the surface corrosion occurs at the cathode, because it
charge on particulate matter in the water. is “protected” by the current that flows onto
This allows scale-forming ions, such as calci- the metal surface from the anode. If two Current flow
um and carbonate, to react on the surface of dissimilar metals are coupled in an anode/
the particulate or colloidal matter, resulting in cathode cell, the less noble or less stable
the formation of calcium carbonate powder metal will become the anode. The anode is Anode Cathode
that preferentially settles out in the tower ba- sacrificed, thereby protecting the more noble
sin, or is removed by a sidestream separator metal, which functions as the cathode. The
instead of forming hard, calcite scale in the higher the corrosion current, the faster the
FIGURE 2. Electrochemical cells can be
heat exchanger. However, research on its anode will be consumed. used to generate small quantities of chlorine
effectiveness is equivocal, with some report- In electrolysis, direct current (d.c.) electric- or bromine for water treatment
ing favorable results and others showing no ity is used to produce oxidation/reduction
ability on the part of the magnetic field to reactions in a variety of chemical processes. the organism, this can vary from 2,500 to
alter scale formation. Chlorine, caustic soda, aluminum, mag- over 26,000 µWs/cm2. Ultraviolet light is
nesium and copper are made or refined only lethal during the time that the organism
Electrostatic devices industrially in large electrochemical cells. is exposed directly to the light.
Water conditioning can also be achieved Electrodeposition removes scale-forming
by passing water through an electrostatic impurities by the electrochemical deposition Membrane separation
charge. This equipment is designed with a of calcium and magnesium (and other) salts Another class of non-chemical water treat-
positively charged, insulated electrode that at the cathode of an electrochemical cell. ment methods is reverse osmosis (RO) and
is inserted into the center of a grounded Direct current is applied to the cell at a rate electro-deionization (EDI). These processes
cylindrical casing, which serves as the sufficient to drive the precipitation reactions remove over 99% of the dissolved solids
negative electrode. The application of high at the cathode. present in the raw feedwater to produce a
voltage on the central electrode produces purified water stream. RO utilizes a pres-
an electrostatic charge across the annular Microbiological control sure differential across a semipermeable
space between the electrodes. The water is Ozone functions as a strong oxidizing membrane to reject dissolved salts at the
conditioned as it flows rapidly through the biocide in cooling towers and drinking membrane surface, while allowing the puri-
electrostatic field. These devices are said to water systems. It is produced in a corona fied water to permeate through the pores of
work by virtue of the water molecules being discharge generator by passing a stream of the membrane. The RO process produces a
rearranged into an orderly array between dry air through an electric arc to yield O3. concentrated brine stream that is typically
the electrodes. This causes the scale-forming Typically, 0.5 to 1.0 lb of ozone per 100 25% of the feedwater flow.
ions, such as calcium and magnesium, tons of air treatment is employed. The power Electro-deionization separates feedwater
to be surrounded by a “cloud of water consumption is about 15 kWh per pound of into a purified water stream and a concen-
molecules,” thus preventing scale forma- ozone produced. Most experts agree that trated brine stream, but instead of pressure
tion. Beyond testimonials, little independent ozone is effective in controlling microbio- differential, this is done in conjunction with
evidence exists in the U.S. to support the logical growth in cooling towers. However, an electric field produced by the potential
effectiveness of this equipment. additional claims by ozone proponents that difference between an anode (+) and cath-
it conserves water, prevents scale deposition ode (–). The potential difference between
Ultrasonic water treatment and mitigates corrosion are in dispute. the electrodes creates the driving force
Ultrasonic water treatment is primar- When bacteria are exposed to ultraviolet across the membrane. Positively charged
ily targeted at preventing or controlling (UV) radiation, the organisms are rendered ions selectively pass through the membrane
bacterial growth. Sound waves outside the unable to reproduce. This process is most and are attracted to the cathode. Nega-
range of human hearing are produced by a effective in water that is relatively clean and tively charged ions are separated by the
low-power, high-frequency generator inside pure to minimize the absorption of light by membrane and move toward the anode.
a reaction chamber. Microorganisms are suspended solids and other debris. The UV
destroyed by the wave energy. The medical dosage required to destroy microorganisms Editor’s note: This edition of “Facts at Your Finger-
tips was adapted from the article “Non-chemical
literature indicates that high-energy ultrasonic is measured in microwatt-seconds per cen- water treatment” by William Harfst (Chem. Eng.,
generators can be effective in killing bacteria timeter squared (µWs/cm2). Depending on April 2010, pp. 66–69).
Feature
Cover Story
Report
C.C.S. Reddy and S.V. Naidu, Andhra University FIGURE 1. This schematic shows a lash tank
G.P. Rangaiah, National University of Singapore system for condensate heat recovery
W
aste heat recovery (WHR) is ment and operating inefficiencies, as are lower with increased availability
essential for increasing en- well as from thermodynamic limita- of waste heat. Usually, waste heat at
ergy efficiency in the chemi- tions on equipment and processes. high temperatures can be utilized
cal process industries (CPI). Often, part of waste heat could poten- with a higher efficiency and with
Presently, there are many WHR meth- tially be used for some useful purpose. better economics. Also, more technol-
ods and technologies at various stages At present, about 20 to 50% of energy ogy options are available for convert-
of implementation in petroleum re- used in industry is rejected as waste ing waste heat at high temperatures
fineries, petrochemical, chemical and heat [8]. A significant part of this into other useful energy forms than
other industry sectors. Increasing wasted energy is low-temperature heat waste heat at low temperatures
energy costs and environmental con- that is sent to the atmosphere mainly • Uses of recovered waste heat: The
cerns provide strong motivation for from cooling water, fin-fan coolers and end use of recovered heat has a
implementing more and newer meth- fluegases. Usually, distillation column large influence on the implemen-
ods and technologies for WHR. overhead streams at temperatures of tation of WHR. For example, if the
Most of the literature on this topic 100–200°C reject heat by fin-fan cool- WHR project generates low-pres-
is based on individual methods and ers, and streams at a temperature less sure steam that is already available
techniques, but there is a need for than 100°C reject heat to the cooling in excess supply, then there will be
an integrated approach. The main water system. WHR can be defined as little or no payout
objective of this article is to provide the process of capturing some portion • Cost of energy: This will be greatly
a review of promising methods and of the heat that normally would be influenced by the presence or ab-
technologies for WHR (up to 400°C) wasted, and delivering it to a device sence of a cogeneration facility in
as a ready resource that can be used or process where it can be used as an the company
for better understanding and pre- effective, economical and environmen- • Availability of space: In operating
liminary selection of suitable WHR tally friendly way to save energy. plants, space availability can be the
techniques. To this end, various WHR Large investments are presently biggest constraint. It is beneficial to
practices in industry and in the lit- incurred to exhaust waste heat to place WHR equipment close to the
erature are compiled and analyzed the atmosphere in the form of cooling heat sink to minimize piping and
for their implementation benefits and towers, fin-fan coolers and very tall operating costs
constraints. Accordingly, the scope of stacks for the disposal of fluegases. • Minimum allowable temperature of
this study includes a comprehensive WHR has the potential to minimize waste heat fluid: For the case of flue-
review of various applicable WHR these costs, and to reduce environ- gas heat recovery using carbon-steel
methods and technologies for the CPI mental impact along with several equipment and ducting, the fluegas
(especially petroleum refineries), and other benefits. Development of an op- temperature should not be lower
guidelines for implementing the se- timum WHR system depends on the than the fluegas acid dew point
lected method or technology. following factors: • Minimum and maximum tempera-
• Quantity and temperature of waste ture of the process fluid: If WHR
BACKGROUND heat: The quantity of waste heat generates steam and exports it to
Waste heat is energy that is rejected to should be large enough to make WHR a steam header in a petroleum re-
the environment. It arises from equip- economical. Costs of WHR systems finery, then WHR and steam tem-
28 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JANUARY 2013
HP steam header
MP steam header
Process use
LP steam consumption,ton/h
Deaerator makeup water flowrate 32
of steam compressed
temperature, °C
28 40
175 26
LP steam consumption 24 30
150 22
20 20
125 Boiler feedwater temperature 18
10
16
100 14 0
1 1.5 2 2.5 3
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Deaerator operating pressure, kg/cm2g
Flash steam pressure , kg/cm2g
FIGURE 4. Increasing the operating pressure of a steam FIGURE 5. This plot shows the energy requirement for steam
deaerator can make more use of low-pressure (LP) steam compression for a discharge pressure of 1.5 kg/cm2g (assum-
ing compressor polytropic efficiency of 75% and saturated
steam condition at the inlet)
monitoring and maintenance plan- Maximizing use of LP steam deaerator can result in the following
ning, it is not uncommon for about Petroleum refineries usually have benefits:
25% of steam traps to leak [39]. Since the capability to generate excess LP • Increased use of LP steam with min-
a typical petroleum refinery can have steam (< 5 kg/cm2g), mainly from imum modification costs
a few thousand steam traps, the mal- steam turbine operations and also • Potential to either totally eliminate
function of 25% of these steam traps due to low temperature WHR. Any LP or reduce the size of boiler feedwater
could result in huge energy losses if steam generation in excess of the de- (BFW) preheaters (used to prevent
the traps blow to the atmosphere. And, mand may need to be released to the condensation of acid gases at the
if the steam traps blow to closed-loop atmosphere. This will result in wasted cold end side of economizers) at the
condensate recovery, this can result in energy. Petroleum refineries typically inlet of economizers
water hammering in the condensate address this issue by switching some • Elimination or minimization of the
recovery header. of the process steam-turbine drivers use of HP or MP steam used at these
Typical steam losses through blow- (generating LP steam) to electric mo- BFW preheaters, which can instead
ing steam traps can be easily esti- tors, or by reducing the generation of be used in a steam turbine to gener-
mated based on the Cv (flow coeffi- LP steam from WHR. ate power
cient) method presented by Branan The first method may reduce cogen- • If the boiler is not installed with an
[11]. If the rated capacity of a steam eration benefits. Flash steam (near economizer, then there is no require-
trap is not available, then steam atmospheric pressure) is generally not ment for a BFW preheater. In this
losses due to leaks or failures can be recovered. This results in loss of recov- case, boiler fuel requirements will
roughly estimated (assuming leak- erable energy. Sometimes flash steam reduce in relation to additional heat
age size as a circular hole) using is condensed using cooling water or air absorption at the deaerator
Grashof ’s formula [12]: cooling. This will lead to a waste of la- To further illustrate this concept, con-
tent heat of flash steam. Some attrac- sider the following example. A deaera-
Steam leak, lb/h = 0.70 × 0.0165
tive ways to use additional LP steam tor (design pressure of 3.5 kg/cm2g)
× 3,600 × A × P0.97 (2)
and atmospheric flash steam are out- produces 240 ton/h of BFW, using
Where 0.70 is the coefficient of dis- lined below. makeup water at 80°C, LP steam from
charge for the hole, 0.0165 is a con- Optimization of the deaerator steam turbines at 177°C and 3.5 kg/
stant in Grashof’s formula, A is the pressure. Generally, deaerators are cm2g. It can be seen from Figure 4
area of leaking hole in square inches designed to operate at very low pres- that as the operating pressure of the
and P is the pressure inside the steam sures (~1.05 kg/cm2g) mainly to maxi- deaerator is increased, more LP steam
line in psia. mize cogeneration benefits. They use is consumed and the BFW tempera-
Many efficient steam-trap monitor- very low pressure steam (using pres- ture increases.
ing systems are available from ven- sure reduction of LP steam) and flash Heating of combustion air with
dors. Use of suitable steam-trap moni- steam as the heating media. However, LP steam. LP steam can be used to
toring systems can be very beneficial they are generally designed for rela- preheat combustion air at boilers and
for minimizing waste-heat generation tively higher pressures (mechanical fired heaters. This will reduce fuel
and also maintenance costs. Radle [37] design pressures), such as 3.5 kg/ consumption at the boiler or fired
highlighted the importance of inten- cm2g. If makeup-water, flash-steam heater. In some cases, it also helps to
sive steam-trap management. McKay and condensate-recovery header pres- prevent cold end corrosion in air-to-
and Holland [31] presented methods sures have safe operating margins for air pre-heaters. The typical payback
to estimate energy savings from steam high pressure operation of the deaera- period depends on available space in
system losses. These methods can be tor, one can increase the deaerator op- combustion air ducting, the cost of LP
used to estimate energy savings, and erating pressure to enable more usage steam, and the proximity of steam and
thus cost savings to justify improve- of LP steam (Figure 3). condensate headers.
ments in steam trap systems. A higher operating pressure of the Upgrading LP or flash steam with
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JANUARY 2013 31
6
5
Cover Story Rm for motive steam pressure
3
MVR or TVR. LP steam or flash dustry/bestpractices/
steam is generated by boiler steam- pdfs/steam11_waste_ 2
condensate flashing or leaks from steam.pdf).
steam turbines. It can be upgraded for Desalination. If sea 1
Rm for motive
process use via mechanical or thermal water is readily avail-
steam pressure of 10.5 kg/cm2g
vapor recompression. Vapor recom- able, LP or flash steam 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
pression requires a mechanical com- can be used to produce
Load steam pressure, kg/cm2g
pressor (in MVR) or steam jet ejector fresh water from sea
(in TVR) to increase the temperature water using various de-
of steam to make it usable for process salination technologies. FIGURE 6. Typical steam requirements are shown for
duties. LP steam can be compressed to Ophir and Gendel [34] thermal vapor recompression at a discharge pressure of
2
higher pressures using MVR. Figure 5 discussed desalination 1.5 kg/cm g
shows typical energy requirements for by multi-effect flash
Process
MVR. The coefficient of performance vaporization to mini- stream
(COP; for a heat pump, this is the ratio mize energy consump- requiring
heating
of heat rejected at high temperature tion using 1.5–4.5 barg
at the condenser to the energy input steam, generated from Condenser
by the compressor) of MVR is very back-pressure steam Work Expansion
high — around 10–30 depending on turbines. They con- Compressor valve
the compression ratio. MVR is limited cluded that the technol- Evaporator
to applications where the compressor ogy using steam tur-
inlet pressure is above atmospheric bines (operating using
and the compression ratio is less than 1.5–4.5 barg steam) and Waste heat
2.1 per stage (maximum value for compressors (driven by stream
single-stage centrifugal compressors steam turbine, for com-
FIGURE 7. Mechanical vapor compression is depicted
used in the petrochemical industry pressing flashed steam) here
[22], due to cost considerations). reduced desalination
In TVR, motive steam at com- costs by 13% compared to ejector tech- than 100°C. A working fluid (typi-
paratively higher pressure is used to nology. A thermal- and economic-per- cally ammonia, a hydrocarbon-based
compress the LP flash steam using a formance study for low-temperature or another refrigerant) takes in waste
steam ejector, and then delivered at multi-effect evaporation desalination heat and evaporates. The fluid is com-
an intermediate pressure. The follow- systems (LT-MEE), integrated with a pressed and then condensed to give
ing equation can be used to quickly steam-driven single-effect LiBr-H2O out heat at a higher temperature than
estimate the approximate quantity of absorption heat pump, was presented the waste heat stream, and is finally
motive steam required for upgrading by Wang and Lior [43]. A 60–78% water returned to the evaporator via an ex-
a given quantity of very low pressure production gain was reported due to pansion valve (Figure 7). Typical COP
steam [32]. this integration as compared to stand- values for mechanical heat pumps are
alone LT-MEE. in the range of 3–8.
