GENDER MAINSTREAMING

 The process of incorporating a gender perspective into policies, strategies,

programs, project activities, and administrative functions, as well as institutional
culture of an organization.

 Integrating a gender equality perspective into the development process at all

stages and levels.

 Astrategy for the achievement of gender equality.

HISTORY

o 1975 Mexico International Conference: Women in Development emphasis.

o 1985 -3rd United Nations World Conference on Women in

Nairobi: Organizational and other means which enable women to
contribute their interests and preferences into the evaluation and
selection of alternative development goals should be identified.

o 1995-4th United Nations World Conference on Women in

Beijing: Gender Mainstreaming was at last introduced as a strategy in
international gender equality policy, given force as a cross-sectional topic
and established in the 4th Working Platform of the World Conference
on Women.

o 2000 – Millennium Development Goals: Promote Gender Equality and

Empower Women.

o 2005 – World Summit: Several agreements to spend billions more on

achieving the Millennium Development Goals.

o 2010 – Formation of United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the
Empowerment of Women (UN Women): Leadership and political
participation, economic empowerment, ending violence against women,
humanitarian action, peace and security, governance and national
planning, the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, and HIV and
AIDS

o 2015 Sustainable Development Goals: Achieve gender equality and

empower all women and girls.
PRINCIPLES

 Addressing gender needs and strategic interests

 Understanding gender responsive planning and programming

 Recognize biological (sex) and gender roles and responsibilities.

 Addressing socio-cultural and institutional barriers.

 Realization that gender is a social construct.

 Recognition that development projects impact differently on men and women.

Approaches

WID GAD

 Focus Women and how they Relationships between

can be integrated into women and men (social,
development. economic, political)

 The issue or Women (half the Unequal relations of power

problem productive resources), between men and women
are excluded from the that prevent equitable
development process. development and women's
full participation

 Goal More efficient and Equitable and sustainable

effective development by development
increasing the
with women and men as
participation of women.
decision-makers

 Solution Integrate women into the Empower disadvantaged

existing development women to achieve more
process. equal relationships
  Strategies Increase women's Meet practical needs of
productivity, and their improve immediate
ability to look after the condition, but address
household. strategic needs to
transform relationships.

 Projects Women-only projects, Gender-integrated projects

and women focused

components of broader
projects

Global Policies and Legislation

• Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) 1948

• The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) 1966
• The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women
(CEDAW) 1979
• The International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD) 1994
• International Labour Organization (ILO) conventions and protocols
• The Beijing Platform for Action (1995)
• Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) 2000
• Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 2015.

The Maputo Protocol

The Protocol to the African Charter on Human and People's Rights on the Rights of Women in
Africa:
 Promote equality of access to employment;
 Promote the right to equal remuneration for jobs of equal value for women and men;
 Ensure transparency in recruitment, promotion and dismissal of women and combat and
punish sexual harassment in the workplace;
 Guarantee women the freedom to choose their occupation, and protect them from
exploitation by their employers;
 Create conditions to promote and support the occupations and economic activities of
women, in particular, within the informal sector;
 Introduce a minimum age for work and prohibit the employment of children below that
age, and prohibit, combat and punish all forms of exploitation of children, especially the
girl-child;
  Take the necessary measures to recognise the economic value of the work of women in
the home;
 Guarantee adequate and paid pre and post-natal maternity leave in both the private and
public sectors;
 Ensure the equal application of taxation laws to women and men; and
 Recognise and enforce the right of salaried women to the same allowances and
entitlements as those granted to salaried men for their spouses and children.

