Diffraction refers to various phenomena that occur when a wave encounters an

obstacle or a slit. It is defined as the bending of waves around the corners of an

obstacle or aperture into the region of geometrical shadow of the obstacle. In
classical physics, the diffraction phenomenon is described as the interference of
waves according to the Huygens�Fresnel principle that treats each point in the
wave-front as a collection of individual spherical wavelets.[1] These
characteristic behaviors are exhibited when a wave encounters an obstacle or a slit
that is comparable in size to its wavelength. Similar effects occur when a light
wave travels through a medium with a varying refractive index, or when a sound wave
travels through a medium with varying acoustic impedance. Diffraction has an impact
on the acoustic space. Diffraction occurs with all waves, including sound waves,
water waves, and electromagnetic waves such as visible light, X-rays and radio
waves.

Since physical objects have wave-like properties (at the atomic level), diffraction
also occurs with matter and can be studied according to the principles of quantum
mechanics. Italian scientist Francesco Maria Grimaldi coined the word "diffraction"
and was the first to record accurate observations of the phenomenon in 1660.[2][3]

While diffraction occurs whenever propagating waves encounter such changes, its
effects are generally most pronounced for waves whose wavelength is roughly
comparable to the dimensions of the diffracting object or slit. If the obstructing
object provides multiple, closely spaced openings, a complex pattern of varying
intensity can result. This is due to the addition, or interference, of different
parts of a wave that travel to the observer by different paths, where different
path lengths result in different phases (see diffraction grating and wave
superposition). The formalism of diffraction can also describe the way in which
waves of finite extent propagate in free space. For example, the expanding profile
of a laser beam, the beam shape of a radar antenna and the field of view of an
ultrasonic transducer can all be analyzed using diffraction equations.

Contents
1 Examples
2 History
3 Mechanism
4 Diffraction of light
4.1 Single-slit diffraction
4.2 Diffraction grating
4.3 Circular aperture
4.4 General aperture
4.5 Propagation of a laser beam
4.6 Diffraction-limited imaging
4.7 Speckle patterns
4.8 Babinet's Principle
5 Patterns
6 Particle diffraction
7 Bragg diffraction
8 Coherence
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
Examples

Circular waves generated by diffraction from the narrow entrance of a flooded

coastal quarry

Solar glory at the steam from hot springs. A glory is an optical phenomenon
produced by light backscattered (a combination of diffraction, reflection and
refraction) towards its source by a cloud of uniformly sized water droplets.
The effects of diffraction are often seen in everyday life. The most striking
examples of diffraction are those that involve light; for example, the closely
spaced tracks on a CD or DVD act as a diffraction grating to form the familiar
rainbow pattern seen when looking at a disc. This principle can be extended to
engineer a grating with a structure such that it will produce any diffraction
pattern desired; the hologram on a credit card is an example. Diffraction in the
atmosphere by small particles can cause a bright ring to be visible around a bright
light source like the sun or the moon. A shadow of a solid object, using light from
a compact source, shows small fringes near its edges. The speckle pattern which is
observed when laser light falls on an optically rough surface is also a diffraction
phenomenon. When deli meat appears to be iridescent, that is diffraction off the
meat fibers.[4] All these effects are a consequence of the fact that light
propagates as a wave.

Diffraction can occur with any kind of wave. Ocean waves diffract around jetties
and other obstacles. Sound waves can diffract around objects, which is why one can
still hear someone calling even when hiding behind a tree.[5] Diffraction can also
be a concern in some technical applications; it sets a fundamental limit to the
resolution of a camera, telescope, or microscope.