Rm = 0.4 × e[4.6 × ln(PD/PL)/ln(PM/PL)]
Absorption heat pumps. There are
(3)
APPLYING HEAT PUMPS two types of vapor-absorption heat
Where Rm is the ratio of mass flow- Heat pumps to raise temperature pumps. The first type (Type 1) is ap-
rate of motive steam to mass flow- Heat pumps consume energy (external plicable for waste heat temperatures
rate of load steam, PM is the absolute mechanical or thermal energy) to in- between about 100 and 200°C. They
pressure of motive steam, PL is the crease the temperature of waste heat transfer heat from a high-temperature
absolute pressure of LP steam and and ultimately reduce the use of fuel. heat source (waste heat) to bring a
PD is the target absolute pressure of With low temperature lifts (differ- low-temperature process stream to an
discharge steam. This equation is em- ence between the evaporator and con- intermediate temperature. LiBr heat
pirical, applicable to motive saturated denser temperatures) less than 100°F, pumps can generate a temperature
steam below 300 psig, and should be heat pumps can deliver heat for lower output of ~100°C. Typical COP values
used for an Rm between 0.5 and 6. cost than the cost of fuel (U.S. Dept. for these heat pumps are 1.2–1.4.
Typical motive steam requirements of Energy, Industrial heat pumps for New-generation heat pumps are
of TVR for a discharge steam pres- steam and fuel savings, http:// www1. under development to generate tem-
sure of 1.5 kg/cm2g at various load eere.energy.gov/industry/bestprac- peratures up to 250°C for steam
steam pressures are shown in Fig- tices/pdfs/heatpump.pdf, Accessed in generation (HPC; www.heatpump-
ure 6. Steam recompression requires January 2012). centre.org/en/aboutheatpumps/heat-
only 5–10% of the energy needed to Mechanical heat pumps. Closed- pumpsinindustry, Accessed in January
raise an equivalent amount of steam cycle mechanical (vapor compression) 2012). The absorption heat transform-
in a boiler (OIT Tip sheet #11, Janu- heat pumps are generally applicable ers (AHT) or temperature amplifier
ary 2006, www1.eere.energy.gov/in- for waste heat temperatures less are Type 2 pumps, and operate in a
32 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JANUARY 2013
Heat Heat
Single stage Very low pressure Steam: 2.36–2.41 kg per kWh of 2.5 kW per kW of 0.6 –0.75
absorption steam (~100 kPag) refrigeration. Electrical power: refrigeration
(LiBr system) or hot water or hot 0.0028 –0.0114 kW/kWh of refrig-
stream > 93°C eration [3]
Double stage Relatively higher pres- Steam: 1.25–1.29 kg per kWh of 2.0 kW per kW of 1.19 –1.35
absorption sure steam (~800 kPag refrigeration. Electrical power: refrigeration
(LiBr system) or more) or hot stream 0.0028–0.0114 kW/kWh of refrig-
> 143°C eration [3]
Mechanical com- Motor or engine driven Electrical power: 4.5 kW/kW of 1.283–1.125 kW per kW of 4.5
pression compressor refrigeration [4] refrigeration
(propane)
reduction on power output of a typical is widely accepted that 1–5% of SO2 mentation requires a gas-to-liquid ex-
GT is shown in Figure 10. generated in a combustion process changer to be installed in the exhaust
Use of chilled water (generated by will be converted into SO3 [19]. Based stack. They recover a major part of
using waste heat in a single-stage on SO3 content and H2O partial pres- sensible heat from the fluegases as the
absorption chiller) at pre-condensers, sure, the sulfuric acid dew point can heat is removed above the acid dew
can substantially reduce the fixed and be easily calculated using the follow- point. These economizers are applica-
operating costs of multi-stage steam ing equation [22]: ble for boilers using fuel oil or gaseous
ejector systems by condensing most of fuel. They can be installed with bare
the suction vapor before entering the Tdew (SO3) = 1,000/ [2.276 − 0.0294 tubes of carbon-steel construction or
vacuum system. ln(PH2O) − 0.0858 ln(PSO3)+ 0.0062 with glass coating, or finned tubes
Another application of absorption ln(PH2O PSO3)] (4) depending on the composition of flu-
chillers is the recovery of the propane egases and heat recovery targets.
fraction of flare gas. Flaring in petro- Where Tdew (SO3) is the sulfuric acid Condensing type: They recover la-
leum refineries occurs when waste dew point in Kelvin, PH2O and PSO3 tent heat as well as sensible heat
refinery gas cannot be used in boilers are partial pressures in mm Hg. A from fluegases and hence are able
or fired heater systems and has to be simple-to-use predictive tool for esti- to increase boiler efficiency by up to
burned. The propane fraction of this mating the acid dew point, which ac- 10%. They can be indirect- or direct-
waste stream represents a valuable counts for fuel type, sulfur fraction in contact types. In an indirect-contact
coproduct that could be salvaged. One fuel and excess air, was recently pre- economizer, cold deaerator makeup
U.S. Dept. of Energy (DOE) sponsored sented by Bahadori [6]. So, for greater water flows through a heat exchanger
project is on the development of an heat recovery from fluegas, changing to recover fluegas sensible and latent
NH3 absorption unit running on waste the stack and its material of construc- heats. Condensed water from the flu-
heat to chill the gaseous waste stream tion may also be required. egas will become acidic and need to be
from the reformer to about –30°C to disposed of with proper treatment.
recover 200 barrels per day (bbl/d) of Heat reuse in the same process In direct-contact economizers, raw
propane at a Denver refinery. This Economizers for boilers. An econo- water is sprayed directly into the flue-
technology boosted profit by $900,000/ mizer recovers waste heat from flu- gas, to cool it below its acid dew point.
yr, and paid for the unit in less than egases by heating BFW, and hence These economizers typically use a
two years (http://www1.eere.energy. reduces boiler fuel requirements. Flue- packed bed for better contact of water
gov/industry/petroleum_refining/pdfs/ gases are often rejected to the stack at with fluegases. The sprayed water and
ultramar.pdf, accessed in May 2011). 30 to 70°C higher than the tempera- condensed water from the fluegas be-
ture of the generated steam. Gener- come hot and acidic, and the heat is
FLUEGAS HEAT RECOVERY ally, boiler efficiency can be increased recovered by another heat exchanger
High-temperature stack gases repre- by ~ 1% for every 22°C reduction in using cold deaerator makeup water.
sent the major area of energy loss in fluegas temperature. By recovering The economizer requires a pump to
combustion processes. The tempera- waste heat, an economizer can often circulate hot water in a closed loop. A
ture of a fluegas depends on the tem- reduce fuel requirements by 5 to 10% small stream of this water needs to be
perature of fluid inside the tubes of the and usually pay for itself in less than continuously disposed of (with proper
convection section of fired equipment, two years. Air preheat also reduces ex- treatment), and raw water needs to
and the WHR method. Fluegas acid cess air. Economizers can be classified be added to compensate for the lost
dew-point temperatures limit the pos- as condensing and non-condensing water. The temperature of fluegases
sible heat recovery due to corrosion. types for fluegas streams. can be reduced to 43–60°C, depending
For combustion of fuels with sulfur, it Non-condensing type: Their imple- on the amount of hydrogen, water in
34 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JANUARY 2013
120 Cooling
water inlet
110 Cooling
% of GT's rated capacity
water outlet
100
Condenser
Electrical
generator
90
ISO Turbine
design
80
Evaporator
70 GT power at 35°C
Waste heat
60 source outlet
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Economizer
Waste heat source inlet
Air compressor inlet air temperature, °C
FIGURE 10. The effect of inlet air temperature on the power FIGURE 11. This diagram depict an organic Rankine cycle
output of a typical gas turbine is shown [22] (ORC) with an economizer (internal heat exchanger)
the fuel, amount of excess combustion through APH can be very large since one point to another with merits of
air used and humidity of air. stack temperatures can be reduced to high efficiency and compact size. Its
An indirect-contact condensing type below 180°C (depending on the fluegas heat transfer coefficient in the evapo-
of economizer can heat deaerator feed- acid dew point). APHs require space, rator and condenser zones is 1,000–
water to a higher temperature com- but energy savings can be as much as 100,000 W/m2K, and its thermal resis-
pared to the direct-contact condensing 20–30%, for the case of fired heaters. tance is 0.01–0.03 K/W, thus leading
type. The possibility of corrosion from There are two types of air preheaters: to a smaller area and mass of a given
the acidic condensate is prevented by recuperator and regenerator. heat exchanger [42]. The mechanism
using more expensive materials like A recuperator is a fixed air-to-fluegas of heat pipes is to employ evapora-
stainless steel and glass fiber for ducts heat exchanger (without moving parts) tive heat transport to transfer ther-
and stacks, or by coating exposed placed in the furnace stack to preheat mal energy from one point to another
metal surfaces with a resistant mate- incoming air with hot fluegas. A regen- by evaporation and condensation of a
rial, such as Teflon. erator is an insulated container filled working fluid or coolant.
Condensation systems generally re- with metal or ceramic shapes that Because a heat pipe cannot function
duce particulate and SOx emissions. can absorb and store relatively large below the freezing point nor above
The penalty for firing with excess air amounts of thermal energy and then the critical temperature of its work-
decreases with reduction in fluegas release that energy subsequently. An- ing fluid, the selected working fluid
temperature. Condensing economizers other design of a regenerator for con- must be within this range. In addi-
are difficult to implement (due to cor- tinuous operation uses a continuously tion, vapor pressure, surface tension,
rosion issues), if the boiler is sharing a rotating wheel containing a metal or contact angle and viscosity in the heat
flue stack with other fired equipment. ceramic matrix. The fluegases and pipe must be considered in the selec-
Condensing economizers are applica- inlet stream (such as combustion air) tion of a working fluid [26]. Working
ble only if there is a requirement for pass through different parts of the fluids that can be used in low-temper-
hot water. wheel during its rotation to receive ature heat recovery include methanol
Economizers for fired heaters. If heat from the fluegases and release (10–130°C), flutec PP2 (10–160°C),
fluegas temperatures are very high heat to the cold, inlet stream. ethanol (0–130°C), water (30–200°C)
(~700°C), then adding a new coil to Installing APHs for smaller heat- and toluene (50–200°C). Heat-pipes
the convection section can increase ers (with absorbed duties of 7,000 to can be used as APHs in steam boil-
furnace capacity and reduce fuel con- 10,000 kW and less) may not meet ers, but their installations are limited,
sumption by bringing the fluegas tem- payback period requirements for most largely due to higher costs. Another
perature to within 50–100°C of the petroleum refineries. The payback pe- major limitation of heat pipes is that
process-fluid inlet temperature at the riod for installation of an economizer they must be tuned to particular cool-
inlet of the convection section [20]. or APH depends mainly on the fluegas ing conditions. The choice of pipe ma-
Combustion air heating for boilers flowrate, stack temperature, annual terial, size and coolant all have an
and fired heaters. An air pre-heater operating hours and the need for hot effect on the optimal temperatures in
(APH) is a heat exchanger placed in water. An economizer or APH for wa- which heat-pipes work.
the exhaust stack or ductwork that ter-tube boilers is typically not attrac- Gas turbine (GT) inlet air heater.
extracts a large portion of thermal en- tive for units operating under 10 kg/ GT inlet air (after air compression)
ergy in the fluegases and transfers it cm2g or below 20 ton/h of steam pro- can be heated with fluegases. Also,
to the incoming combustion air. WHR duction, nor any size boiler that will BFW can be preheated by install-
from stack gases through air preheat- normally run at reduced capacity. For ing an economizer in a heat recovery
ing proves to be more advantageous industrial boilers, dual installation steam generator).