Local Policies and Instruments

Policy Document Legal Document

 Plan of Action (2008 – 2012) on the  Constitution 2010

Implementation of the National Policy on  National Gender and
Gender and Development. Equality Commission
 National Gender and Development Act 2011
Policy (2000)  Employment Act of
 Sessional paper No. 2 of May, 2006 on 2007
Gender Equality and Development.  Sexual Offences Act
 Economic Recovery Strategy 2003 - 2007 2006
 National Poverty Eradication Plan  Labour Institutions
(NPEP), 1999 – 2015. Act 2007
 Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP),  Labour Relations Act
2001 – 2004. 2007,
 Millennium development Goals, 2000 –  Work Injury Benefits
2015 Act 2007
 Vision 2030  Occupational Safety &
 The Second Vision 2030 Medium Term Health Act 2007
Plan II 2013-2017  Matrimonial Property
Act 2013
 Marriage Act 2014

Group work

Group 1: What are the emerging gender equality issues at the work place?

Group 2: What are the legal and policy gaps in mainstreaming gender in the work place?

Group 3: Are women as productive as men? Explain your answer

Key Gender Mainstreaming Terms and Concepts 2017

Affirmative (positive) action: Special temporary measures to redress the effects of past
discrimination in order to establish equal opportunity and treatment between women and men.
Equal opportunity in the world of work: Having an equal chance to apply for a particular
job, to be employed, and to be considered as a worker or for a promotion in all occupations or
positions, including those dominated by one sex or the other.
Gender: Refers to the social differences and relations between men and women that are
learned, changeable over time, and have wide variations both within and between societies and
cultures.
Gender Lens: Means approaching or examining an issue, paying particular attention to the
potentially different ways that men and women are or might be impacted.
Gender analysis: Is a systematic tool to examine social and economic differences between
women and men.
Gender-aware/sensitive policies: Recognizing that women and men are constrained in
different and often unequal ways, and have differing and sometimes conflicting needs, interests
and priorities.
Gender-blind: Research, analysis, policies, advocacy materials, project and programme design
and implementation that do not explicitly recognize existing gender differences between men
and women.
Gender Equality: The state or condition that affords women and men equal enjoyment of
human rights, socially valued goods, opportunities, and resources.
Gender equity: Fairness of treatment for women and men, according to their respective
needs.
Gender mainstreaming: Is a globally accepted strategy for promoting gender equality.
Glass ceiling: Invisible artificial barriers, created by attitudinal and organizational prejudices
that block women from senior executive management positions.
Gender issues: Specific consequences of the inequality between men and women.
Sex: Biological differences between men and women that are universal and usually determined
at birth.
Gender integration: Refers to strategies applied in program assessment, design,
implementation, and evaluation to take gender norms into account and to compensate for
gender-based inequalities.
Gender conscientization: Raising gender consciousness among women and men to promote
equity and equality.
Why Gender Mainstreaming at the Work Place?

Attract the best employees: An organisation which is as attractive to women as it is to men

will have access to the entire talent pool and is more likely to have a competitive advantage in
attracting the best talent available.

Reduce cost of staff turnover: Both women and men are more likely to remain with an
organisation where there is a proactive diversity ‘climate’ as they perceive a concrete payoff to
themselves by staying in an organisation they view as fair.

Enhance organisational performance: Studies suggest that promoting gender equality is

often associated with better organisational and financial performance. Recent global research
suggests a link between female directors and performance in businesses, with companies with at
least one female director showing better financial outcomes on a range of measures9 than
those where there was no woman.

Improve access to target markets: Gender diversity facilitates business understanding of

how to appeal to women as customers and what products and services women and men need
and want. It may help your organisation create new markets and increase market share.

Minimise legal risks: Strategies that promote workplace gender equality by reducing sex
discrimination and harassment can minimise a company’s risk of financial and reputational loss
from lawsuits caused by discriminatory conduct. They also reduce the negative impact
discriminatory behaviour has on your organisation’s performance.

Enhance reputation: A reputation for promoting gender diversity can help you to attract the
best employees to an organisation, retain existing customers and attract new clientele, building
market share.

