392003 June • JOM

of temperature. The resultant ductility vs.temperature curve is called the ductilitycurve, with the
liquidus temperature T

as the upper bound and the temperatureat the tip of the longest crack as thelower bound. The slope of
a line passingthrough T

and tangent to the ductilitycurve is called the critical strain ratefor temperature drop (CST), that is,
thecritical rate at which the strain varieswith temperature drop. According toNakata and Matsuda,

16

CST correlateswell with the cracking susceptibility of the weld metal.Both the tendency of weld-
metalcontraction and the degree of restraintare factors that can affect solidificationcracking.

As already mentioned, theweld metal tends to contract due tosolidification shrinkage and
thermalcontraction. Austenitic stainless steelshave relatively high thermal expansioncoefficients (as
compared to mild steels)and, therefore, are often prone tosolidification cracking. The solidifica-tion
shrinkage of aluminum is as highas 6.6%.

The thermal expansion coef-ficient of aluminum is roughly twicethat of iron-based alloys. As a

result,many aluminum alloys are susceptibleto solidification cracking. As mentionedpreviously, tensile
stress/strains areinduced in the weld metal when theweld metal cannot contract freely duringwelding.

REMEDIES FORSOLIDIFICATION CRACKING

Solidification cracking can be reducedby adjusting the weld-metal composi-tion, the grain structure, and
the weldingcondition.

When welding aluminum alloys,it is desirable to have a weld-metalcomposition that is away from the
peak of the crack sensitivity curve (shownin Figure 4). To reach the desired weld-metal composition, a
filler metal of aproper composition can be used and thewelding parameters can be selected toachieve
the desired dilution ratio (thefraction of the base metal in the weldmetal). The maps of crack
sensitivityvs. composition for ternary aluminumalloys are also useful.

31,41
When welding austenitic stainlesssteels, as mentioned previously, itis desirable to have a weld-
metalcomposition such that the weld-ferritecontent is at a level of 5–10% inorder to avoid solidification
cracking.Quantitative relationships between theweld-ferrite content and the weld-metalcomposition in
austenitic stainless steelshave been determined by Schaeffler,

42

DeLong,

43

Kotecki,

44,45

Balmforth etal.,

46

and Vitek et al.

47,48

With the help of such quantitative information, properfiller metals and dilution ratios can beselected to
insure enough weld-ferritecontent.When welding carbon and low-alloysteels, it is desirable to have a
weld-metal composition such that the weld-metal Mn/S ratio is sufficiently high toavoid solidification
cracking. Increasingthe Mn/S ratio promotes the formationof MnS rather than FeS. This is becausethe
high melting point and the globularmorphology of MnS tend to makesulfur less detrimental. At relatively
lowcarbon levels the solidification-crackingtendency can be reduced by increasingthe Mn/S ratio.

49

However, at highercarbon levels (i.e., 0.2–0.3% C),increasing the Mn/S ratio is no longereffective.

50

In such cases loweringthe weld-metal carbon content, if permissible, is more effective.The grains of the
weld metal can berefined by inoculation and arc oscilla-tion to reduce solidification cracking.Grain
refining by inoculation has beenachieved in steels and stainless steelswith titanium and aluminum
nitride,

51,52

and in aluminum alloys with titaniumand zirconium.

53–56

Dudas and Collins

32

produced grain refining and eliminatedsolidification cracking in an Al-Zn-Mgfiller weld by adding small
amounts of zirconium to the filler metal.Solidification cracking has beenreduced by the following means:
Gar-land

57

grain refined welds of aluminum-magnesium alloys by mechanicallyvibrating the arc during welding;
Kouand Le

58

grain refined welds of 5052aluminum by magnetic-arc oscillation(20 Hz); David and Liu

59

refined iridiumwelds by magnetic-arc oscillation;and Tseng and Savage

60

refined thesolidification structure within the grainsof HY-80 steel, though not the grainsthemselves.Kou
and Le

58,61,62

used low-frequency(1 Hz) magnetic-arc oscillation duringgas-tungsten-arc welding of aluminumalloys

and forced the weld-metalcolumnar grains to change their growthdirection periodically.
Solidificationcracking was reduced effectively becausea crack had to change its directionperiodically in
order to propagate down

Figure 3. Micrographs showing crackingin aluminum welds: (a) solidificationcracking; (b) liquation
cracking.Figure 4. Effect of composition on cracksensitivity of some aluminum alloys. (a–d)from
Reference 32; (e) from Reference33. (Reprinted from Kou.