than other methods [15]. This prac- using both an economizer and an APH
tice also reduces required capacities is rarely economical or installed. Heat reuse in other equipment
of forced- and induced-draft fans be- Heat recovery using a heat-pipe. A Fired heaters. Fluegas heat can be
cause the combustion air quantity is heat pipe is a heat transfer element used for steam generation in the econ-
reduced. The amount of energy saved that can quickly transfer heat from omizer, steam superheater and hot oil
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JANUARY 2013 35
TABLE 3. COMPARISON OF TYPICAL CAPITAL COSTS FOR VARIOUS
POWER CYCLES
Cover Story
Conversion Technology Typical Sources of Waste Heat Capital Cost
Traditional steam cycle Exhaust from gas turbines, recip- $1,100–1,400/kW
rocating engines, incinerators
system. The pressure of steam gener- and furnaces
ated will depend on the fluegas (hot Gas turbine exhaust and boiler $1,100–1,500/kW
stream) temperature. Steam pressure Kalina cycle
exhaust
levels can be optimized with the avail-
Organic Rankine cycle Gas turbine exhaust, boiler ex- $1,500–3,500/kW
able fluegas temperatures and based haust and heated water
on the plant’s steam balance. Steam
generation has the advantage that
piping costs may be less due to prox- per the second law of thermodynamics, mainly positive or isentropic satura-
imity of steam headers in the plant; only a portion of the heat from a heat- tion vapor curve, high vapor density,
its disadvantage is that steam header work cycle — such as a steam power high critical temperature and high
pressures at a petroleum refinery, for plant — can be converted to work. The heat stability. Liu and others [30] pre-
example, are usually fixed, and hence, remaining heat must be rejected as sented the effect of working fluids on
cannot maximize the amount of pos- heat to a sink of lower temperature ORC performance for WHR. Fluids
sible heat recovery. Generation of high (atmosphere, for instance). For any used in ORC include propane, butanes,
pressure steam is preferred as it can process converting heat energy to me- CFCs, freon, n-pentane, iso-pentane,
be used for power generation. How- chanical energy, the Carnot efficiency hexane, ammonia, R245fa, octameth-
ever, HP steam generation will lead is the theoretical maximum. ylcyclotetrasiloxane (D4) and many
to lower heat recovery from fluegas or Organic Rankine cycle (ORC). This other proprietary fluids. Saleh and
another hot stream. A more costly and can work with waste heat streams in others [40] presented the performance
efficient system will use steam gener- the lower-temperature range of 80 to of ORC for various working fluids for
ation followed by air preheating. 400°C [35] to generate electricity. An a maximum evaporator temperature
In addition to steam generation, ORC engine is similar to a steam Rank- of 100°C. A screening study of several
economizer coils can be added to heat ine engine, except that it uses a lower- working fluids based on power produc-
water or intermediate heat transfer boiling-point organic fluid, instead of tion capability and equipment size re-
fluids. Saturated steam generated in steam, as the working fluid. The work- quirements was presented by Lakew
the steam generators can be super ing fluid is vaporized in the evaporator and Bolland [28]. It shows that R227ea
heated by recovering heat from flu- using waste heat, and the resulting gives the highest power for a heat-
egases or hot streams. A hot oil circuit high pressure vapor is expanded in a source temperature range of 80–160°C
can be installed to supply heat to mul- turbine to generate power. Low pres- and R245fa produces the highest in
tiple locations in the process unit. A sure vapor from the turbine is con- the range of 160–200°C. Wei and oth-
hot oil system can maximize the heat densed in the condenser using cooling ers [44] studied the performance and
recovery, but requires additional capi- water or air. Finally, condensed work- optimization of ORC for WHR.
tal investment. ing fluid is pumped to high pressure to The extent of heat recovery can be
Gas turbine. The exhaust gases from the evaporator, to complete the cycle. calculated from exergy (available en-
a GT (with and without duct firing) An economizer is generally added ergy) of the waste heat stream. For es-
can be used for steam generation in to reduce condenser cooling load and timating the electric power recovered,
HRSG at multiple pressure levels; or, improve ORC efficiency, as illustrated the following formula can be used:
it can be used to heat process streams. in Figure 11. This cycle has the high-
Electrical power, kW = e × carnot ×
In some instances, the hot turbine ex- est temperature at the evaporator and
WH = o × WH (5)
haust is used as combustion air for a the lowest temperature at the con-
fired heater in the plant where a GT is denser. In ORC, working fluids hav- Where e is exergy efficiency; carnot=
located. Waste heat of HRSG exhaust ing higher vapor pressure than water Carnot efficiency = 1 – (cold source
can be used to produce chilled water are used. So, operating pressures and temperature, K / waste heat stream
using an absorption chiller or jet refrig- temperatures of ORC are lower than temperature, K, o = ORC efficiency
eration to cool GT inlet air, and hence those of the Rankine cycle. and WH is the waste heat in kW. For
increase power output of the GT. It can For working fluids with lower boil- a quick estimation of power, one ORC
also be used for organic Rankine or Ka- ing points, the turbine inlet pressure supplier, Cryostar (www.cryostar.com/
lina cycles (discussed in the next sec- can be higher and the circulating mass web/heat-conversion.php, accessed in
tion) to produce power. The optimum flow is lower (minimization of operat- January 2012) indicates a value of 0.5
choice of heat recovery method will de- ing costs), thereby requiring a smaller for e. Labrecque and Boulama [27]
pend on many factors, such as process size turbine. This results in no conden- stated that, for waste heat to useful
heating requirements, available space, sation during expansion in the tur- work conversion, exergy efficiency
fluegas quantity, quality, refinery steam bines, which ensures longer life spans as high as 70% is conceivable. Bourji
balance and payback criteria. for turbine blades, and therefore super and others [10] proposed a correla-
heating of the fluid is not required be- tion for approximately estimating
Heat recovery for power fore expansion in the turbine. ORC power generation from fluegas
All forms of energy, including work, Thermodynamic properties of work- temperatures between 350 and 500°F
can be fully converted into heat, but ing fluids affect the system efficiencies. with ambient temperatures varying
the converse is not generally true. As An ORC working fluid should have a between 50 and 100°F. They also es-
36 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JANUARY 2013
50 450
Carnot and ORC efficiency, % 400
40
350
Temperature, °C
300
30 Fluegas heat
Carnot efficiency 250 Water
FIGURE 12. The efficiencies of Carnot and ORC are compared FIGURE 13. This comparison shows typical heat recovery
using n-pentane from luegases using H2O or 30% NH3 in H2O mixtures, at 30
bar
timated ORC power-generation po- Kalina cycle. The Kalina cycle is a Plate and spiral heat exchangers
tential for various refinery capacities modified form of ORC using binary, Compact-plate heat exchangers
and breakdown for various refinery mixed fluids instead of a single fluid. (CPHE) with their improved turbu-
units, using fluegas WHR. When a mixture of NH3 and water lence and counter-current flow, can
Using WHR, the efficiency of an (typically 70% NH3) is used as the achieve much higher heat-transfer
ORC system ranges from 10% at 110°C working fluid, the cycle is called “Ka- efficiencies than traditional shell-
to more than 22% at 270°C, depending lina cycle”. This particular cycle works and-tube heat exchangers, thereby
on the temperature of the waste heat with waste-heat-stream inlet temper- increasing heat recovery and reducing
and working fluid (Freepower; www. atures in the range of 250 to 1,000°F the required heat-transfer area. Fur-
freepower.co.uk/tech-overview.htm, ac- and has the potential of efficiency thermore, the highly turbulent flow
cessed in January 2012). Drescher and gain over the ORCs. The main reason through the heat exchanger channels
others [17] reported ORC efficiencies for improvement is that the boiling of ensures the heat exchanger is kept
as high as 28%, at a high waste-heat the NH3-water mixture occurs over a clean, resulting in longer service time.
temperature of 350°C. The highest range of temperatures, unlike steam Case studies illustrating benefits
thermal efficiency is achieved when (conventional Rankine cycle) or ORCs of using CPHE in crude preheating,
the hot stream temperature is as high at a constant temperature. Hence, the BFW preheating and steam genera-
as possible, and the sink temperature amount of energy recovered from the tion are presented by Andersson [1].
is as low as possible. A typical compar- hot stream is higher, as illustrated CPHEs are generally applicable up to
ison of Carnot and ORC efficiency is in Figure 13. Integration of a Kalina 450°C and 40 barg. Such units can be
shown in Figure 12. cycle in a combined heat and power designed to work with crossing tem-
Exhaust heat of an ORC can be plant for efficiency improvement was peratures (for example, the cold-side
further utilized to drive absorption presented by Ogriseck [33]. ORC and outlet temperature is higher than the
chillers. Quoilin and Lemart [35] pre- Kalina cycles are similar when the hot-side outlet temperature) and with
sented a compilation of various ORC heat source is condensing steam. temperature approaches as close as
manufacturers and market evolution Other improvements to ORC and 3°C [23]. Packinox is an example of a
for various waste-heat source-temper- Kalina cycles. There are a few im- welded-type CPHE that is suitable for
ature ranges. provements to ORC under different very high pressures and temperatures,
Typical applications of ORC in pe- stages of development and imple- such as 120 barg and 650°C.
troleum refineries include recovery mentation. A cascading closed-loop Plate heat exchangers with gaskets
of waste heat from HRSG fluegases ORC (CCLC; www.chpcenternw.org/ are used mainly for non-toxic and non-
(known as organic bottoming cycle), NwChpDocs/stinger%20presentation. flammable substances at low temper-
distillation overhead streams and pdf, accessed in January 2012), pat- atures and pressures. They can also be
some hot product streams. Most flue- ented by WOW Energy Inc., claims to installed with fins.
gas treatment methods, such as those recover waste heat over a wide tem- Spiral heat exchangers exhibit bet-
involving fluegas scrubbing, carbon perature range with better efficiency. ter fouling resistance and higher heat
capture and sequestration, require the Biasi [9] reviewed the application of transfer rates compared to shell-and-
fluegas stream to be cooled prior to its CCLC to increase gas turbine power tube heat exchangers [2].
introduction into the treatment train. and efficiency.
Thus, the addition of an ORC system The Neogen cycle (www.sti.nasa.gov/ Final remarks
can be of great benefit when used in tto/Spinoff2005/er_7.html, accessed in This paper provides a comprehensive
combination with a downstream flu- January 2012) is a variation of Kalina review of several WHR methods and
egas treatment system, and can help cycle, developed by NASA and Unitel techniques applicable for process in-
to improve the overall economics of Technologies to achieve higher effi- dustries, especially petroleum refiner-
fluegas treatment by generating ad- ciencies. A capital cost comparison of ies. It can be concluded from the review
ditional power from waste heat in the Rankine cycle, ORC and Kalina cycle that considerable potential exists for
fluegas stream. [8] is given in Table 3. recovering some of the wasted energy
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JANUARY 2013 37
Cover Story
in the process industry, especially the rion, operational, reliability, mainte- Authors
petroleum refining industry, which can nance and process safety issues. ■ C. Chandra Sekhara Reddy
is a part-time Ph.D. scholar
be used to improve energy efficiency. Edited by Dorothy Lozowski at Andhra University (Vi-
Economics of WHR vary from one unit sakhapatnam, India 530003;
Phone: +65 98624720; Email:
to another and from site to site. A de- Editor’s Note cs6_reddy@yahoo.co.in).
tailed economic study is required to There are two additional sections to He received B.S.Ch.E. and
M.S.Ch.E. degrees from
decide the best WHR system(s) for a this article on Minimizing Waste Heat Andhra University and IIT
particular plant by considering many Generation, and a Summary of Waste Kanpur, respectively. He has
more than 16 years of process
factors such as energy cost, plot size, Heat Recovery Methods, which are design and operations experi-
ence in the petroleum refinery, petrochemical and
capital cost, company payback crite- available online at www.che.com. chemical industries. Reddy is currently the lead
process design engineer for Singapore Refining
Co., where he has been working since 2007. His
research interests are in process design and en-
References 19. Ganapathy V., Cold end corrosion: causes and ergy efficiency improvements of process systems.
cures, Hydrocarbon Proc., pp.57–59, January, G.P. Rangaiah has been
1. Andersson E., Optimizing heat recovery with 1989.
CPHEs, Petroleum Technology Quarterly, pp. with the National University
75–83, Q1, 2007. 20. Garg A., How to boost the performance of of Singapore (21 Lower Kent
fired heaters, Chem. Eng., pp. 239–244, No- Ridge Rd., Singapore 119077;
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using spiral heat exchangers, Petroleum chegpr@nus.edu.sg) since
Technology Quarterly, pp. 75-84, Q2, 2008. 21. GPSA, “Engineering Data Book”, vol. 1, 12th 1982, and is currently pro-
ed., Gas Processors Suppliers Association, fessor and deputy head for
3. “ASHRAE Handbook — Refrigeration (I-P) 2004.
ed.”, American Society of Heating, Refriger- student and academic affairs
ating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc., 22. Green D.W., Perry R.H., “Perry’s Chemical in the Dept. of Chemical &
2010. Engineers’ Handbook” 8th ed., McGraw- Hill, Biomolecular Engineering.
2008. He received B.S., M.S. and
4. “ASHRAE Handbook – Fundamentals (SI) Ph.D. degrees in chemical en-
ed.”, American Society of Heating, Refriger- 23. Gunnarsson J., Sinclair Iain J.C., Alanis F.,
Compact Heat Exchangers: Improving heat gineering, from Andhra University, IIT Kanpur
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2009. recovery, Chem. Eng., pp. 44–47, February,
2009. research interests are in control, modeling and
5. Bahadori A., Vuthaluru H. B., A method for optimization of chemical, petrochemical and re-
estimation of recoverable heat from blow- 24. Horuz I., Kurt B., Absorption heat transform- lated processes. He has edited three books and
down systems during steam generation, En- ers and an industrial application, Renewable published about 150 journal papers. Rangaiah
ergy, 35, pp. 3501–3507, 2010. Energy, 35, pp. 2175–2181, 2010. has received several teaching awards, including
25. Kemp I.C., “Pinch Analysis and Process Inte- the Annual Teaching Excellence Awards from the
6. Bahadori A., Estimation of combustion flu- National University for four consecutive years.
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efficiency gain, Applied Thermal Engineer- 26. Kutz M., “Mechanical Engineers’ Handbook-
ing, 31, pp. 1457–1462, 2011. Energy and Power,” 3rd ed., John Wiley & S.V. Naidu has been with the
7. Bahadori A., Vuthaluru H. B., Estimation of Sons, 2006. Andhra University (Phone:
energy conservation benefits in excess air 27. Labrecque R., Boulama K. G., Get the most +91 0891-2844893; Email:
controlled gas-fired systems, Fuel Processing out of waste heat, Chem. Eng., pp.40–43, Oc- svnayudu@yahoo.com) since
Technology, 91, pp. 1198–1203, 2010. tober, 2006. 1990, and is currently profes-
sor in the Dept. of Chemical
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Opportunities in US industry, March 2008, low-temperature heat source, Appl. Therm. ning and resource mobilization
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processes/pdfs/waste_heat_recovery.pdf. He received a B.S. degree in
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gas turbine power and efficiency, Gas Tur- company, Oklahoma, 1991. versity, B.S. and Ph.D. degrees
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PRESENTED BY:
Feature Report
ST Pre-filter After-filter
Plant air
Air intake filter and silencer
Inter-cooler After-cooler
Flow orifice Shutoff valve
Drive 2: electric Inter-cooler After-cooler
motor Primary air
M reciever
Automatic drain Automatic drain
Stand-by Stand-by trap trap
Moisture
compressor compressor separator
(1st stage) (2nd stage)
FIGURE 1. Shown here are the main components of a compressed air system
prepared that contains data, includ- cal) to breathing air (most critical). 1. Minimizing or eliminating sources
ing number and type of consumers, The cost of producing compressed of contamination. Contaminants can
minimum and maximum air-pressure air goes up with each quality level. enter the system at the compressor in-
requirements of each user, air flow re- Each increased quality level requires take or could be introduced in the air
quired by each user, utilization factor installing additional purification stream by the system itself. Though
and so on. equipment and leads to a higher initial equipment, such as separators, fil-
Compressed air has a number of capital investment. The future operat- ters, dryers and condensate drains are
industrial uses based on its service. A ing cost will also rise due to increased used to improve the air quality, we can
major application of compressed air, energy consumption and maintenance. still try to reduce the load and thus
when used as instrument air, is valve Therefore, the air quality level should the quality level expected from them
actuator control. Other common appli- be determined as the first step. by eliminating or minimizing sources
cations of instrument air include use in The quality class of compressed air of contamination. This can be done in
laboratories, rotating equipment seals, can be assigned as listed in detail in a number of ways.