Engage men: Men play a pivotal role in promoting gender diversity, and must be engaged in
leading organisational approaches.
Impact of Inequality on Organizational Performance

• Problematic business decisions

1

• Reduced productivity
2

• Low morale
3

• Reduced ability to attract and retain staff

4

• Increased staff turnover

5

• Increased staff absenteeism

6

• Increased accidents and injuries

7

• Increased worker compensation claims

8
Enablers of Gender Mainstreaming at the Work Place

Diverse and representative workforce: Improvement in gender balance of overall

workforce and sub-groups (e.g. by level, business unit, job family) compared to comparator
population (e.g. workforce, community, customer base).

Inclusive and equitable culture: Increase in positive responses to benchmark question in

employee engagement survey about gender inclusivity of organisation.

Flexible and empowering workplace: Increase in utilisation of formal flexibility options by

women and men and an increase in positive responses to benchmark flexibility question in
employee engagement survey.

Complementary capabilities in teams: All required / desired capabilities are collectively

demonstrated in aggregated performance assessments of team members.

Talent engagement, mobilisation and retention: Sustainably improved gender balance of

talent pipeline, development program participants, international / special assignments, retained
talent.

Diversity of thinking: Qualitative feedback of team leaders and members in relation to

increased innovation of solutions.

Seamless collaboration across boundaries: Qualitative feedback of team leaders and

members in relation to improved collaboration and / or reduced conflict across relevant
boundaries.

Organizational Gender Mainstreaming Framework

a) Organization’s mission and mandate

i) Policies and action
This includes whether the organization:
Has a mission based on a thorough gender analysis
Has a clear policy on gender, with an Activity plan and timeframe
Allocates adequate financial resources to gender work
Uses gender-disaggregated data in its evaluation and planning
Contributes to changing unequal gender relations among it target groups

ii) Policy influence

This includes whether the organization has a management that:
Takes responsibility for developing and implementing gender policies
Promotes internal consultation about gender policies
Communicates with external stakeholders involved in gender work
Takes the opinions of external stakeholders seriously
 Employs female and male managers with relevant skills to address gender and
communicate a vision of an organization committed to equality

iii) Organizational culture

This includes whether the organization:
Has values that reflect an understanding of and commitment to gender work
Enables people to be honest about their strengths and weaknesses, including about
gender
Accepts people of a different gender, race, sexual orientation, HIV status, etc
Takes positive steps to include people who do not fit the organizational norm
Allows staff to organize in relation to their identity, such as their religion, disability or
sexual orientation
Takes sexual harassment seriously.

b) Organization’s structure
i) Tasks and responsibilities
This includes whether the organization:
Has staff roles and responsibilities that are appropriate for a mandate addressing gender
Has an appropriate number of women among its staff and volunteers
Has women in positions that make good use of their skills and capacity
Has women in positions of power and influence, including those in relation to promoting
gender issues

ii) Decision-making
This includes whether the organization:
Takes the lessons of other groups into account for its decision making about gender
Enables all staff to participate in decision making
Makes gender-related decisions in a timely manner
Has decision makers with the capacity to resolve conflicts in a way that supports both
men and women
Takes decisions about gender at an appropriate level
Has a structure that positively affects how gender work is carried out.

iii) Co-operation and learning

This includes whether the organization:
Promotes teamwork among women and men
Enables all staff to take part in discussions about gender
Encourages networking with a variety of external groups
Promotes collaboration with women’s and gender groups
Welcomes and incorporates new ideas and practices promotes learning and innovation
among its staff and volunteers.

c) Organization’s human resources

i) Staff and expertise
This includes whether the organization:
Has a management that is committed to female representation at all levels
 Pays attention to gender in the recruitment of new staff
Provides equal wages for women and men
Has job descriptions that reflect people’s responsibilities in relation to gender
Ensures a gradual increase in gender expertise among staff.
ii) Rewards and opportunities
This includes whether the organization:
Has an infrastructure that enables female staff to work suitable hours
Rewards staff for good performance in relation to gender
Provides equal rewards for women and men
Has a staff that values different styles of working
Provides opportunities for career development and personal growth.
iii) Attitude
This includes whether the organization:
Has a staff that is enthusiastic and committed to gender equality
Has a staff that is open to new ideas
Encourages gender to be discussed openly among women and men
Has a staff that acknowledges that gender discrimination is a reality
Has a staff that takes action on gender stereotyping.