)0.5 µm

ba

Copper Content (wt%)Composition of Weld, % Alloying Element

R e l a t i v e C r a c k S e n s i t i v i t y T o t a l C r a c k L e n g t h ( m
m )
40JOM • June 2003

the weld along grain boundaries.In addition, favorable welding condi-tions can be used to reduce
solidificationcracking. For instance, reducing restrainthelps reduce solidification cracking.Making the
weld surface slightly convexcan help prevent surface shrinkagecracks that tend to occur in welds witha
concave surface.

63

This is becausethe surface is less in tension when itis slightly convex. Reducing the welddepth-to-width
ratio can help preventcenterline cracking that tends to occurin welds with a steep angle of
abutmentbetween columnar grains growing fromopposite sides of the weld pool.

63

Thistype of cracking is often observedin deep and narrow welds producedby electron beam or
submerged arcwelding.

LIQUATION CRACKING

Liquation cracking, as shown inFigure 3b, is intergranular just likesolidification cracking. However,
unlikesolidification cracking, the fracturesurface does not reveal any dendriticmorphology. The presence
of a liquidphase at the intergranular fracturesurface is sometimes evident,

64

but notalways.

65,66

Liquation cracking occurs in thePMZ of a weld, which is immediatelyoutside the fusion zone, because of
heating above the eutectic temperature(or the solidus temperature if theworkpiece is completely
solutionizedbefore welding) in the PMZ.

Liquationcan occur along the grain boundaryas well as in the grain interior. Grain-boundary liquation
makes the PMZsusceptible to liquation cracking.Liquation cracking

1,70

has also beencalled edge-of-weld cracking,

32

base-metal cracking,
67

hot cracking,

68

andheat-affected zone cracking.

69

The nameliquation cracking is used here.Huang and Kou

71

showed in Figure 5the development of liquation cracking inthe PMZ of a full-penetration aluminumweld.
Since the PMZ is weakened bygrain-boundary liquation, it can crack if the solidifying and contracting
weldmetal is stronger than it.Huang and Kou

72

used curves of temperature (T) vs. solid fraction (f

)to help understand liquation cracking.Since the strength of a semisolid islikely to increase primarily with
thesolid fraction, they proposed that if the weld-metal f

exceeds

the PMZ f

during PMZ terminal solidification, thesolidifying and contracting weld metalcan become stronger than
the PMZ itpulls, and liquation cracking is likelyto occur if tensile stresses/strains andliquation are both
significant in thePMZ.For example, Huang and Kou

72

madefull-penetration, circular-patch weldsin 6061 aluminum with filler metals5356 (Al-5Mg) and 4043
(Al-5Si). Atthe dilution ratio of about 65%, severeliquation cracking occurred in the weldmade with 5356
but no cracking wasobserved in the weld made with 4043.Figure 6 shows the T-f

S
curves forboth the weld metal and the PMZ atthe fusion boundary, calculated using

Pandat

73

based on the multicomponentScheil equation. The curves show that,at about 65% dilution, 5356 made
theweld metal f

greater than the PMZf

during PMZ terminal solidificationwhile 4043 made the weld metal f

less than the PMZ f

throughout PMZsolidification.The susceptibility of the PMZ tohot cracking can be evaluated usingseveral
different methods, such asthe Varestraint test,

74–76

circular-patchtest,

65,71,72

and hot-ductility test.

66

FACTORS AFFECTINGLIQUATION CRACKING

The liquation cracking susceptibilityof the PMZ can be affected by the extentof liquation, the grain
structure, the hotductility, and weld-metal contractionand the degree of restraint.

The greater the extent of liquation,the more likely that liquation crackingcan occur. The extent of
liquation in thePMZ depends on the tendency of thematerial to liquate and the level of heatinput. The
tendency of an aluminumalloy to liquate increases with increasingfreezing temperature range and
fractionof liquid during freezing. For instance,alloy 7075 liquates much more severelythan alloy 6061
because the formerhas a wider freezing temperature rangeand a greater fraction of liquid
duringfreezing.

77

The tendency to liquate canalso increase with increasing grain-boundary segregation in the
workpiecematerial. As-cast materials, for instance,

Figure 5. Mechanism of liquation cracking in the partially meltedzone of a full-penetration aluminum

weld.