paint spraying and powder coating, the international standard ISO 8573- For example, locate the compres-
climate control and so on. Industrial 1, which bases the classes on particle sor’s air-intake filters in a safe non-
workshops have consumer tools, such size, moisture and oil content in the air. hazardous area in open air outside
as pneumatic hammers, drills, grinders For example, the air quality specifica- the plant building away from sources
and such. Utility stations are often in- tion for instrument air is written as of dirt; dust; moisture; toxic, corrosive
stalled in a plant for general purposes ISO 8573-1 Class 2.2.1, which means and flammable gases; and also at suf-
and require plant air. Breathing air 1 micron particulate filtration, –40°F ficient height (about 3 to 5 m) from
stations are provided in most chemi- (–40°C) dew point and 0.08 ppm w/w ground level to avoid dust, debris,
cal plants. Food, pharmaceutical and (0.1 mg/m3) oil filtration. The air class insects and so on. As the air intake
electronic industries require mostly may also change from client-to-client is subject to extreme conditions with
process air. All of these users must be based on the purity requirement of air various contaminants causing foul-
carefully identified and listed. for the particular service. ing, corrosion and other problems, the
Quality. The air quality depends on The most stringent quality class material of intake filters should be
the levels of contaminants that the in this regard is Class 0. It does not selected with great care. Typically, the
end users can tolerate without affect- mean that the contaminant level will air intake filter and piping is made of
ing the smooth function of process be zero, but rather that the levels of stainless steel.
(Table 1). Typical contaminants com- particulate matter, dew point and oil Also, one should avoid using lubri-
monly encountered in compressed content of the air supplied will be as cated air compressors in applications
air systems include solids (dirt, dust, per any values (typically lowest) speci- where high quality is desired.
pipe scales, and particles from com- fied by the user. Based on its equip- 2. Grouping of consumers. Consum-
pressor wear), liquids (water and oil) ment capabilities, the manufacturer ers with similar air quality and pres-
and gases (water vapor, oil, chemical must agree in writing that it can pro- sure level can be grouped along with
vapors). Based on the services ca- vide air of such a class. air-treatment equipment in close
tered to, the quality of compressed air Some points to be considered when proximity. If different air quality re-
ranges from plant air (least critical), talking about air quality are given quirements exist in the same plant
process air and instrument air (criti- below: then the plant can be divided into dif-
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JANUARY 2013 41
Feature Report
ferent units. The air treatment equip- culated as the sum of the number of they can be met any time by future
ment can be kept dedicated to the end tools times the air consumption per compressor installations or temporary
users with high-quality requirements. tool times the load factor. The load fac- rented installations.
For example, if only one consumer tor takes care of the time a particular Pressure level. Process engineers
requires lubricant-free air, only air tool is being utilized. This total tool- specify air-pressure requirements for
being supplied to it needs to be treated, air requirement can be used to size the process in their basis while the
thereby reducing costs. Alternatively the tool air compressor. valve and pneumatic tool manufac-
(based on economic and operational When designing a compressed air turers rate their valve and tools for
analysis), high-quality air may be sup- system, the approach should be to specific purposes as given in their
plied with a dedicated, lubricant-free minimize the demand and properly literature. Each air consumer has a
compressor. However, if there is a suf- size the compressor; oversizing should certain operating pressure require-
ficiently high requirement of higher be avoided. Variation in air demand ment to function correctly. The high-
air quality (say 70% or more), then the over time is a major consideration. est working pressure requirement of a
entire plant can be supplied with this Plants with a wide variation in de- consumer is used to determine the cor-
quality level. mand need a compressor operating rect installation pressure (or the com-
Quantity — Estimating system ca- efficiently under partial load. Though pressor discharge pressure). In the
pacity and margins. Before install- the air compressor efficiency will in- same system for the consumers where
ing a compressor, the quantity of air crease with size, oversized compres- such high pressures are not required
flow required by the plant should be sors are extremely inefficient because a self-regulating valve (or a pressure
known. The required compressed-air they use more energy per unit volume control valve (PCV)) can be installed
capacity is the sum of air require- of air produced when operating at par- upstream to reduce the pressure at
ments of instruments, tools and pro- tial load. the consumer’s inlet.
cess operations assuming normal In existing installations, the air de- To decide the installation pressure,
plant operation at full load (taking mand is monitored with the help of the pressure at the compressor dis-
into account the operational load flowmeters installed on main headers charge flange needs to be estimated.
factor of each piece of equipment). A and at various points in the system. To estimate this pressure, the losses
study is typically carried out to under- The electronic data loggers that track encountered in the circuit due to
stand the various applications requir- compressor activity over time also help equipment (filters, dryers, flow ele-
ing compressed air and the duration of monitor the demand. The data thus ments, heat exchangers, piping and
their operation. measured can be used to size a new so on) must be added to the maxi-
However, the total air requirement plant. For new installations the com- mum pressure value required at the
is not simply the sum of maximum re- pressor capacity may be calculated as consumer end. The example given in
quirements for each tool, but rather the the example shown in Table 2. Table 3 clarifies this point.
sum of the average air consumption of Sizing for future demand. Always Table 3 shows that the working pres-
each. For example, in most plants the keep in mind that a plant may need sure is determined by adding system
capacity of a compressor is the capac- a new process unit sometime in the pressure losses to the maximum pres-
ity required for operating both instru- near future. As an example, say that sure value required at the consumer
ment and plant air. Typically, the tool this unit will have a requirement of end. The equipment pressure drops are
air systems are kept separate from approximately 500 Nm3/h and the ap- dependant on vendor design and the
the instrument and plant air system. plication lies in the same pressure and values used in the example are typical
During plant shutdown, the tool air quality range as that of Table 2. Due values encountered. The pressure drop
requirements are especially large and to the availability of these data well in in the filters are low initially but in-
can be met by hired portable compres- advance during the sizing stage, 500 crease over time. For example, a desic-
sors. In this way, oversizing the in- Nm3/h are added to the existing flow cant dryer after-filter may accumulate
strument and plant air compressor to of 3,400 Nm3/h and a new capacity is desiccant fines over time, which can
cover this temporary large demand of estimated as 3,900 Nm3/h. Although cause an increased pressure drop and
air can be avoided. in this case it may seem that the fu- increased power consumption.
In case it is planned to supply tool ture requirements are taken care of, The flow regulation of a compres-
air from the same compressor, then in reality the compressor has become sor may bring about flow variations in
care should be taken to ensure that: oversized for current use. In such a the system. As pressure drop through
there is no interconnection between case, the logical approach will be to a given pipe is directly proportional
piping of the two air systems down- install a smaller reciprocating unit of to the square of flowrate (∆P Q2)
stream of the dryer; the receiver size 500 Nm3/h at a later stage when actu- through the pipe, the pressure drop
is adequate enough to supply instru- ally needed. will increase in case of a higher flow
ment air at all times; and that a low Thus care should be taken to avoid demand. To compensate for this vary-
pressure switch is installed that can adding extra margins to cover future ing pressure drop due to compressor
cut-off the tool air supply in case the applications or supply tool air as this regulation, a margin is considered.
instrument air pressure drops. may lead to oversizing the compressor. As a rule of thumb for compressed
The tool air requirement can be cal- When such demands are encountered, air systems in the range of 100 psig
42 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JANUARY 2013
TABLE 2. ESTIMATING AIR COMPRESSOR CAPACITY
Symbols: Assumptions:
C = Compressor capacity, Nm3/h Air consumption / instrument 3.2 Nm3/h
I = Instrument air requirement, Nm3/h Air consumption / utility station 200 Nm3/h
P = Plant air requirement, Nm3/h % of utility stations working 10 %
N = Number of instruments in plant simultaneously
u = Number of utility stations in plant Flow margins to account for :
U = Number of utility stations working a) Leaks and future expansion 20 %
Formulae: b) Air dyer regeneration 20 %
C=I+P c) Compressor wear and efficiency (only
I = N (Air consumption / instrument) for reciprocating type, in addition to a & b) 20 %
U = u (% of utility stations working simultaneously)
P = U (Air consumption / utility station)
Calculations:
For an example we consider the following figures:
N= 475 (say)
u= 60 (say)
U= 60 10% 6
I= 475 3.2 1,520 Nm3/h
Nm3/h (Considering centrifugal type and applying flow margins a & b to
I= 1,520 1.2 x 1.2 2,188.8 above flow)
P= 6 200 1,200 Nm3/h
C= 2,189 + 1,200 3,388.8 Nm3/h
~ 3,400 Nm3/h
Hence the estimated compressor size is 3,400 Nm3/h
(approximately 7–8 barg), for every 2 A package enquiry specification cycle time; drying period; regeneration
psi (0.14 bar) increase in compressor The whole idea of writing an enquiry period; cooling period; tie-in point list;
discharge pressure, the following two specification for the package system is instrumentation and control schemes;
changes occur: to do the following: and so on, are given by the vendor.
1. Energy consumption increases by 1. Build a basis of what is expected System details should cover the
approximately 1% at full output flow. from the compressed air system. operational and control philosophy,
2. Energy consumption increases by 2. Present sufficient and precise tech- number of working and spare equip-
another 0.6–1% due to unregulated nical data to the equipment manufac- ment, quality, quantity, pressure re-
usage (unregulated usage is typically turer to design this system. quirements of air, schematic sketch
considered to be about 30–50% of air 3. Identify the scope of supply. and so on.
demand). Some important points for the ven- Battery limit conditions, utility
The combined effect is a net rise of dor and the buyer which should be put availability, meteorological and cli-
about 1.6–2% [1]. in the specification in a clear and con- matic conditions, site location, geo-
With this information in mind, one cise way are given below. technical data, and any limitations on
should be careful in finalizing the sys- 1. Equipment, system and site plant dimensions details constitute
tem pressure. The calculated value of details. Equipment details should the site details.
the compressor’s discharge pressure contain some data given by the de- 2. Scope of supply. A vendor must
should not be simply rounded to the sign engineer and some information understand what exactly he has to fur-
nearest whole number. Instead, equip- left for the equipment manufacturer nish to the buyer. Commonly, vendors
ment manufacturers should be con- to confirm. Data, such as number of supplying compressors also supply
sulted for obtaining exact values of compressors and dryers; capacities receivers, filters and dryers together
pressure drops across the equipment required; operating and design condi- to form what is called as the air com-
at maximum flowrates. These realistic tions; fluid properties; allowed noise pression-and-drying package. Typical
values should then be used for calcu- level; expected air quality at the dryer details listed in the scope of supply are
lating the compressor discharge pres- outlet; maximum pressure drop across equipment; interconnecting piping;
sure. Also, an attempt should be made dryers and filters; and dryer outlet control panel; instrumentation; plat-
to select equipment and instruments temperature are to be given by the de- forms and ladders; bolts; lugs; skids;
with minimum pressure drop. signer. On the other hand, data such fabrication; surface preparation and
Operating with a lower pressure as equipment-rated capacity confirma- painting; inspection and testing; first
than needed will lead to erratic func- tion; number of compressor stages re- fill (desiccant, oil) supply; installation;
tion of instruments and endanger the quired; absorbed power and efficiency documentation; site shipment; author-
process. A higher pressure, on the at shaft; suction- and discharge-flange ity approval and certification.
other hand, will cause more energy size and rating; consumption of utili- 3. Reference and procedure. Indus-
consumption and may lead to system ties like cooling water and instrument trial equipment manufacturers have
leaks and thus increases of the plant air; design temperature based on com- their own set of internal manufactur-
operating costs in future. pressor discharge temperature; dryer ing quality standards. However, most
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JANUARY 2013 43
TABLE 3. ESTIMATING THE WORKING PRESSURE
Pressure required at consumer end P 6 barg
Element Typical pressure
Feature Report drop
Final filter ∆P1 0.3 bar
Air distribution piping ∆P2 0.1 bar
chemical process industries (hence- Dust filter (dryer after filter) ∆P3 0.1 bar
forth referred in this article as “client”) Dryer ∆P4 0.15 bar
require the vendors to adhere to global Coalescing filter (dryer pre filter) ∆P5 0.1 bar
manufacturing codes, standards, guide- Flow element ∆P6 0.25 bar
lines, good recommended practices, Compressor after-cooler ∆P7 0.1 bar
directives (for instance, ASME, API,
Compressor inter-cooler ∆P8 0.1 bar
ANSI). International clients operating
Compressor regulation range ∆P9 0.5 bar
multiple industrial units at times have
Total pressure drop ∆P 1.7 bar
their own set of technical standards
and guidelines that the vendor has to Pressure required at the P+
comply with. Typically, a list of such compressor discharge flange ∆P 7.7 barg
codes and standards to be followed is
available in the design basis of a proj- to the vendor’s proprietary design. The following variables, if analyzed
ect and needs to be conveyed to the There may be certain technicalities in correctly, will provide a fair idea of
vendor through specification. terms of fabrication or state-of-art de- the compressor type to be selected be-
This section should also contain velopment that only the vendor may fore consulting a compressor vendor
administrative, procedural and other be better aware of. For example, air for details:
temporary requirements to be fol- intake filters or moisture separators 1. Hours of operation per month
lowed, including submission of expe- are entirely a vendor-supplied propri- 2. Nature of demand (continuous or
rience record proforma, complying to etary item. This will be designed by intermittent)
equipment qualification criteria, in- the vendor based on the particle-size 3. Pressure and flow requirements
structions for delivery to site, schedul- retention and moisture data given by 4. Environment (clean or dirty)
ing, warranties, and spare and main- the design engineer. A preliminary selection of the type of
tenance agreements. During the technical bid analysis air compressor can be made from the
(TBA) stage based on the specifica- typical graph of inlet flow versus dis-
Specifying equipment data tion given by the designer, different charge pressure, as given in the GPSA
A compressed air and drying package vendors offer their proposals that have handbook [2]. For example, suppose
contains many types of equipment, to be evaluated technically for energy we want to select an air compressor for
such as air-intake filters, compres- efficiency and lifetime operating cost. 1,000 acfm and a discharge pressure of
sors, inter-coolers, after-coolers, mois- The data furnished by the vendor need 122 psig. By using such a graph, we will
ture separators, receivers and so on. to be thoroughly checked by the engi- observe that for our application we will
The engineer who writes specifica- neer to see that all of his or her techni- end up selecting the following types of
tions for the package does not neces- cal and operational requirements are compressors: reciprocating (single and
sarily size all this equipment. Based in line with that given in the specifi- multiple stage), rotary screw and cen-
on rules of thumb, good engineering cation. Any other additional data fur- trifugal (single and multiple stage).
practices and sound technical as- nished as a result of proprietary design All three types of compressors can suit
sumptions, he or she can fairly esti- should also be checked at least for cor- the application. So how do we decide
mate the capacities and sizes of these rectness and compliance to standards. which type of compressor is the best?
pieces of equipment. This may help The answer is that we must not select
different engineers from disciplines Air compressor selection any compressor that simply fulfills the
like piping, static equipment, electri- During compressor and drive selec- flow and pressure requirements, but
cal and so on to get at least prelimi- tion, it must be kept in mind that in the one that is best suited to the ap-
nary data to proceed with their work. most industries it is the compressor plication (see Table 4).