Standards in Gender Mainstreaming

Strategic: at the design stage of the project, the organisation has to ensure that the overall
strategies and objectives are all gender sensitive.

Practical: having identified the overall goal and objectives, concrete outputs and activities have
to be identified through which the set objectives can be realised.

Specific: the organisation needs to move from giving blanket statements such as ‘gender issues
will be mainstreamed into all aspects of the project’, to actually outlining in detail how this is to
be done.

Systematic: if an organisation decides to promote gender equality, then it must ensure that
gender is integrated into all stages of the project cycle from design and implementation through
to monitoring and evaluation. This means that gender cannot be a stand-alone component but
has to be seen throughout the project.

Measureable: in order to ensure that gender is not ‘mainstreamed away’, indicators and
mechanisms are needed to monitor and evaluate the project’s progress and achievements in
promoting gender equality.

Supported: (1) senior managers within the organisation have to support the process and be
ready to deal with any challenges and resistance during implementation. Not only does the
leadership have to have will and commitment, it has to be open to innovation and, importantly,
willing to allocate resources and expect results. (2) Additional external expertise in the gender
field should be drawn upon, particularly where the organisation does not have expertise
available internally.

Innovative: the mainstreaming process has to be flexible enough to incorporate new ideas,
particularly from the target groups.

Budgeted for: engendered budgets are critical to transforming rhetoric about gender equality
into concrete reality. Gender budgeting gives a concrete dimension to the gender implications
of your project. It will ensure that you have allocated resources in a way that will allow the
project team to address both men’s and women’s needs.
GENDER BASED VIOLENCE

Defining Gender Based Violence

Gender-based violence encompasses violence against women and girls as well as violence
against men and boys, people who are lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and intersex (LGBTI),
and other individuals who do not conform to dominant gender roles (ILO 2012). It has also
become widely used to address violence against women as a phenomenon that is related to
the gender of both victim and perpetrator.

In particular, gender-based violence is increasingly used to define acts of violence rooted in

some form of ‘patriarchal ideology’ with the purpose of maintaining social power for
(heterosexual) men. (Council of Europe, 2007)

Violence against women – in the home, in the workplace and in public spaces – perpetuates
inequalities between women and men. It is an issue of significant global attention and is a key
issue affecting women’s empowerment as identified under the UN Sustainable Development
Goals. (UN, 2015)

The UN defines violence against women as:

“Violence against women means any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in,
physical, sexual, or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or
arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or private life.” (United Nations, 1993)

Gender-based violence in the world of work

Defining the world of work

The world of work is a concept developed by the ILO to encompass all aspects of women’s and
men’s working lives, both paid and unpaid work. Gender-based violence in the world of work
can occur in the workplace itself, in the home, in public places, in employer provided housing
and in commuting to and from work. The concept of the world of work also encompasses
informal work, such as selling products in the street or artisanal production or piecework in
the home.

What is gender-based violence in the world of work?

Gender-based violence in the world of work includes:

 „ Bullying, physical and verbal abuse from work colleagues, supervisors or managers.

 „ Sexual harassment and unwanted sexual advances.

 „ Sexual abuse and violence, including ‘coercive’ or transactional sex, rape and sexual
assault.

 „ Abuse and harassment around pregnancy.

 „ Psychological abuse and intimidation.

 Threats and acts of physical and sexual violence. „

 Abusive working conditions such as poor health and safety (including building and
equipment safety).

 „ Inadequate or inappropriate sanitary facilities and rules about their use.

 „ Involuntary excessive long working hours and unpredictable or late demands to

work overtime.