History

Thomas Young's sketch of two-slit diffraction, which he presented to the Royal

Society in 1803.
The effects of diffraction of light were first carefully observed and characterized
by Francesco Maria Grimaldi, who also coined the term diffraction, from the Latin
diffringere, 'to break into pieces', referring to light breaking up into different
directions. The results of Grimaldi's observations were published posthumously in
1665.[6][7][8] Isaac Newton studied these effects and attributed them to inflexion
of light rays. James Gregory (1638�1675) observed the diffraction patterns caused
by a bird feather, which was effectively the first diffraction grating to be
discovered.[9] Thomas Young performed a celebrated experiment in 1803 demonstrating
interference from two closely spaced slits.[10] Explaining his results by
interference of the waves emanating from the two different slits, he deduced that
light must propagate as waves. Augustin-Jean Fresnel did more definitive studies
and calculations of diffraction, made public in 1815[11] and 1818,[12] and thereby
gave great support to the wave theory of light that had been advanced by Christiaan
Huygens[13] and reinvigorated by Young, against Newton's particle theory.

Mechanism

Photograph of single-slit diffraction in a circular ripple tank

In traditional classical physics diffraction arises because of the way in which
waves propagate; this is described by the Huygens�Fresnel principle and the
principle of superposition of waves. The propagation of a wave can be visualized by
considering every particle of the transmitted medium on a wavefront as a point
source for a secondary spherical wave. The wave displacement at any subsequent
point is the sum of these secondary waves. When waves are added together, their sum
is determined by the relative phases as well as the amplitudes of the individual
waves so that the summed amplitude of the waves can have any value between zero and
the sum of the individual amplitudes. Hence, diffraction patterns usually have a
series of maxima and minima.

In the modern quantum mechanical understanding of light propagation through a slit

(or slits) every photon has what is known as a wavefunction which describes its
path from the emitter through the slit to the screen. The wavefunction (the path
the photon will take) is determined by the physical surroundings such as slit
geometry, screen distance and initial conditions when the photon is created. In
important experiments (A low-intensity double-slit experiment was first performed
by G. I. Taylor in 1909, see double-slit experiment) the existence of the photon's
wavefunction was demonstrated. In the quantum approach the diffraction pattern is
created by the distribution of paths, the observation of light and dark bands is
the presence or absence of photons in these areas (no interference!). The quantum
approach has some striking similarities to the Huygens-Fresnel principle, in that
principle the light becomes a series of individually distributed light sources
across the slit which is similar to the limited number of paths (or wave functions)
available for the photons to travel through the slit.

There are various analytical models which allow the diffracted field to be
calculated, including the Kirchhoff-Fresnel diffraction equation which is derived
from wave equation, the Fraunhofer diffraction approximation of the Kirchhoff
equation which applies to the far field and the Fresnel diffraction approximation
which applies to the near field. Most configurations cannot be solved analytically,
but can yield numerical solutions through finite element and boundary element
methods.

It is possible to obtain a qualitative understanding of many diffraction phenomena

by considering how the relative phases of the individual secondary wave sources
vary, and in particular, the conditions in which the phase difference equals half a
cycle in which case waves will cancel one another out.

The simplest descriptions of diffraction are those in which the situation can be
reduced to a two-dimensional problem. For water waves, this is already the case;
water waves propagate only on the surface of the water. For light, we can often
neglect one direction if the diffracting object extends in that direction over a
distance far greater than the wavelength. In the case of light shining through
small circular holes we will have to take into account the full three-dimensional
nature of the problem.

Diffraction of light
Some examples of diffraction of light are considered below.

Single-slit diffraction
Main article: Diffraction formalism

Diffraction of a scalar wave passing through a 1-wavelength-wide slit

Diffraction of a scalar wave passing through a 4-wavelength-wide slit

Numerical approximation of diffraction pattern from a slit of width four

wavelengths with an incident plane wave. The main central beam, nulls, and phase
reversals are apparent.

Graph and image of single-slit diffraction.

A long slit of infinitesimal width which is illuminated by light diffracts the
light into a series of circular waves and the wavefront which emerges from the slit
is a cylindrical wave of uniform intensity.

A slit which is wider than a wavelength produces interference effects in the space
downstream of the slit. These can be explained by assuming that the slit behaves as
though it has a large number of point sources spaced evenly across the width of the
slit. The analysis of this system is simplified if we consider light of a single
wavelength. If the incident light is coherent, these sources all have the same
phase. Light incident at a given point in the space downstream of the slit is made
up of contributions from each of these point sources and if the relative phases of
these contributions vary by 2p or more, we may expect to find minima and maxima in
the diffracted light. Such phase differences are caused by differences in the path
lengths over which contributing rays reach the point from the slit.