For example, due to availability of that utilizes more electricity than any Suppose for the same application
equipment sizes, the layout engineer other equipment. Records show that in given above we further know that
can assign preliminary locations for many instances during the first year the nature of load will be continuous,
this equipment (which will be sup- of operation, the operating cost was al- heavy (high flowrate) and the system
plied as packages or skids) on the al- most twice that of the initial purchase has to be lubricant free. For high flow-
lotted plot plan and fix the area for price of the equipment. rates and oil-free conditions centrifu-
the air unit in the basic stage. When selecting new compressors, gal compressors are a common choice.
The sizes of some of the equipment industries with existing compressed- Also centrifugal compressors work
estimated by the engineer may not air installations have an advantage. well under continuous load rather
necessarily match that given by the They monitor their current air de- than variable load. Due to these rea-
vendor. Though seeming correct on mand and supply trends and also the sons a centrifugal compressor will be-
paper, such equipment may or may reliability and suitability of existing come a first choice for our application.
not give the desired result. This may air compressors. The data thus ob-
be either due to the capabilities and tained will prove useful to them in Correct flowrate units
limitations of the selected vendor’s selecting and sizing any future com- As air is compressible it will occupy
manufacturing and machinery or due pressed air installations. different volumes at different tem-
44 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JANUARY 2013
TABLE 4. COMPRESSOR SELECTION
Compressor type Reciprocating Screw Centrifugal
Best suited for:
Flowrates Low Medium High
Nature of air demand Fluctuating or Continuous or Continuous or
varying steady steady strument air cannot be compromised
Nature of operation Intermittent Continuous Continuous at any cost. The capacity of the spare
Operating efficiency at Most efficient Good Poor, suscepti- compressor is kept the same as the
lower / part loads bility to surge largest duty compressor.
Even to cater to the normal opera-
Reliability and High wear Good Medium main-
maintenance tenance but tion, sometimes multiple compres-
frequent sors are installed in a plant. For ex-
Complex and Easy and low Check for un- ample, for a certain known capacity
frequent main- maintenance balance and we have a compressor installation of
tenance vibration 2 100%. This actually means that
we have two installed compressors,
peratures and pressures. There is pressure (P1) and final pressure (P2) out of which one is working and the
no global standard for specifying air in absolute units. A gage value is only other a standby. Selecting this instal-
compressor flowrates. Care should be a representation of pressure. It does lation may mean that we get a single
taken to avoid confusion due to usage not include the atmospheric pressure compressor whose working capacity
of different units like cubic feet per and hence is not the true pressure is very large. Instead we can opt for
minute (CFM), standard air capacity of the gas. Typically in instrument a combination of a number of smaller
(SCFM), actual air-compressor capac- air systems, the overall compression compressors, which may prove an at-
ity (ACFM), inlet air capacity (ICFM), ratio is about nine. Due to this high tractive economic and operating alter-
free air delivery (FAD), normal cubic compression ratio we may need mul- native than having one large compres-
meters per hour (Nm3/h) and so on. tiple stages. sor. Likewise, a 3 50% combination
Compressor vendors rate their com- The compression ratio per stage is where we have three installed com-
pressors in terms of volume. The ven- limited by the discharge temperature pressors, out of which two are working
dor catalogs typically state compres- and usually does not exceed four. How- and the third a standby is an another
sor flows in CFM. It also seems logical ever, sometimes for small sized air option. For critical services, the option
and easy to visualize equipment size units with intermittent duty, a higher of keeping a spare rotor handy is also
in terms of volume rather than mass. compression ratio may be used by the considered at times.
Sometimes mass flowrate (kg/h) of vendor. Table 5 can be used for choos- Generally, a combination of differ-
gas is given by a design engineer with ing number of stages. ent drives is used to run compressors.
the understanding that mass of a gas Though an engineer can state the A petroleum refinery may have units,
remains constant. In such cases, the value of the number of stages in the for instance a hydrogen generation
moisture content in the gas (if any) specification, this value is subject unit (HGU) or a sulfur-recovery unit
should be subtracted from the given to the manufacturing capabilities of (SRU), where excess high-pressure
flowrate. The vendor should be told if the vendor. (HP) steam is generated in the pro-
the flowrate is wet or dry. In general, variable speed control is cess. If the generated excess steam is
When dealing with process gas ap- achieved by using a steam turbine, gas not being used or exported elsewhere
plications, the unit SCFM is commonly turbine or diesel or gasoline engines. and is sufficient to drive a turbine,
used while FAD finds a more common Constant speed control is achieved then a steam-driven turbine can be
usage in compressed air applications. by electric motors. Variable speed can selected as the main drive while an
also be obtained from electric motors electric motor may be used to operate
Number of stages and drives with variable speed drives. Drive se- the other compressors.
Multiple stages are used in compres- lection can be done based on the chart For example, a compressor with a
sors to achieve higher pressures. As given in the Instrument Engineers steam-turbine drive may supply 65%
high-pressure compression is carried Handbook [3]. of the total flow requirement while the
out in multiple stages, intercoolers compressor with electric motor and
provided between the stages remove Operational philosophy/spares variable speed drive (VSD) may sup-
heat of compression and bring down Most plants install at least two com- ply 35% of the total flow requirement.
the temperature to approximately pressors, one working and the other a The spare will also be VSD driven and
that at the compressor inlet. As a re- spare or standby. A spare air compres- sized to supply 65% of the total flow
sult of this cooling, the density of air sor is required in the system to ensure requirement in case of emergency.
increases and volumetric flowrate of maximum reliability and availability This leads to electric power saving,
the gas going to the next stage reduces. of compressed air during emergency increased reliability due to usage of
Due to this volumetric reduction the scenarios, such as equipment failure. a reliable source of utility (steam in
work of compression and hence the Mechanical failure of a compressor this case) and also extraction of useful
power need reduces. will directly affect instrument air sup- work from excess steam. All the three
The number of stages required is ply in the plant after the stored air ca- compressors will be sized for 65% of
determined by the overall compres- pacity of the air receiver is completely the air demand. The actual operating
sion ratio. The compression ratio is exhausted. A spare compressor is in- schemes are decided and approved by
calculated considering both the initial stalled where process criticality of in- the chemical plant personnel along
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JANUARY 2013 45
TABLE 6. CALCULATING AIR RECEIVER SIZE
Ambient air temperature T °C 40
Feature Report Capacity required C Nm3/h 3,400
Capacity correction = 3,400 (273 + 40) /
(free air delivery) (60 273) = 64.96
TABLE 5. CHOOSING NUMBER OF STAGES Hold-up time required t min 10
BASED ON COMPRESSION RATIO Ambient pressure Pa bar 1.01
Compression Number of stages Initial/storage pressure P1 barg 8
Ratio (P2/P1) bara 9.01
1–4 1 stage, sometimes 2 stages Final/destination P2 barg 4.5
4–20 2 stage, sometimes 3 stages pressure bara 5.51
20+ 3 stages Volume V m3 188
with the design engineer based on P1 = Initial pressure or compressor pressed air system. The receiver lo-
their previous experience, cost effec- discharge pressure, bara cated immediately downstream of
tiveness and RAM studies. P2 = Final pressure or minimum pres- compressor but before the dryer is
Running a smaller compressor at sure required at the air consumer end, known as the wet receiver or pri-
full load proves more energy efficient bara mary receiver. The receiver located
than running a larger compressor at The time t, also known as the resi- downstream of the dryer is known
low load. Also if there is a large varia- dence time for receiver sizing, is a as the dry receiver or secondary re-
tion in air demand (like low demands function of criticality of the system, ceiver.
during weekends) then we can switch operator intervention for mainte- The main function of the wet receiver
off one of the two working compres- nance and piping diameter. This time is to act as a pulsation dampner (typi-
sors. There may be a combination of typically varies from 5 to 15 min. In cally for piston reciprocating compres-
operating compressors based on se- plants where provision of auto start sor) and bring about a stabilization in
quential controls to avoid running the of spare compressor is given, the resi- pressure. It provides additional radiant
larger compressor at such times. dence time may be reduced to 1.5 to cooling to help condense some moisture
2 min considering reliability of auto and reduce load on the dryer. On the
Air receiver sizing start and subject to client’s approval other hand, the dry receiver meets
The air receiver is used to store a cer- and operating experience. An example the high short-term air demand from
tain volume of compressed air and sup- is provided in Table 6. consumers by the air stored in it, thus
ply it for use as needed. In the event of The initial pressure (P1) is usually avoiding cycling of the compressor.
a failure or a shutdown of the operat- taken as the pressure at the compres- Most rotary screw compressors (lu-
ing compressor, the receiver provides sor discharge flange considering line bricant injected) are equipped with
the necessary air supply for the time losses to be negligible; and the final capacity control by inlet valve mod-
needed to start (manually or automat- pressure is taken as the pressure re- ulation and are designed to match
ically) the standby air compressor. quired at the instrument for proper the output from the compressor with
An air receiver located on the dis- operation. Sometimes the receiver the demand from consumers. Thus
charge side of a reciprocating com- volume calculated from the given for- it seems that an air receiver can be
pressor also helps to dampen pressure mula may turn out to be too large to avoided in this case.
pulsations. Due to availability of a be economical. To reduce the receiver However, absence of an air receiver
large vapor space, the receiver pro- volume (V), the value of the term (P1 will not shield the compressor from
vides radiant cooling and also collects – P2) should be increased. To achieve pressure fluctuations from the de-
any condensed liquid. this, the value P1 should be increased. mand side downstream of the receiver.
The air receiver is sized such that Storing air at a higher pressure by Also the ability to keep the compres-
it supplies a compressed air demand installing a smaller reciprocating ma- sor unloaded for longer time during
for an amount of time required for the chine will reduce receiver size and periods of light loads will not be avail-
air pressure to drop from compressor prove economical compared to install- able. Thus the requirement for an air
discharge pressure to the minimum ing a receiver with high storage vol- receiver is a must.
pressure required at the air consumer ume. Sometimes for a critical system, The following mountings are essen-
end. The size of an air receiver can be an additional receiver operating in tial for an air receiver:
calculated by the formula (based on parallel can be installed for additional 1. Pressure gage
Boyle’s law, PV = a constant): reliability, if required. 2. Safety valve
t × C × Pa The assumptions for this exercise 3. Automatic drain trap and manual
V= (1) are the following: drain tapping
( P1 − P2 )
1. The receiver volume is at ambient 4. Fusible plugs
Where, temperature. 5. Level transmitter
V = Receiver volume, m3 2. No air is being supplied to the re- 6. Manhole
t = Time allowed for pressure drop ceiver by the compressor. The receiver inlet nozzle should
(P1 – P2) to occur, min be located in the lower portion of the
C = Free air delivered at compressor Location of air receiver vessel and the outlet nozzle should be
discharge, Nm3/h The air receiver is typically installed located at the top to assist settling of
Pa = Atmospheric pressure, bara at two different locations in the com- liquid droplets
46 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JANUARY 2013
TABLE 7. AIR DRYER SELECTION
Dryer Chemical deliques- Refrigerant dryer Desiccant Heat of compression Membrane
cent dryer dryer dryer dryer
Basic Single tower with a Combination of air- Twin tow- Single or twin towers Membrane
configuration salt-packed bed to-air heat exchanger ers with with desiccant packed unit
followed by refrigerant- desiccant beds
to-air heat exchanger. packed
Variation: Cyclic dry- beds
ers; indirect cooling
through thermal stor-
age medium
Drying action Moisture is ab- Cooling air from com- Moisture Moisture adsorption in Selective ad-
sorbed by salt bed. pressor discharge adsorp- desiccant bed sorption. Moist
Salt dissolves in in air-to-air heat ex- tion in air enters the
water and is lost to changer to reduce desiccant dryer. Water
drain during peri- load on the dryer fol- bed permeates
odic draining lowed by direct cool- the mem-
ing in refrigerant-to-air brane walls
heat exchanger. while dries air
Indirect cooling in continues to
thermal storage media travel further
Drying Salt beds of sodium, Refrigerant / thermal Desiccant Single tower: Rotat- Membrane
medium potassium, calcium mass media like ing desiccant drum in
and those with a Silica gel, single pressure vessel.
urea base alumina It uses hot air taken
and mo- directly at a point after
lecular compressor discharge
sieves for regeneration purge.