“Gender-based violence in the workplace is a serious violation of human rights and an attack on
dignity and physical and psychological integrity. Across the world, 35 per cent of women fall victim to
direct violence at the workplace, and of these between 40 per cent and 50 per cent are subjected
to unwanted sexual advances, physical contact or other forms of sexual harassment.” (European
Economic and Social Committee, 2015, para 2.4.1)
Sexual harassment

The most common form of gender-based violence in the world of work is sexual harassment.
Sexual harassment is unwelcome and offensive conduct of a sexual nature that may make
workers feel humiliated, intimidated or uncomfortable. It is a violation of workers’ rights.
Sexual harassment creates a climate of fear and physical and mental ill health; workers may have
to take sick leave or at worst are forced to leave their jobs.

According to the ILO there are two kinds of sexual harassment in the workplace: quid pro
quo sexual harassment (demand for something in return for sexual favours) and hostile
environment sexual harassment.

This can take many different forms:

„ Physical harassment: unwelcome touching, fondling, hugging or kissing.

„ Verbal harassment: sexually suggestive, offensive, comments or jokes; inappropriate

invitations to go out on dates; intrusive, offensive questions about private life; intrusive,
offensive comments about a woman’s physical appearance.

„ Non-verbal harassment: inappropriate, intimidating staring or leering; receiving or being

shown offensive, sexually explicit pictures, photos or gifts; indecent exposure; being made to
watch or look at pornographic material against one’s wishes.

„ Cyber harassment: receiving unwanted, offensive, sexually explicit emails or SMS messages;
inappropriate, offensive advances on social networking web-sites or in internet chat rooms.

“Sexual harassment is overwhelmingly a problem of women workers. It has nothing to do with

normal interaction between the sexes: it denotes scorn of another person, and is used to establish or
prove power over others. Sexual harassment produces feelings of revulsion, violation, disgust, anger
and powerlessness. Good managers know that it is in the long-term interest of the enterprise to
ensure that their employees are treated with respect. While effective legal remedies are necessary, it
is also important to ensure that the problem ceases, or better still, never starts. Thus, preventive
measures are especially important.”
Conditions of work digest 1/92.
What is considered sexual harassment in many countries is actually violence, often sexual violence.”
(Phil Fishman, Senior Technical Advisor to Better Work Jordan)

Domestic violence – a workplace issue

The World Health Organization estimates that one out of three women suffers from violence,
and this is the leading cause of death among women aged 16-44 years. Domestic violence
affects women in all societies of the world, regardless of age or social status, but it has its most
harmful effects on ethnic minorities, migrants and the poor, on account of existing social
inequalities. Men can also be victims.

Women’s working lives are inextricably linked to their domestic and care roles. A woman who
experiences domestic violence from an intimate partner may be stalked by the perpetrator at
her workplace, impacting on her safety and that of her co-workers. Her work performance may
be affected and she may miss days at work.

The Australian Safe at Home, Safe at Work project provided a methodology for surveys that
have been carried out in Australia, Canada, the Philippines, Turkey and the United Kingdom.
The surveys point to the importance of measures to respond to domestic violence in the
workplace, because it impacts on victims’ health and wellbeing, attendance at work, productivity
and security. In particular, women who suffer domestic violence may be harassed by their
husband or partner at work, raising safety issues for themselves and their colleagues. In
Australia and Canada, among other countries, trade unions have negotiated agreements to give
victims of domestic violence entitlements to leave. (Wagnera et al., 2012; Baird et al., 2014)

Gender-based violence and women’s occupational safety and health

Workplace sexual harassment and violence have a significant impact on women’s physical and
mental health, undermining their well-being and confidence and resulting in a working
environment based on fear. In the worst cases rape and sexual violence in the workplace, in
dormitories attached to the workplace and in travel to and from the workplace, also pose
risks for women in contracting HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases.