We can find the angle at which a first minimum is obtained in the diffracted light
by the following reasoning. The light from a source located at the top edge of the
slit interferes destructively with a source located at the middle of the slit, when
the path difference between them is equal to ?/2. Similarly, the source just below
the top of the slit will interfere destructively with the source located just below
the middle of the slit at the same angle. We can continue this reasoning along the
entire height of the slit to conclude that the condition for destructive
interference for the entire slit is the same as the condition for destructive
interference between two narrow slits a distance apart that is half the width of
the slit. The path difference is approximately {\displaystyle {\frac
{d\sin(\theta )}{2}}} {\frac {d\sin(\theta )}{2}} so that the minimum intensity
occurs at an angle ?min given by

{\displaystyle d\,\sin \theta _{\text{min}}=\lambda } d\,\sin \theta

_{\text{min}}=\lambda
where

d is the width of the slit,

{\displaystyle \theta _{\text{min}}} \theta _{\text{min}} is the angle of incidence
at which the minimum intensity occurs, and
{\displaystyle \lambda } \lambda is the wavelength of the light
A similar argument can be used to show that if we imagine the slit to be divided
into four, six, eight parts, etc., minima are obtained at angles ?n given by

{\displaystyle d\,\sin \theta _{n}=n\lambda } d\,\sin \theta _{n}=n\lambda

where

n is an integer other than zero.

There is no such simple argument to enable us to find the maxima of the diffraction
pattern. The intensity profile can be calculated using the Fraunhofer diffraction
equation as

{\displaystyle I(\theta )=I_{0}\,\operatorname {sinc} ^{2}\left({\frac {d\pi }

{\lambda }}\sin \theta \right)} I(\theta )=I_{0}\,\operatorname {sinc}
^{2}\left({\frac {d\pi }{\lambda }}\sin \theta \right)
where

{\displaystyle I(\theta )} I(\theta ) is the intensity at a given angle,

{\displaystyle I_{0}} I_{0} is the original intensity, and
the unnormalized sinc function above is given by {\displaystyle \operatorname
{sinc} (x)={\frac {\sin x}{x}}} \operatorname {sinc} (x)={\frac {\sin x}{x}} if
{\displaystyle x\neq 0} x\neq 0, and {\displaystyle \operatorname {sinc} (0)=1}
\operatorname {sinc} (0)=1
This analysis applies only to the far field, that is, at a distance much larger
than the width of the slit.

2-slit (top) and 5-slit diffraction of red laser light

Diffraction of a red laser using a diffraction grating.

A diffraction pattern of a 633 nm laser through a grid of 150 slits

Diffraction grating
Main article: Diffraction grating
A diffraction grating is an optical component with a regular pattern. The form of
the light diffracted by a grating depends on the structure of the elements and the
number of elements present, but all gratings have intensity maxima at angles ?m
which are given by the grating equation

{\displaystyle d\left(\sin {\theta _{m}}+\sin {\theta _{i}}\right)=m\lambda .}

d\left(\sin {\theta _{m}}+\sin {\theta _{i}}\right)=m\lambda .
where

?i is the angle at which the light is incident,

d is the separation of grating elements, and
m is an integer which can be positive or negative.
The light diffracted by a grating is found by summing the light diffracted from
each of the elements, and is essentially a convolution of diffraction and
interference patterns.

The figure shows the light diffracted by 2-element and 5-element gratings where the
grating spacings are the same; it can be seen that the maxima are in the same
position, but the detailed structures of the intensities are different.

A computer-generated image of an Airy disk.