Twin tower: Desiccant
bed (heat regeneration
by hot air taken directly
after compressor dis-
charge)
Drying Not possible, salt Not applicable. Possible Possible Not possible,
medium is used up and membrane
regeneration make-up of salt is has to be re-
required placed
Dew point 15–50°F below inlet 35–39°F –40 to –40 to –100°F 40 to –40°F
attained air temperature –100°F
Approximate 0.2 0.79 2 to 3 0.8 3 to 4
power
requirement,
kW/100 cfm
Materials of construction the range 0.5 to 2 in. are galvanized the required pressure dew point. To
The most common material of con- carbon steel. This is done typically be- select the correct dryer, first it is im-
struction (MOC) used for a plant- and cause lines that are smaller in diameter portant to understand the concept of
instrument-air system is carbon steel. can get clogged by any rust, corrosion dew point. Atmospheric air contains
The compressor and dryer package or other solids caused by carbon-steel moisture. If we keep on cooling air we
parts in contact with moist air shall be corrosion or eroding, and may create will attain a temperature where the
selected with care. Corrosion allowance problems for the instruments down- moisture contained in air will begin
will be included as per project standard stream to which they supply air. to condense and drop out. This tem-
or design basis. The equipment mate- perature at which condensation first
rial is specified by the design engineer Air dryer selection occurs is the dew point of air at atmo-
and is subject to confirmation and jus- Water in compressed air, either in spheric pressure. If we compress at-
tification by the vendor. the liquid or vapor phase, can cause mospheric air, it will occupy a smaller
The compressed air receiver is made a variety of operational problems for volume. Due to compression the water
of carbon steel. As the compressed air consumers of compressed air. Prob- molecules will come closer, coalesce
receiver also serves the purpose of lems encountered may include freez- and condense out. This temperature
condensate collection and most liquid ing of outdoor air lines, corrosion in at which water vapor will begin to
is knocked off and collected at the re- piping and equipment, malfunction- condense at the applied higher pres-
ceiver bottom, it is susceptible to cor- ing of pneumatic process-control in- sure is the dew point at the applied
rosion. To avoid this, the receiver is struments, fouling of processes and pressure, or pressure dew point. Thus
typically provided with an internal products and so on. Hence, using an the pressure dew point (dew point
protective resin coating (for example, air dryer becomes necessary to re- at higher pressure) will be different
heat-cured phenolic resin). move the water vapor from the com- than the dew point of air at atmo-
Pipelines are typically carbon steel, pressed air. spheric pressure.
except lines with smaller diameter in The air dryer is selected based on In general, air at a temperature
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JANUARY 2013 47
Feature Report
higher than atmospheric will hold of the air dryer to protect the drying Distribution piping
more moisture, and air at a pres- medium (example, desiccant) from The compressed-air distribution piping
sure higher than atmospheric will getting contaminated. After-filters will be sized based on the ACFM for a
hold less moisture. The air leaving are installed downstream of the air minimum pressure drop of 0.1 bar/100
the compressor is both at a higher dryer to prevent desiccant fines from m of piping. Air velocities of the order
pressure and temperature than at- entering the system downstream. of 5 to 10 m/s are quite commonly
mospheric. Thus at the compressor After-filters also help in removal of maintained. Incorrect sizing may lead
outlet a phenomenon occurs where vapor, harmful chemicals, micro-or- to excess pressure drop, hence piping
higher pressure will cause some of the ganisms and so on. Both the filters systems should be designed properly.
moisture to be removed off while the also serve to coalesce oil and mois- Every possible attempt should be
higher temperature will enable the ture droplets, which can then be made to minimize pressure drop. For
air to hold on to some moisture. The drained. Over time, the filters may example, locate air supply, storage and
pressure dew point is more meaning- get clogged and cause increased sys- drying systems closer to the consumer
ful as it indicates the dew point at the tem resistance and energy consump- end, and minimizing pipe bends.
operating pressure. tion. Hence, timely filter maintenance Air distribution systems are mainly
The vendor must be provided with is very important in compressed air designed as closed-loop or ring main
maximum flowrate, required dew systems. Differential pressure gages headers. In the ring header the air
point, maximum and minimum inlet- should be installed across filters to flow is split into two directions from
air pressures, maximum and mini- keep a check on the pressure drop a point and can flow to an end-user
mum inlet-air temperatures, maxi- through them. in two different directions. Thus for a
mum cooling-water temperatures, Besides these filters, small filters particular air consumer the air flow
maximum pressure drop for dryer may also be installed at the point- is available from both directions of
design. Table 7 provides guidelines for of-use end. Their function is to filter the header. As the air flow is halved,
dryer selection. particles generated in the distribu- the velocity reduces and also the
Pre-filters are installed upstream tion piping. pressure drop.
Piping in air systems should not con-
tain loops or be installed underground.
In addition to instrument air, if other
compressed air services like plant air
or tool air are supplied from the same
compressor then no cross connections
should be kept between these three air
services downstream of the dryer. ■
Content Licensing for Edited by Gerald Ondrey
Every Marketing Strategy References
1. “Improving Compressed Air System Perfor-
mance- a sourcebook for industry”, U.S. De-
Marketing solutions fit for: partment of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Re-
• Outdoor newable Energy & Compressed Air Challenge.
•
2. “GPSA Engineering Data book”, 12th ed.
Direct Mail — Section 13, Compressors and Expanders,
• Print Advertising Figure 13–3, Compressor Coverage Chart,
Gas Processors Suppliers Assn., Tulsa, Okla.
• Tradeshow/POP Displays
3. Bela G. Liptak, “Instrument Engineers Hand-
• Social Media book- Process Control”, 3rd ed. — Chapter 8,
•
Section 8.9, Compressor Controls and Op-
Radio & Television timization, Figure. 8.9c, Each drive has its
own throughput and speed range, Chilton
Book Co., Radnor, Pa.
Steam circulation
Water circulation
operations can be difficult. Superheated steam
Convection
section
desuperheater
WorleyParsons Radiant
T
section
he ASME Boiler and Pressure FIGURE 1.
Vessel Code (ASME BPVC), Most operators
agree that Sec-
which is administered by ASME tion 1 of the
(New York, N.Y.; www.asme.org; ASME Boiler
founded as the American Society of and Pressure Saturated steam
Mechanical Engineers), is a well-es- Vessel code is
Steam drum
tablished standard for the design and the most appro-
priate standard
fabrication of boilers and pressure ves- for steam- Boiler feed water
sels. ASME code-symbol stamps show
Saturated steam
generation Economizer
compliance with the requirements of systems, such
as the more Superheater
the standard, but code stamping of coils
Water circulation
common natu-
steam systems in ethylene and other ral-circulation
large heaters can be controversial. type (above) Steam
generation
Much of the challenge for those in and the forced- coils
Superheated steam
Vents and
ing; inline instruments; instrumentation
Single installation
and, for ethylene heaters,
PG-58.3.1 PG-71
a primary transfer line ex-
Multiple installation PG-58.3.2
changer (TLE) as shown in
Common
Figure 1. The steam gener- header Level indicators PG-60
Steam drum
ation system can be one of Drain Surface blow
two types: either natural Control device
Inlet header
PG-58.3.7 Continuous blow
PG-60
circulation or forced circu- (if used) Chemical feed
Vent t PG-68.1 Drum sample
lation. The natural circula- n
Integral Ve
tion type is more common. Drain Soot blowers PG-68.5
superheater
Figure 1 (bottom) shows a (if used) Single installation
typical set-up for a forced- PG-68.2
Main steam
circulation system. PG-58.3.1 Soot blowers PG-68.5
Multiple installation
PG-58.3.2 Drain
ASME jurisdiction Common
header
Drain
The jurisdictional limits of
ASME from Section 1 of the Integral nt Single boiler
Ve Part PFH
BPVC are shown in Figure economizer Single boiler
2. The figure, “Code Juris- (if used)
dictional Limits for Pip- Boiler no. 1 Two or more
Boiler no. 2 boilers fed from
ing — Drum Type Boilers,”
Feedwater systems
a common source
was adapted from ASME PG-58.3.6 Water drum
Regulating valves
2010 BPVC Section 1, with Boiler no. 1
PG-58.3.3
permission of ASME [2]. Blow-off
Two or more
single and multiple
The ASME BPVC de- installations
Boiler no. 2 boilers fed
scribes three areas of from a com-
Drain mon source
technical responsibil- PG-58.3.7
ity: the boiler proper, the Administrative jurisdiction and technical responsibility
boiler external piping and
joint, and non-boiler ex- Boiler proper — the ASME boiler and pressure vessel code (ASME BPVC) has total
administrative jurisdiction and technical responsibility (refer to section I preamble)
ternal piping and joint.
Boiler external piping and joint — the ASME BPVC has total administrative jurisdiction (mandatory
The boiler proper falls certification by code symbol stamping, ASME data forms, and authorized inspection) of boiler exter-
under the administrative nal piping and joint. The ASME section committee B31.1 has been assigned technical responsibility
jurisdiction and technical Non-boiler external piping and joint — Not section jurisdiction (see applicable ASME B31 code).
responsibility of Section 1
of the ASME BPVC. The FIGURE 2. The ASME BPVC describes three areas of technical responsibility: boiler proper;
boiler proper and boiler boiler external piping and joint; and non-boiler external piping and joint
external piping and joint
fall under the administrative juris- tional boiler. Most engineers agree, port produced depends on the type of
diction of ASME BPVC and require and several U.S. state boiler codes manufacturer. Table 1 shows a com-
mandatory certification, along with require that the steam drum be de- mon setup, where multiple vendors
code stamping, ASME data forms and signed to ASME Section 1. In non-code provide the various components of the
authorized inspection. states, the drum may be designed to steam system.
Technical responsibility for boiler Section VIII.
external piping is assigned to the Steam superheat tubes, economizer Master stamp
ASME section committee of B31.1. tubes and steam generation tubes are If compliance with ASME BPVC Sec-
Non-boiler external piping and joint also designed to meet the require- tion 1 is required by law, a master
is not considered to be within the ju- ments of ASME Section 1. stamp is required. For a forced-flow
risdiction of ASME BPVC section 1, steam-generation unit, the code is
and those components are usually Stamp requirements clear — manufacturers of forced-flow
designed according to B31.1 in utility The ASME BPVC clearly requires all systems must provide a master stamp.
applications or B31.3 in chemical or equipment considered to be “boiler For field-assembled boilers, a master
refinery plant applications. proper” and “boiler external piping stamp is clearly required.
Even the application of the “Code and joint” to be stamped. Steam sys- The master stamp must be provided
Jurisdictional Limits for Piping — tems for ethylene heaters are typi- by whoever has responsibility for the
Drum Type Boilers” to steam systems cally manufactured by multiple ven- entire boiler unit. In cases where the
in ethylene heaters can be problem- dors and assembled in the field by a manufacturer is not the assembler, the
atic, because the language of the sec- different contractor. The particular manufacturer or engineering contrac-
tion is clearly intended for a conven- ASME stamp and partial data re- tor may provide partial data reports to
50 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JANUARY 2013
TABLE 1. MULTIPLE VENDORS SUPPLY VARIOUS STEAM-SYSTEM COMPONENTS
the assembler, and the assembler may systems can sometimes be confusing, fired pressure vessels to be installed
affix the stamp jointly with the manu- and at other times do not address the for operation in Mississippi shall
facturer, according to the rules of sec- subject at all. Statements such as “the be designed, constructed, inspected,
tion PG-106 in ASME BPVC Section steam system shall be in accordance stamped and installed in accordance
1. In this case, both the engineering with ASME section 1” can be difficult with the applicable ASME Boiler
contractor and the authorized inspec- to interpret. and Pressure Vessel Code, and these
tor must sign the P-3A forms provided rules and regulations.”
by the assembler. State boiler code requirements Texas State Boiler Code, commonly
The question that arises for steam- In the U.S., the individual states known as 16 TAC 65, requires that
generation units on ethylene heaters regulate boilers. There is no “federal” any heating boiler, nuclear boiler,
is this: When adherence to ASME boiler code that applies to all states power boiler, unfired steam boiler or
BPVC Section 1 is voluntary, is a mas- and territories. Not all 50 states have process steam generator that is in-
ter stamp required? The answer is no. boiler codes. Most states that do have stalled in Texas must be inspected,
If compliance is voluntary, the owner boiler codes require compliance with installed and stamped in conformity
of the system may opt to comply with ASME BPVC Section 1. Some states with the applicable section of the
some parts of the code, but not others. go further and require National Board ASME BPVC. Such boilers must be
Registration and inspection. A sam- registered with the National Board
Owner requirements pling of three state boiler-code laws of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspec-
Almost all owner specifications require follows. While the language contained tors. Exceptions include reinstalled
that the steam drum, primary trans- in the codes for both Mississippi and boilers, as well as those exempted
fer line heat exchanger (TLE; steam Texas are clear, the language of other by the Health and Safety Code,
side), and boiler proper piping are de- states is not. §755.022 [4].
signed according to ASME BPVC Sec- Mississippi State Boiler Code — New Jersey Boiler Code is com-
tion 1, and stamped by the supplier. commonly known as Title 15, Sec- monly called NJAC 12 subchapter
Few owners require a master stamp tion III, part 76 — clearly defines 4. In New Jersey, the term “boiler”
unless a stamp is required by the local any vessel that generates steam at means a closed vessel in which water
authority having jurisdiction. over 15 psig as a power boiler [3]. It is heated, steam is generated, steam
Owner specifications for steam goes on to say that “Boilers and un- is superheated, or any combination
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JANUARY 2013 51
Engineering Practice
thereof, under pressure or vacuum, Concluding remarks gent requirements of ASME are ap-
for external use by the direct applica- While safety remains of the utmost plied for ethylene plants in the U.S.,
tion of heat [5]. The term “boiler”shall concern, economics, more than engi- compared to other places in the world.
include fired or waste-heat units for neering, play a great role in defining ■
heating or vaporizing liquids other the boundaries where the ASME code Edited by Scott Jenkins
than water where these units are may apply. Unless a more specific code
separate from processing systems is developed for ethylene units, the
and are complete within themselves. debate about boundaries will continue David Ballow is a principal
New Jersey requires compliance with among owners, engineering contrac- process engineer at Worley-
Parsons in Houston (Email:
ASME BPVC Section 1 and National tors, technology providers and other david.ballow@worleyparsons.