71

412003 June • JOM

tend to have more grain-boundarysegregation.The higher the heat input, the greaterthe liquation and
the more likely liqua-tion cracking can occur. The heat inputdepends on the welding process
andparameters and the workpiece thickness.Miyazaki et al.

76

observed in 6061aluminum welds made with filler 5356that liquation cracking increased withincreasing
heat input per unit lengthof weld.A base metal with coarser grains ismore susceptible to liquation
cracking.The coarser the grain, the less ductilethe PMZ becomes. Furthermore, thecoarser the grains,
the smaller thegrain-boundary area and hence, themore concentrated the impurities orlow-melting
segregates are at the grainboundary. Increasing liquation crackingwith increasing grain size has
beenobserved in aluminum alloys

76,78

andInconel 718.

79,80

Hot ductility can also play a role inliquation cracking. Several differentcriteria have been used for
interpretinghot-ductility curves.

81

It has beensuggested that an alloy that recovers itsductility easily during cooling tends tobe more crack
resistant.
66

Both the tendency of weld-metalcontraction and the degree of restraintcan affect the susceptibility to
liquationcracking.

The more the weld metalcontracts, the more likely the PMZ willcrack. The more severely the
workpieceis restrained, the more likely liquationcracking will occur.

REMEDIES FOR LIQUATIONCRACKING

Liquation cracking can be reduced bycontrolling the weld-metal composition,the welding condition, and
the basemetal.The weld-metal composition can beadjusted by selecting a proper fillermetal and dilution
ratio. Metzger

67

observed liquation cracking in 6061aluminum welds made with Al-Mgfillers at high dilution ratios but
not inwelds made with Al-Si fillers at anydilution ratios. Gittos et al.

65

observedliquation cracking in alloy 6082 weldedwith NG61 (equivalent to 5356) filler athigh dilution
ratios (about 80%) but notin welds made with NG21 (equivalentto 4043) filler at any dilution
ratios.Katoh et al.,

74

Kerr et al.,

75

and Miyazakiet al.

76

studied liquation cracking in6000-series alloys including 6061.Longitudinal liquation cracking

occurredwhen alloy 6061 was welded with a5356 filler but not with a 4043 filler.As shown previously,
Huang and Kou

72

showed that T-f

S
curves can be used tohelp select the weld-metal compositionto avoid liquation cracking.The sensitivity
of the PMZ to liquationcracking can be reduced by decreasingthe degree of restraint and, hence,
thelevel of tensile stresses. The size of thePMZ and, hence, the extent of PMZliquation can be reduced
by reducingthe heat input. In order to minimizeliquation cracking, the heat input can bekept low by
using multi-pass welding orlow-heat-input welding processes (suchas electron beam and gas-tungsten-
arcwelding) when possible.Liquation cracking can be reducedby selecting the proper base metalfor
welding if it is feasible. The base-metal composition, grain structure,and microsegregation can affect
thesusceptibility of the PMZ to liquationcracking significantly. Using base metalsthat have low sulfur and
phosphorus canhelp reduce the freezing temperaturerange and, hence, liquation cracking.Using fine-
grained materials helpsreduce liquation cracking because of better ductility and lower concentrationsof
liquation-inducing segregates. As-castmaterials are particularly susceptibleto liquation cracking because
of thepresence of low-melting segregatesalong grain boundaries. Upon heatingduring welding, severe
grain-boundaryliquation can occur in the PMZ, making ithighly susceptible to liquation
cracking.Examples include as-cast 304 stainlesssteel

82

and as-cast corrosion-resistantaustenitic stainless steel.

83

By heattreating to homogenize the castingsbefore welding, liquation cracking canbe reduced.

CONCLUSION

Experimental data of crack sensitivityvs. composition are useful for selectingthe proper weld-metal
composition toavoid solidification cracking. To avoidliquation cracking at the same time,however, the
weld-metal compositionshould be such that the weld metalsolidifies after the partially melted zonedoes.
Curves of temperature vs. solidfraction of the weld metal and the basemetal (same as the partially
melted zone)can help select the proper weld-metalcomposition.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This work was supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. DMR-0098776. The
authorsare grateful to Bruce Albrecht and

Figure 6. Temperature vs.solid fraction for 6061 basemetal (PMZ) and weld metalof 6061 welds made
with fillermetals 5356 and 4043 atabout 65% dilution. Curvescalculated using

Pandat

73

ofCompuTherm LLC.

72