Computer generated light diffraction pattern from a circular aperture of diameter

0.5 micrometre at a wavelength of 0.6 micrometre (red-light) at distances of 0.1 cm
� 1 cm in steps of 0.1 cm. One can see the image moving from the Fresnel region
into the Fraunhofer region where the Airy pattern is seen.
Circular aperture
Main article: Airy disk
The far-field diffraction of a plane wave incident on a circular aperture is often
referred to as the Airy Disk. The variation in intensity with angle is given by

{\displaystyle I(\theta )=I_{0}\left({\frac {2J_{1}(ka\sin \theta )}{ka\sin

\theta }}\right)^{2}} I(\theta )=I_{0}\left({\frac {2J_{1}(ka\sin \theta )}
{ka\sin \theta }}\right)^{2},
where a is the radius of the circular aperture, k is equal to 2p/? and J1 is a
Bessel function. The smaller the aperture, the larger the spot size at a given
distance, and the greater the divergence of the diffracted beams.

General aperture
The wave that emerges from a point source has amplitude {\displaystyle \psi } \psi
at location r that is given by the solution of the frequency domain wave equation
for a point source (The Helmholtz Equation),

{\displaystyle \nabla ^{2}\psi +k^{2}\psi =\delta ({\mathbf {r}})} \nabla ^{2}\psi

+k^{2}\psi =\delta ({\mathbf {r}})
where {\displaystyle \delta ({\mathbf {r}})} \delta ({\mathbf {r}}) is the 3-
dimensional delta function. The delta function has only radial dependence, so the
Laplace operator (a.k.a. scalar Laplacian) in the spherical coordinate system
simplifies to (see del in cylindrical and spherical coordinates)

{\displaystyle \nabla ^{2}\psi ={\frac {1}{r}}{\frac {\partial ^{2}}{\partial

r^{2}}}(r\psi )} \nabla ^{2}\psi ={\frac {1}{r}}{\frac {\partial ^{2}}{\partial
r^{2}}}(r\psi )
By direct substitution, the solution to this equation can be readily shown to be
the scalar Green's function, which in the spherical coordinate system (and using
the physics time convention {\displaystyle e^{-i\omega t}} e^{-i\omega t}) is:

{\displaystyle \psi (r)={\frac {e^{ikr}}{4\pi r}}} \psi (r)={\frac {e^{ikr}}{4\pi

r}}
This solution assumes that the delta function source is located at the origin. If
the source is located at an arbitrary source point, denoted by the vector
{\displaystyle {\mathbf {r}}'} {\mathbf {r}}' and the field point is located at the
point {\displaystyle {\mathbf {r}}} {\mathbf {r}}, then we may represent the scalar
Green's function (for arbitrary source location) as:

{\displaystyle \psi ({\mathbf {r}}|{\mathbf {r}}')={\frac {e^{ik|{\mathbf {r}}-

{\mathbf {r}}'|}}{4\pi |{\mathbf {r}}-{\mathbf {r}}'|}}} \psi ({\mathbf {r}}|
{\mathbf {r}}')={\frac {e^{ik|{\mathbf {r}}-{\mathbf {r}}'|}}{4\pi |{\mathbf {r}}-
{\mathbf {r}}'|}}
Therefore, if an electric field, Einc(x,y) is incident on the aperture, the field
produced by this aperture distribution is given by the surface integral:

{\displaystyle \Psi (r)\propto \iint \limits _{\mathrm {aperture} }E_{\mathrm {inc}

}(x',y')~{\frac {e^{ik|{\mathbf {r}}-{\mathbf {r}}'|}}{4\pi |{\mathbf {r}}-{\mathbf
{r}}'|}}\,dx'\,dy',} {\displaystyle \Psi (r)\propto \iint \limits _{\mathrm
{aperture} }E_{\mathrm {inc} }(x',y')~{\frac {e^{ik|{\mathbf {r}}-{\mathbf {r}}'|}}
{4\pi |{\mathbf {r}}-{\mathbf {r}}'|}}\,dx'\,dy',}

On the calculation of Fraunhofer region fields

where the source point in the aperture is given by the vector

{\displaystyle {\mathbf {r} }'=x'{\mathbf {\hat {x}} }+y'{\mathbf {\hat {y}} }}

{\mathbf {r}}'=x'{\mathbf {\hat {x}}}+y'{\mathbf {\hat {y}}}
In the far field, wherein the parallel rays approximation can be employed, the
Green's function,