Gender-based violence has costs to employers, whether it takes place in the workplace, in
public places or in the home. According to the United Nations it can “… impact the workplace
through decreased productivity, increased absenteeism, health and safety risks, and increased
healthcare costs for the employer.” (Cruz & Klinger, 2011, p. 13)

Increasingly sexual harassment and violence are considered as important occupational safety
and health issues. Sexual harassment can include restrictions on the use of the toilet during
working hours. There are anecdotal reports of women garment factory workers in Mexico and
car assembly workers in Honduras wearing diapers because of severe restrictions on toilet
breaks. In addition, temperatures inside factories often exceed 30° C but because toilet breaks
are restricted, workers refrain from drinking water. The risk of infection and further medical
complications are particularly evident for pregnant and menstruating women.

NGOs such as Women’s Informal Employment Globalizing and Organizing (WIEGO),

Homeworkers World Wide and HomeNet have pointed to the increase of suppliers that sub-
contract to women home workers, as a means to cut costs by replacing core, full-time
workers. In addition, in many garment factories women workers are supervised and managed
by men. This results in power imbalances often where women are sometimes forced against
their will to work in dangerous conditions and use dangerous substances.

Women’s lack of power often makes it difficult to negotiate safe sex and refuse unwanted sex.
When women and girls lack power in the workplace, or if their accommodation is tied to their
employment, they face greater risks of sexual harassment and violence, including rape. Young
women are particularly vulnerable to coerced sex and are increasingly infected with HIV/AIDS.
Over half of new HIV infections worldwide occur among young people between the ages of 15
and 24 years. More than 60 per cent of HIV-positive youth in this age bracket are female. The
vulnerability of women and girls to HIV remains particularly high in sub-Saharan Africa which
accounts for 80 per cent of all women living with HIV in the world. (WHO & UN, 2010).
The impact of gender-based violence on women’s sexual and reproductive
health

Violence affects family planning and safe sex practices: It limits a woman’s power to have safe
sexual practices that protect them from pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections,
including HIV. Violence is not only a risk factor for HIV but also a consequence of status
disclosure. Informed choices are jeopardized because women are unlikely to disclose their
status due to fear of violence. Young women and those who are forced to have sexual
intercourse are more vulnerable to HIV infection.

Violence adversely affects maternal health: Women who experience violence are far more likely
to delay seeking prenatal care, delay seeking postnatal care, gain insufficient weight, and bleed
during pregnancy. They are also far more likely to acquire vaginal, cervical and kidney
infections.

Violence adversely affects pregnancy outcomes: Violence increases the risk of miscarriages,
abortions, premature labour and foetal distress. Violence also is associated with a four-fold
increase in low birth weight. Low birth weight is a leading cause of infant mortality.

Violence directly impacts physical health: It is common for female victims who have experienced
gender-based violence to report trouble walking and or carrying out daily activities due to
excessive pain, memory loss, and nausea.

Violence affects mental stability: It makes a woman up to four times more likely to have suicidal
thoughts and six times more likely to attempt suicide on more than one occasion. 37 per
cent of deaths of women aged 15-44 are due to suicide and this percentage continues to
increase – GBV or sexual abuse is a particular cause of suicide among young women who
suffer irreversible reputational damage.

Gender-based violence restricts choices and decision-making of those who experience it: This
curtails women’s rights across their life cycle to access critical sexual and reproductive
health information and services. It is a risk factor for sexually transmitted diseases (STDs),
including HIV, and unwanted pregnancy, in addition to causing direct physical and mental
health consequences.

Integrated responses to violence against women in existing programmes for the prevention of HIV
and AIDS, and for the promotion of adolescent health, is recommended by international
agencies.

Causes of gender-based violence

It is widely understood that GBV – be it in the form of isolated acts or systematic patterns of
violence - is not caused by any single factor. Rather, it is a combination of several factors that
increase the risk of a man committing violence and the risk of a woman experiencing violence.