Board rules. stakeholders. In general, more strin- com) and is a professional en-
gineer. He received a B.S.Ch.E.
degree from Louisiana Tech
University and is a member
References Authors of AIChE.
Martha Choroszy is a chief
1. ASME Section 1, Boiler and Pressure Vessel process engineer at Worley-
Code, ASME, July 1, 2010. Parsons (6330 West Loop
South, Bellaire, Tex. 77401; Ali Bourji is a senior tech-
2. Reprinted from ASME 2010 BPVC, Section 1, Phone: 713-407-5000; Email:
by permission of The ASME (American Society nical director at WorleyPar-
martha.choroszy@worley- sons in Houston (Email: ali.
of Mechanical Engineers.) All rights reserved. parsons.com). She received bourji@worleyparsons.com).
a B.S.Ch.E. degree from the Bourji received his B.S. and
3. Mississippi Department of Health, Title 15, Part Massachusetts Institute of
III – Office of Health Protection, 76 – Boiler and M.S. degrees in chemical en-
Technology and an MBA from gineering from the University
Pressure Vessel Safety, July 1, 1975. Tulane University. She is a li- of Houston, and a doctorate
4. Texas Boiler Administrative Rules – 16 Texas censed professional engineer degree from Lamar Univer-
Administrative Code, January 1, 2008. in Texas and a member of AIChE and NFPA. sity. He is a professional engi-
She is the author of numerous publications, a re- neer and a member of AIChE
5. New Jersey Administrative Code cipient of Tulane’s Allen Vorholt award and has and AFPM. Dr. Bourji is the
(N.J.A.C.) — Boilers, Pressure Vessels & served as a Blue Ribbon Panel Member to define author of numerous publications and serves on
Refrigeration,October 6, 2008. the National Agenda for the U.S. Core Combus- the Chemical Engineering PhD Advisory Council
tion Research Program. at Lamar University.
V
irtually every process-plant provement-justification tools. Lifecycle Shafts, L4 15
manager pursues the com- cost estimating takes into account the
mendable goals of safely ex- initial purchase and installation costs (DC) must be added to present acqui-
tending equipment life and of the equipment, auxiliaries and soft- sition and installation costs. Thus, the
maximizing both the availability and ware systems. It assesses the true cost total lifecycle cost (LCC Total) = AC
reliability of plant assets. Achieving of failures, including, of course, the im- + IC + present value of (OC + MC +
these objectives usually requires pact of lost production [1–3]. LP + DC).
upfront effort and money — both of A certain amount of information or A “present worth” value can also be
which can be scarce resources. general data is usually available from calculated. The cumulative present
But even the realistic manager who the plant’s computer-based enterprise- worth factor in Equation (2) can be ob-
knows that reliability comes at an asset management (EAM) or comput- tained from many sources and tables
ufront price may not want to autho- erized maintenance-management sys- as a function of interest rate and time
rize these expenditures on the basis of tem (CMMS). The existence of EAM (yr). It is usually available from the
intuition or guesswork. Instead, he or and CMMS is assumed here because plant’s accounting staff and can also
she may ask for some cost justification modern plants cannot compete with- be obtained as a computer spreadsheet
that is linked to a payback period, a out a CMMS. The plant CMMS is pop- program displaying a present value
cost-to-benefit calculation, a lifecycle- ulated with accurate data related to (PV) function. PV is cost multiplied by
improvement multiplier, or some other work orders, expenditures and failure the cumulative present worth factor:
tangible factor. It is usually at this incidents. All data of interest should
point in the sequence of events that be specific enough to clearly describe
(2)
the reliability engineer realizes that the root causes of failures observed.
he or she has no data and the issue The annual cost of parts failure (Cy)
is placed at the bottom of the priority can be assessed using Equation (1): where:
list. Things revert back to status quo i = real annual interest rates, %
Cy = (Cg)(8,760)/(MTBF+MTTR) (1)
and urgent repeat repairs siphon off n = number of years
precious resources. where: Except for data derived from well-de-
Even in the absence of abundant Cy = Annual cost of failures for a com- signed, in-plant EAM-CMMS systems,
data, many methods are available to ponent (or subassembly) system precise failure frequencies and life ex-
allow us to determine, with reasonable Cg = Cost per failure event pectancies are rarely available for pro-
accuracy, the monetary incentives or MTBF* = Mean time between cess machinery and their components.
justification for equipment and com- failure, h There are simply too many variables
ponent upgrading. Such upgrades are MTTR = Mean time to repair or re- that influence these numbers. Nev-
the key to future failure avoidance. place, h ertheless, an experienced reliability
This article describes some options The total lifecycle cost can be ob- professional will not be deterred in his
for determining the value of upgrad- tained by adding the initial acquisition
ing. The narrative and illustrations cost (AC), the initial installation cost *The MTBF of a randomly failing. multiple-com-
ponent, active-redundant system may be evalu-
presented here highlight some meth- (IC), and the recurring yearly costs. ated by the following equation:
odologies that are available to reli- A present value conversion [Equation
ability professionals who are ready (2)] takes into account the time value
to de-emphasize purely intuitive ap- of money. The costs of future operations
proaches, in favor of simple yet effec- (OC), maintenance (MC), lost produc- where the failure rate , and c =
number of parallel
tive numerical pathways. tion (LP) and even decommissioning components
Engineering Practice
or her search for data. Remember, you overall machine MTBF can
want to make the business case for up- be readily visualized from
grading and your managers are only this equation (that is, the
asking for reasonable “ball-park” num- number 1 divided by a large
bers that directionally show which up- number yields a small num-
grades should be pursued. Such num- ber). Even a cursory look at FIGURE 1. A single-type, heavy-duty mechancial
bers can be found elsewhere [4–6]. Equation (3) — whether or seal for lime slurry service is highlighted in this
For precise estimates, calculated not upgrading is involved pump illustration. Aesseal
life expectancies of various component — will make a significant
categories should ideally be based on difference in the quest to
the experience collected at the reli- improve the life of weak
ability engineer’s facility. But the rel- components.
evant data may never have been col-
lected, or may have been lost when the Centrifugal
source expert left the company. If that pump example
is the case — or whenever realistic Table 1 shows estimated-
life assessments or cost estimates are life values for four different
needed — a reliability engineer may weak, or (relatively) wear-
want to, at least initially, use the data prone, pump components
tables contained in the cited refer- (mechanical seals, ball bear- FIGURE 2. Shown here is a half-section of a modern
ences. As experience is gained, similar ings, couplings and shafts). bearing housing protector seal — with the shaft not
rotating (left) and with the shaft rotating (right)
tables will grow into ever-more-precise We can use these numbers
and locally applicable component-life to calculate MTBF values
databases. Needless to say, once devel- for an entire pump. Of course, our pumps were first marketed in the mid-
oped, these should be preserved and calculation is somewhat general and to late-1980s). But, suppose one later
passed on to others. might pertain only to a particular ap- had the option to convert from grease
plication — say, a given pump size in to liquid oil lubrication. Assume one
Using component life details water service. Calculated MTBF values had also selected a cartridge-style me-
Many modern facilities are finding it refer to the anticipated running time of chanical seal (Figure 1) where compo-
progressively more advantageous to such a pump, if the life expectancies of nent-style seals had been used previ-
collect and classify component data its components are as given in Table ously, and that the user had added an
and to then incorporate these in cal- 1. These pumps had been previously advanced bearing-protector seal (Fig-
culations that predict the probable “upgraded” by converting from sealed ure 2). Suppose these improvements
run length, in terms of MTBF, of an ball bearings to bearings that can be would increase the operational lives
entire machine. Some plants have periodically refilled with fresh grease of mechanical seals and bearings from
successively improved the accuracy of (these are commonly called “regreas- the previous value of 2.5–5 years to
this form of lifecycle cost computation. able” bearings). Using the values for L 3.5–10 years, and would also make the
Basing decisions on improved compu- from Table 1, the estimated MTBF (op- pump more suitable for working in a
tational accuracy has led to greater erating time) of the entire pump was mild lime slurry service. In that case,
visibility and enhanced respect for the calculated with reasonable accuracy the expression in Equation (5) would
diligent contributions of the reliabil- using Equation (3), and the numerical apply, and we would probably have
ity professionals at those plants [5]. result is shown in Equation (4). reason to expect a continuous pump
The monetary value of an improve- operating life of 2.93 yr [6].
ment can be determined from yet
another version of the lifecycle cost
computation. Specifically, improve-
(5)
ment value can also be expressed in
(3)
even simpler terms, such as a benefit- Then, it is reasonable — and probably
to-cost. Whenever possible, parts that Here, L = estimated life, in years, of quite conservative — to anticipate an
experience wear — the most failure- the component subject to failure [6]. increase in pump MTBF of close to
prone components of a machine — can 40% from these two upgrades. Seeing
be assigned by some experience-based a 40% increase in predicted component
criteria or previously published values life should prompt a more-detailed
(4)
of L1, L2 and so on, as shown in Table analysis of the pump’s lifecycle cost.
1. Because of their position in Equation The stipulated 2.11-yr operating life It may be worth paying a certain
(3), low component-life values in Table determined by Equation (4) meets price for upgraded parts if lifecycle
1 will have a real impact on overall ma- the expectations of many reliability costs go down as a result. Calculat-
chine MTBF and the influence or effect engineers in U.S. process plants for ing a simple, straightforward cost-to-
of individual component upgrading on “upgraded” ANSI/ISO pumps (Such benefit ratio would be another way
54 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JANUARY 2013
Bearing failure rate per 1,000 machines at a U.S. chemical plant
Failures per 1,000 pcs rotating equipment 70
60 C UCL C LCL C = Control
50 UCL = Upper control limit
C mean C rate LCL = Lower control limit
40
30 cally add $500 to the average small or
20
UCL = 12.5 mid-size pump repair cost of $6,700.
10 In sharp contrast, it had been es-
Mean = 6.7
0 timated that removing good pumps
-10 LCL = 1.0 from field locations and taking them
-20 to the shop to implement various up-
grades would cost, on average, $3,470
-30
J FMAM J J A S O N D J FMAM J J A S O N D J FMAM J J A S O N D J FMAM J J A S O N D J FMAM J J A S O N D per pump. That particular option was
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 obviously far less attractive and was
Calendar time not pursued.
FIGURE 3. Bearing failure rate per 1,000 machines at a U.S. chemical plant, plotted Again, note that the incremental
using the author’s ield data cost of $500 per pump pertained only
to pumps that were expected to be
to quantify the value of equipment mental outlay (the cost) of $800 will sent to the shop in the following year.
upgrades. If the incremental cost of have a payback of (800/929)12, or 10.3 An elementary plot, shown in Figure
upgrading is $400 each year and the months. The cost-to-benefit ratio is 4, demonstrates the anticipated reduc-
benefit of an upgrade is avoidance of a 1:1.16 in the first year, and (5 × 929)/ tion in the pump-failure rate; the plot
$4,000 repair each year, then the cost- 800 = 1:5.8 over a 5-year period. That was used to calculate (in the 1990s)
to-benefit ratio is 400/4,000 = 1:10. is a substantial result and is not dif- the cost-to-benefit ratio of bearing
ficult to achieve. protector seals that would replace lip
Cost-to-benefit ratios Meanwhile, a secondary benefit can seals. The calculation was performed
Perhaps the most familiar form of cost be attributed to the systematic exten- by taking total incremental cost per
justification practiced on a wide scale sion of equipment life: Instead of get- year and dividing it by the projected
compares the incremental cost of an ting bogged down in frequent break- value of all avoided pump repairs.
upgrade option with the yearly value down-related maintenance tasks, Attractive and reasonable pro-
of maintenance cost avoidance. With reliability engineers will be able to jections along the lines of what we
that goal in mind, let’s take another devote their attention to other, more- just discussed contributed to wider
look at the pump-upgrade example proactive reliability-improvement use of a variety of different bearing-
discussed above. Recall that for the opportunities, thereby putting their protector seals in the mid-1990s.
proposed upgrades, an older-style me- effort to use to save money for their Then, with time, more-advanced
chanical seal would be replaced with employers over the long run [7]. styles became available. Figure 2
the cartridge seal shown in Figure shows a successful configuration,
1. Also, the bearing protectors with Make use of in-plant data which was first marketed in 2003. If
the lip-seal style in this centrifugal Important reliability-related data are we decided to install it today and used
pump would be discarded and the available [4] and such data can be ef- the same calculation approach, we
bearing-housing-protector seal with fectively used and applied to carry out find its cost-to-benefit ratio surpris-
an advanced design — in this case, a simple MTBF, cost-justification, and ingly attractive.