{\displaystyle \psi ({\mathbf {r}}|{\mathbf {r}}')={\frac {e^{ik|{\mathbf {r}}-

{\mathbf {r}}'|}}{4\pi |{\mathbf {r}}-{\mathbf {r}}'|}}} \psi ({\mathbf {r}}|
{\mathbf {r}}')={\frac {e^{ik|{\mathbf {r}}-{\mathbf {r}}'|}}{4\pi |{\mathbf {r}}-
{\mathbf {r}}'|}}
simplifies to

{\displaystyle \psi ({\mathbf {r} }|{\mathbf {r} }')={\frac {e^{ikr}}{4\pi r}}e^{-

ik({\mathbf {r} }'\cdot {\mathbf {\hat {r}} })}} \psi ({\mathbf {r}}|{\mathbf
{r}}')={\frac {e^{ikr}}{4\pi r}}e^{-ik({\mathbf {r}}'\cdot {\mathbf {\hat {r}}})}
as can be seen in the figure to the right (click to enlarge).

The expression for the far-zone (Fraunhofer region) field becomes

{\displaystyle \Psi (r)\propto {\frac {e^{ikr}}{4\pi r}}\iint \limits _{\mathrm

{aperture} }E_{\mathrm {inc} }(x',y')e^{-ik({\mathbf {r}}'\cdot {\mathbf {\hat
{r}}})}\,dx'\,dy',} {\displaystyle \Psi (r)\propto {\frac {e^{ikr}}{4\pi
r}}\iint \limits _{\mathrm {aperture} }E_{\mathrm {inc} }(x',y')e^{-ik({\mathbf
{r}}'\cdot {\mathbf {\hat {r}}})}\,dx'\,dy',}
Now, since

{\displaystyle {\mathbf {r} }'=x'{\mathbf {\hat {x}} }+y'{\mathbf {\hat {y}} }}

{\mathbf {r}}'=x'{\mathbf {\hat {x}}}+y'{\mathbf {\hat {y}}}
and

{\displaystyle {\mathbf {\hat {r}} }=\sin \theta \cos \phi {\mathbf {\hat {x}} }
+\sin \theta ~\sin \phi ~{\mathbf {\hat {y}} }+\cos \theta {\mathbf {\hat {z}} }}
{\mathbf {\hat {r}}}=\sin \theta \cos \phi {\mathbf {\hat {x}}}+\sin \theta
~\sin \phi ~{\mathbf {\hat {y}}}+\cos \theta {\mathbf {\hat {z}}}
the expression for the Fraunhofer region field from a planar aperture now becomes,

{\displaystyle \Psi (r)\propto {\frac {e^{ikr}}{4\pi r}}\iint \limits _{\mathrm

{aperture} }E_{\mathrm {inc} }(x',y')e^{-ik\sin \theta (\cos \phi x'+\sin \phi
y')}\,dx'\,dy'} {\displaystyle \Psi (r)\propto {\frac {e^{ikr}}{4\pi r}}\iint
\limits _{\mathrm {aperture} }E_{\mathrm {inc} }(x',y')e^{-ik\sin \theta (\cos \phi
x'+\sin \phi y')}\,dx'\,dy'}
Letting,

{\displaystyle k_{x}=k\sin \theta \cos \phi \,\!} k_{x}=k\sin \theta \cos \phi \,\!
and

{\displaystyle k_{y}=k\sin \theta \sin \phi \,\!} k_{y}=k\sin \theta \sin \phi \,\!
the Fraunhofer region field of the planar aperture assumes the form of a Fourier
transform

{\displaystyle \Psi (r)\propto {\frac {e^{ikr}}{4\pi r}}\iint \limits _{\mathrm

{aperture} }E_{\mathrm {inc} }(x',y')e^{-i(k_{x}x'+k_{y}y')}\,dx'\,dy',}
{\displaystyle \Psi (r)\propto {\frac {e^{ikr}}{4\pi r}}\iint \limits _{\mathrm
{aperture} }E_{\mathrm {inc} }(x',y')e^{-i(k_{x}x'+k_{y}y')}\,dx'\,dy',}
In the far-field / Fraunhofer region, this becomes the spatial Fourier transform of
the aperture distribution. Huygens' principle when applied to an aperture simply
says that the far-field diffraction pattern is the spatial Fourier transform of the
aperture shape, and this is a direct by-product of using the parallel-rays
approximation, which is identical to doing a plane wave decomposition of the
aperture plane fields (see Fourier optics).