Figure 1: Ecological Framework for Understanding Violence against Women

The “ecological framework” developed by Heise distinguishes risk factors at four levels: the
individual, the relationship, the community and the structural level (Heise 1998, cited in WHO
2005). These factors are associated with an increased likelihood that an individual will become a
victim or a perpetrator of violence. This model offers a comprehensive framework for
understanding the risk factors of GBV and their interplay, and may therefore be used as a guide
for designing interventions in the fields of prevention and response (WHO/LSHTM 2010).

 Individual-level factors are biological and personal history factors that increase the risk of
violence. For example, a low level of education, young age (early marriage) and low-
economic status/income have been associated as risk factors for both experiencing and
perpetrating intimate partner violence. Past experiences of violence also play a role;
exposure to sexual abuse and intra-parental violence during childhood as well as a
history of experiencing (for women) or perpetrating (for men) violence in previous
 intimate relationships increases the likelihood of violence in future relationships.
Pregnant women are also at high risk of experiencing violence by an intimate partner.
While several studies point to a strong association between harmful use of alcohol and
the perpetration of intimate partner violence and sexual violence, there is only weak
evidence for a truly causal relationship between the use of alcohol and the perpetration
of violence. Attitudes also play an important role; there is a strong correlation between
women and men perceiving violence as acceptable behaviour and their exposure to
intimate partner and sexual violence (as both, survivors and perpetrators)
(WHO/LSHTM 2010 with multiple references).
 Relationship-level factors contribute to the risk of GBV at the level of relationships with
peers, intimate partners and family members. For instance, men having multiple partners
are more likely to perpetrate intimate partner violence or sexual violence. Such men are
also more likely to engage in risky behaviours with multiple sexual partners by refusing
condoms, exposing themselves and their intimate partners to a higher risk of HIV
infection. Other factors associated with an increased risk of intimate partner violence
include partnerships with low marital satisfaction and continuous disagreements, as well
as disparities in education status between the partners. Furthermore, family responses
to sexual violence that blame women and concentrate on restoring “lost” family honour,
rather than punishing men, create an environment in which rape can occur with
impunity (WHO/LSHTM 2010 with multiple references).
 Community-level factors refer to the extent of tolerance towards GBV in contexts at
which social relationships are embedded, such as schools, workplace or the
neighbourhood. Research found that societies that had community sanctions against
violence, including moral pressure for neighbours to intervene, in place and where
women had access to shelter or family support had the lowest levels of intimate partner
and sexual violence. While intimate partner and sexual violence do cut across all socio-
economic groups, several studies found women living in poverty to be
disproportionately affected; however, it has not been clearly established whether it is
poverty as such that increases the risk of violence or rather other factors accompanying
poverty. Rather, poverty can be seen as a “marker” for a variety of social conditions
that combine to increase the risk faced by women. For instance, rural women living in
poverty who work in the fields or collect firewood alone may be at a higher risk of rape.
Poverty may also put women under pressure to find or maintain jobs and in turn render
them vulnerable to sexual coercion, or push them in to occupations that carry a high
risk of sexual violence, such as sex work (WHO/LSHTM 2010).
 Society-level factors include the cultural and social norms that shape gender roles and the
unequal distribution of power between women and men. Intimate partner violence
occurs more often in societies where men have economic and decision-making powers
in the household and where women do not have easy access to divorce and where
adults routinely resort to violence to resolve their conflicts. Further, ideologies of male
sexual entitlement that are common in many cultures exclude the possibility that a
woman is entitled to make autonomous decisions about participating in sex and to
refuse a man’s sexual advances and are used to legitimize the use of sexual violence.
Social breakdown due to conflicts or disasters further increase the risk of rape in
conflict and post-conflict situations (WHO/LSHTM 2010 with multiple references).
Table 5 provides an overview of common risk factors for both, intimate partner violence and
sexual violence associated with the ecological model. For information on further risk factors
contributing to an increased risk of either intimate partner or sexual violence, see
WHO/LSHTM 2010.

Table 5: Common risk factors for intimate partner violence and sexual violence