rotating labyrinth design, as shown in lifecycle-cost studies. However, while
Figure 2 would be used instead [6]. We published data sources are valuable, Upgrading mechanical seals
make the following two assumptions: the use of in-plant data may be even Earlier in this article, we had encour-
• That the two upgraded components more directly applicable and should aged reliability professionals to ex-
would incrementally cost $800 and never be overlooked. tend their horizons by reviewing data
result in shifting the pump MTBF One in-plant data example is dis- published elsewhere. In 1992, a Brit-
from the previous value of 2.11 yr to played in Figure 3. This figure shows ish reliability engineer published the
2.93 yr the reduction in total bearing failures results of failure-reduction programs
• That repairs to a mid-size pump that were actually experienced by a at three petroleum refineries [8]. As
will cost $7,000 by the time materi- U.S. Gulf Coast petrochemical com- shown in Figure 5, Refinery A started
als, labor, overhead, benefits, spare pany over the span of 54 months (4.5 with a pump MTBF of 29 months at
parts procurement, shop supervi- y). Although these improvements were the end of Year 2. The refinery’s pump
sion, planning, vibration monitoring undoubtedly attributable to a combi- MTBF had risen to 71 months at the
and reliability engineering have all nation of procedural, organizational end of Year 7. Accordingly, the run
been factored in and hardware-specific upgrades, the lengths of the pumps there had ex-
Based on these two assumptions, reliability staff made the simplifying perienced an increase of 42 months
our yearly pump-repair cost will assumption that such downturns in in the span of five years. Since these
have dropped from $3,318 (based on the number of bearing replacements increases are attributable to upgrade
$7,000/2.11 yr) to $2,389 (based on related entirely to pumps. It was fur- efforts that went beyond seal improve-
$7,000/2.93 yr). The ensuing cost sav- ther assumed that incorporating im- ments, we will temporarily put them
ings (or benefit) of $929/yr will go on proved bearing-protection components aside and focus instead on Refineries B
for years, while the one-time incre- only during shop repairs would typi- and C, whose reports dealt with
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JANUARY 2013 55
Resonably anticipated pump failure rate reduction
due to upgrades efforts
M.T.B.F. months
60
33 months, and that “our” refinery (as in tabular format. We A
an arbitrary example) is presently at could pick one of the ap- 50
C
28 months MTBF. Returning to Re- proaches described ear- 40
finery A and its overall pump MTBF lier in this article and 30
Refinery A
(which had increased from 30 months would review it with 20 Refinery B
at the end of Year 2, to about 71 months one or two competent Refinery C
10
at the end of Year 7), we would calcu- mechanical seal manu-
late an MTBF increase of (71–30)/30 = facturers — ones that 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
36% in 5 years. would agree to a part- Years
If we take into account the obser- nership or alliance that FIGURE 5. Shown here are data demonstrating improve-
vation that refineries starting with rewards them for failure ment in pump MTBF, from experience at three British pe-
MTBF figures of 30 months have ex- reductions instead of troleum reineries
perienced MTBF increases around lowest cost per seal. The
25%/yr it is reasonable to expect that ultimate results will be tangible and tual information to cost-justify equip-
our own plant could go from an MTBF will, after five years, have saved the re- ment improvements. Many reach out
of 28 months to one of 56 months in finery many millions of dollars. for other data sources to augment and
the span of five years. validate in-house data. It has been
Such a reasonable assumption now Different methods shown that data published in the past
allows our refinery operator to embark We have attempted to show how a can form the core material of fairly ac-
on a program to improve mechanical number of straightforward calculation curate savings projections made today.
seal MTBF. As reliability professionals, approaches can be used to determine The methodologies presented in this
we will accede to our management’s re- lifecycle costs, cost-to-benefit ratios, article can be used to set goals, and
quest to develop an appropriately ref- and payback periods for reliability will enable performance comparisons
erenced cost and benefit projection. We improvements in process plants. A re- among different plants or industry
have 1,474 centrifugal pumps at our sourceful reliability professional will, segments. n
plant site. Our seal MTBF was origi- of course, diligently collect and compile Edited by Suzanne Shelley
nally calculated from (1,474 pumps in- failure statistics for equipment and
stalled) × (12 mo/yr)/632 seal failures / components at his or her plant site. At
yr = 28 mo. Furthermore, it is assumed many locations throughout the world, Author
here that upgrading to superior seal competent professionals use this fac- Heinz P. Bloch, P.E., is a
consulting engineer in West-
minster, Colo., (heinzpbloch@
gmail.com). He has held ma-
References gal Pumps, Chem. Eng., November 25, 1985. chinery-oriented staff and line
1. Goble, W.M., and Paul, Brayton, O., Life Cycle 6. Sales and Marketing Literature, AESSEAL, positions with Exxon affiliates
Cost Estimating, Chem. Proc., June 1995. Inc., Rotherham, U.K., and Rockford, Tenn., in the U.S., Italy, Spain, Eng-
www.aesseal.com. land, The Netherlands and
2. Paul, Brayton 0., Life Cycle Costing, Chem. Japan, during a career that
Eng., December 1994. 7. Roberts, Woodrow T., The ABC's of Improv-
ing the Reliability of Process Plant Systems, spanned several decades prior
3. Roscoe, Edwin S., “Project Economy,” Richard “Proceedings of 3rd International Confer- to his retirement as Exxon
D. Irwin, Inc., Homewood, Ill., 1960. ence on Improving Reliability in Petroleum Chemical’s regional machin-
Refineries and Chemical Plants,” Houston, ery specialist for the U.S. Bloch is the author of 18
4. Bloch, Heinz P., and Geitner, Fred K., “Ma- comprehensive texts and over 500 publications on
chinery Failure Analysis and Troubleshoot- Tex., 1994
machinery-reliability improvement. He advises
ing,” Butterworth-Heinemann Publishing, 8. David, T.J., A Method of Improving Me- process plants worldwide on strategies and op-
Waltham, Mass., 4th Ed., 2012. chanical Seal Reliability, “Proceedings of the portunities for extending equipment uptime and
5. Bloch, Heinz P., and Johnson, Donald A., Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Fluid reducing maintenance. He is an ASME Life Fel-
Downtime Prompts Upgrading Of Centrifu- Machinery Ownership Costs Seminar,” Man- low and maintains registration as a professional
chester, U.K., September 16, 1992. engineer in Texas and New Jersey.
I lost
ased especially on FRI’s produc- defections and retirements
Buyers'
PVDF bodies.
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Email: dhammes@ac-
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Fill out the form and circle or write in the number(s) go on the web and ill out the
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below, cut it out, and fax it to 800-571-7730. online reader service card.
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address
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FREE PRODUCT INFO 14 engineering, Design & Construc- 29 10 to 49 employees 47 Pollution Control equipment
(please answer all the questions) tion Firms 30 50 to 99 employees & Systems
15 engineering/environmental Ser- 31 100 to 249 employees 48 Pumps
YOUR INDUSTRY
vices 32 250 to 499 employees 49 Safety equipment & Services
01 Food & Beverages
16 equipment manufacturer 33 500 to 999 employees 50 Size reduction & agglomeration
02 wood, Pulp & Paper
17 energy incl. Co-generation 34 1,000 or more employees equipment
03 inorganic Chemicals
18 other———————————— YOU RECOMMEND, 51 Solids handling equipment
04 Plastics, Synthetic resins
JOB FUNCTION SPECIFY, PURCHASE 52 Tanks, Vessels, reactors
05 Drugs & Cosmetics (please circle all that apply)
20 Corporate management 53 Valves
06 Soaps & Detergents 40 Drying equipment
21 Plant operations incl. mainte- 54 engineering Computers/Soft-
07 Paints & allied Products 41 Filtration/Separation equipment
nance ware/Peripherals
08 organic Chemicals 42 heat Transfer/energy Conserva-
22 engineering 55 water Treatment Chemicals
09 agricultural Chemicals tion equipment
23 research & Development & equipment
10 Petroleum reining, 43 instrumentation & Control Sys-
24 Safety & environmental 56 hazardous waste management
Coal Products tems
26 other———————————— Systems
11 rubber & misc. Plastics 44 mixing, Blending equipment 57 Chemicals & raw materials
12 Stone, Clay, glass, Ceramics EMPLOYEE SIZE 45 motors, motor Controls 58 materials of Construction
13 metallurgical & metal Products 28 less than 10 employees 46 Piping, Tubing, Fittings 59 Compressors
1 16 31 46 61 76 91 106 121 136 151 166 181 196 211 226 241 256 271 286 301 316 331 346 361 376 391 406 421 436 451 466 481 496 511 526 541 556 571 586
2 17 32 47 62 77 92 107 122 137 152 167 182 197 212 227 242 257 272 287 302 317 332 347 362 377 392 407 422 437 452 467 482 497 512 527 542 557 572 587
3 18 33 48 63 78 93 108 123 138 153 168 183 198 213 228 243 258 273 288 303 318 333 348 363 378 393 408 423 438 453 468 483 498 513 528 543 558 573 588
4 19 34 49 64 79 94 109 124 139 154 169 184 199 214 229 244 259 274 289 304 319 334 349 364 379 394 409 424 439 454 469 484 499 514 529 544 559 574 589
5 20 35 50 65 80 95 110 125 140 155 170 185 200 215 230 245 260 275 290 305 320 335 350 365 380 395 410 425 440 455 470 485 500 515 530 545 560 575 590
6 21 36 51 66 81 96 111 126 141 156 171 186 201 216 231 246 261 276 291 306 321 336 351 366 381 396 411 426 441 456 471 486 501 516 531 546 561 576 591
7 22 37 52 67 82 97 112 127 142 157 172 187 202 217 232 247 262 277 292 307 322 337 352 367 382 397 412 427 442 457 472 487 502 517 532 547 562 577 592
8 23 38 53 68 83 98 113 128 143 158 173 188 203 218 233 248 263 278 293 308 323 338 353 368 383 398 413 428 443 458 473 488 503 518 533 548 563 578 593
9 24 39 54 69 84 99 114 129 144 159 174 189 204 219 234 249 264 279 294 309 324 339 354 369 384 399 414 429 444 459 474 489 504 519 534 549 564 579 594
10 25 40 55 70 85 100 115 130 145 160 175 190 205 220 235 250 265 280 295 310 325 340 355 370 385 400 415 430 445 460 475 490 505 520 535 550 565 580 595
11 26 41 56 71 86 101 116 131 146 161 176 191 206 221 236 251 266 281 296 311 326 341 356 371 386 401 416 431 446 461 476 491 506 521 536 551 566 581 596
12 27 42 57 72 87 102 117 132 147 162 177 192 207 222 237 252 267 282 297 312 327 342 357 372 387 402 417 432 447 462 477 492 507 522 537 552 567 582 597
13 28 43 58 73 88 103 118 133 148 163 178 193 208 223 238 253 268 283 298 313 328 343 358 373 388 403 418 433 448 463 478 493 508 523 538 553 568 583 598
14 29 44 59 74 89 104 119 134 149 164 179 194 209 224 239 254 269 284 299 314 329 344 359 374 389 404 419 434 449 464 479 494 509 524 539 554 569 584 599
15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180 195 210 225 240 255 270 285 300 315 330 345 360 375 390 405 420 435 450 465 480 495 510 525 540 555 570 585 600
Peter Bigelow joins the board at the hydrocarbons and chemicals busi- materials-handling solutions.
engineering firm Integrated Project ness unit of SNC-Lavalin (Montreal).
Services (Lafayette Hill, Pa.). Ric Sorbo, senior vice president and At The Fluid Sealing Assn. (Wayne,
general manager of that unit, is the Pa.), Greg Raty is now president
Ton Büchner returns to AkzoNobel acting head until a permanent of the board of directors and Henri
(Amsterdam, The Netherlands) as replacement has been selected. Azibert is now vice president of the
CEO, after a medical-related absence. board. Raty is vice president of Slade
Florian Weser is now managing (Statesville, N.C.). Azibert is the CTO
Matthieu Philippault joins the inter- director at Krüss GmbH (Kent, at A.W. Chesterton (Woburn, Mass.).
national sales team at Flexicon U.K.), specialists in surface and
(Europe) Ltd. (Kent, U.K.), a pro- interface chemistry. Laura Rathbun becomes the
vider of bulk-solids-handling systems. purchasing manager for Cashco Inc.
Mike McCarthy becomes sales (Ellsworth, Kan.), a maker of control
Andy Mackintosh has resigned as account manager for Intelligrated valves and regulators. ■
executive vice president in charge of (Cincinnati), a provider of automated Suzanne Shelley
S U
om s
Focus
on Ga
New s De
Engine tection
ering
Closed Mater
Liquid ials
Dispen
Findin sing
g the
To Fit Right
the Ap Gloves
Facts plicatio
at You n
r Fin
Vacuum gertips:
Pump
Flowm s
eter
News
Augu
st
2008
www. Sterili
8
che.c zation
More and more, business in the Chemical Process Industries (CPI) is not
Rever
se
PAG Osmo
E 34 sis
Heat
Transf
er
Fluids
Hydro
car
local, it’s global. To keep up with this rapidly evolving marketplace, you
Proper bon
ties
Focus
Filtrat
on
need a magazine that covers it all, not just one country or region, not just
ion
FOR MORE ECONOMIC INDICATORS, SEE NEXT PAGE CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JANUARY 2013 63
Economic Indicators 2010 2011 2012
CPI output index (2007 = 100) Nov. '12 = 87.7 Oct. '12 = 87.1 Sep. '12 = 87.3 Nov. '11 = 87.731
CPI value of output, $ billions Oct. '12 = 2,226.7 Sep. '12 = 2,203.2 Aug. '12 = 2,175.3 Oct. '11 = 2,126.63
CPI operating rate, % Nov. '12 = 75.7 Oct. '12 = 75.2 Sep. '12 = 75.3 Nov. '11 = 75.702
Producer prices, industrial chemicals (1982 = 100) Nov. '12 = 297.3 Oct. '12 = 299.7 Sep. '12 = 300.1 Nov. '11 = 315.6
Industrial Production in Manufacturing (2007=100) Nov. '12 = 94.0 Oct. '12 = 92.9 Sep. '12 = 93.8 Nov. '11 = 91.5071
Hourly earnings index, chemical & allied products (1992 = 100) Nov. '12 = 157.6 Oct. '12 = 157.6 Sep. '12 = 158.6 Nov. '11 = 155.674
Productivity index, chemicals & allied products (1992 = 100) Nov. '12 = 105.4 Oct. '12 = 103.3 Sep. '12 = 103.6 Nov. '11 = 106.597
CPI OUTPUT INDEX (2007 = 100) CPI OUTPUT VALUE ($ BILLIONS) CPI OPERATING RATE (%)
120 2500 85
110 2200 80
100 1900 75
90 1600 70
80 1300 65
70 1000 60
J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D
Current Business Indicators provided by IHS Global Insight, Inc., Lexington, Mass.
CURRENT TRENDS
reliminary data from the CE Plant Cost Index (CEPCI; top) compared to a year ago. The construction labor and engineer-
P for October 2012 (the most recent available) indicate that
capital equipment prices dropped 0.35% from September
ing and supervision indexes also dropped compared to a year
ago, while the buildings index edged higher compared to the
to October. The current-year plant cost index is 3.2% lower same time in 2011. Meanwhile, the Current Business Indica-
than it was in October of the previous year (2011). Within the tors from IHS Global Insight (middle), show a slight increase
CEPCI, most of the equipment-class subgroups were down from in the CPI output index from October to November 2012, and
a year prior — including: heat exchangers and tanks; process a 1.1% increase in the CPI value of output over the same time
machinery; pipes, valves and fittings; process instruments; period. Industrial chemical producer prices are down 0.81%
and structural supports and miscellanous equipment. Pumps from October to November 2012, and down 6.1% compared
and compressors and electrical equipment show higher values to November a year ago. ■
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