Propagation of a laser beam

The way in which the beam profile of a laser beam changes as it propagates is
determined by diffraction. When the entire emitted beam has a planar, spatially
coherent wave front, it approximates Gaussian beam profile and has the lowest
divergence for a given diameter. The smaller the output beam, the quicker it
diverges. It is possible to reduce the divergence of a laser beam by first
expanding it with one convex lens, and then collimating it with a second convex
lens whose focal point is coincident with that of the first lens. The resulting
beam has a larger diameter, and hence a lower divergence. Divergence of a laser
beam may be reduced below the diffraction of a Gaussian beam or even reversed to
convergence if the refractive index of the propagation media increases with the
light intensity.[14] This may result in a self-focusing effect.

When the wave front of the emitted beam has perturbations, only the transverse
coherence length (where the wave front perturbation is less than 1/4 of the
wavelength) should be considered as a Gaussian beam diameter when determining the
divergence of the laser beam. If the transverse coherence length in the vertical
direction is higher than in horizontal, the laser beam divergence will be lower in
the vertical direction than in the horizontal.

Diffraction-limited imaging
Main article: Diffraction-limited system

The Airy disk around each of the stars from the 2.56 m telescope aperture can be
seen in this lucky image of the binary star zeta Bo�tis.
The ability of an imaging system to resolve detail is ultimately limited by
diffraction. This is because a plane wave incident on a circular lens or mirror is
diffracted as described above. The light is not focused to a point but forms an
Airy disk having a central spot in the focal plane with radius to first null of

{\displaystyle d=1.22\lambda N,\,} d=1.22\lambda N,\,

where ? is the wavelength of the light and N is the f-number (focal length divided
by diameter) of the imaging optics. In object space, the corresponding angular
resolution is

{\displaystyle \sin \theta =1.22{\frac {\lambda }{D}},\,} \sin \theta =1.22{\frac

{\lambda }{D}},\,
where D is the diameter of the entrance pupil of the imaging lens (e.g., of a
telescope's main mirror).

Two point sources will each produce an Airy pattern � see the photo of a binary
star. As the point sources move closer together, the patterns will start to
overlap, and ultimately they will merge to form a single pattern, in which case the
two point sources cannot be resolved in the image. The Rayleigh criterion specifies
that two point sources can be considered to be resolvable if the separation of the
two images is at least the radius of the Airy disk, i.e. if the first minimum of
one coincides with the maximum of the other.

Thus, the larger the aperture of the lens, and the smaller the wavelength, the
finer the resolution of an imaging system. This is why telescopes have very large
lenses or mirrors, and why optical microscopes are limited in the detail which they
can see.

Speckle patterns
Main article: Speckle Pattern
The speckle pattern which is seen when using a laser pointer is another diffraction
phenomenon. It is a result of the superposition of many waves with different
phases, which are produced when a laser beam illuminates a rough surface. They add
together to give a resultant wave whose amplitude, and therefore intensity, varies
randomly.

Babinet's Principle
Main article: Babinet's Principle
Babinet's Principle is a useful theorem stating that the diffraction pattern from
an opaque body is identical to that from a hole of the same size and shape, but
with differing intensities. This means that the interference conditions of a single
obstruction would be the same as that of a single slit.

Patterns

The upper half of this image shows a diffraction pattern of He-Ne laser beam on an
elliptic aperture. The lower half is its 2D Fourier transform approximately
reconstructing the shape of the aperture.
Several qualitative observations can be made of diffraction in general:

The angular spacing of the features in the diffraction pattern is inversely

proportional to the dimensions of the object causing the diffraction. In other
words: The smaller the diffracting object, the 'wider' the resulting diffraction
pattern, and vice versa. (More precisely, this is true of the sines of the angles.)
The diffraction angles are invariant under scaling; that is, they depend only on
the ratio of the wavelength to the size of the diffracting object.
When the diffracting object has a periodic structure, for example in a diffraction
grating, the features generally become sharper. The third figure, for example,
shows a comparison of a double-slit pattern with a pattern formed by five slits,
both sets of slits having the same spacing, between the center of one slit and the
next.
Particle diffraction
See also: neutron diffraction and electron diffraction
Quantum theory tells us that every particle exhibits wave properties. In
particular, massive particles can interfere and therefore diffract. Diffraction of
electrons and neutrons stood as one of the powerful arguments in favor of quantum
mechanics. The wavelength associated with a particle is the de Broglie wavelength

{\displaystyle \lambda ={\frac {h}{p}}\,} \lambda ={\frac {h}{p}}\,

where h is Planck's constant and p is the momentum of the particle (mass � velocity
for slow-moving particles).
For most macroscopic objects, this wavelength is so short that it is not meaningful
to assign a wavelength to them. A sodium atom traveling at about 30,000 m/s would
have a De Broglie wavelength of about 50 pico meters.

Because the wavelength for even the smallest of macroscopic objects is extremely
small, diffraction of matter waves is only visible for small particles, like
electrons, neutrons, atoms and small molecules. The short wavelength of these
matter waves makes them ideally suited to study the atomic crystal structure of
solids and large molecules like proteins.

Relatively larger molecules like buckyballs were also shown to diffract.[15]

Bragg diffraction

Following Bragg's law, each dot (or reflection) in this diffraction pattern forms
from the constructive interference of X-rays passing through a crystal. The data
can be used to determine the crystal's atomic structure.
Further information: Bragg diffraction
Diffraction from a three-dimensional periodic structure such as atoms in a crystal
is called Bragg diffraction. It is similar to what occurs when waves are scattered
from a diffraction grating. Bragg diffraction is a consequence of interference
between waves reflecting from different crystal planes. The condition of
constructive interference is given by Bragg's law:

{\displaystyle m\lambda =2d\sin \theta \,} m\lambda =2d\sin \theta \,

where

? is the wavelength,
d is the distance between crystal planes,
? is the angle of the diffracted wave.
and m is an integer known as the order of the diffracted beam.
Bragg diffraction may be carried out using either light of very short wavelength
like X-rays or matter waves like neutrons (and electrons) whose wavelength is on
the order of (or much smaller than) the atomic spacing.[16] The pattern produced
gives information of the separations of crystallographic planes d, allowing one to
deduce the crystal structure. Diffraction contrast, in electron microscopes and x-
topography devices in particular, is also a powerful tool for examining individual
defects and local strain fields in crystals.

Coherence
Main article: Coherence (physics)
The description of diffraction relies on the interference of waves emanating from
the same source taking different paths to the same point on a screen. In this
description, the difference in phase between waves that took different paths is
only dependent on the effective path length. This does not take into account the
fact that waves that arrive at the screen at the same time were emitted by the
source at different times. The initial phase with which the source emits waves can
change over time in an unpredictable way. This means that waves emitted by the
source at times that are too far apart can no longer form a constant interference
pattern since the relation between their phases is no longer time independent.
[17]:919

The length over which the phase in a beam of light is correlated, is called the
coherence length. In order for interference to occur, the path length difference
must be smaller than the coherence length. This is sometimes referred to as
spectral coherence, as it is related to the presence of different frequency
components in the wave. In the case of light emitted by an atomic transition, the
coherence length is related to the lifetime of the excited state from which the
atom made its transition.[18]:71�74[19]:314�316
If waves are emitted from an extended source, this can lead to incoherence in the
transversal direction. When looking at a cross section of a beam of light, the
length over which the phase is correlated is called the transverse coherence
length. In the case of Young's double slit experiment, this would mean that if the
transverse coherence length is smaller than the spacing between the two slits, the
resulting pattern on a screen would look like two single slit diffraction patterns.
[18]:74�79

In the case of particles like electrons, neutrons and atoms, the coherence length
is related to the spatial extent of the wave function that describes the particle.
[20]:107

See also