LET REVIEWER

Child and Adolescent Development

Human development – is the pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and continues through
the life span.

Major Principles of Human Development

1. Development is relatively orderly. Kenn and Ann will learn to sit, crawl then walk before they can run.
 Proximodistal pattern – growth starts at the centre of the body and moves towards extremities or
outward direction. Ex. From arms to hands and fingers.
 Cephalo-caudal – from the top of the body moves gradually downwards. Top-bottom.

2. While the pattern of development is likely to be similar, the outcomes of developmental processes
and the rate of development are likely to vary among individuals.
If they come from a good home with loving and caring parents they may develop into warm and
responsible children. If they come from a deprived environment, they may develop into carefree and
irresponsible children. One may develop faster due to differences in heredity and environment.

3. Development takes place gradually.

It takes weeks, months, or years for a person to undergo changes that result in the display of
developmental characteristics.

4. Development as a process is complex because it is the product of biological, cognitive and

socioemotional processes.
Biological process involve changes in the individual’s physical nature.(brains, height and weight).
Cognitive processes involve changes in the individual’s thought, intelligence, and language.
Socioemotional processes include changes in the individual’s relationship with other people, changes in
emotions, and changes in personality.
 Development is lifelong. It does not end in adulthood. No developmental stage dominates
development.
 Development is multi-dimensional. Development consists of biological, cognitive and
socioemotional dimensions.
 Development is plastic. Development is possible throughout the life-span.
 Development is contextual. Individuals are changing beings in a changing world.

5. Development involves growth, maintenance and regulation.

The Stages of Development and Developmental Tasks.

1. Infancy (0-2years)
2. Early childhood/preschool age (3-5yrs)
3. middle and late childhood/school age (6-12yrs)
4. adolescence /teenage (13-18yrs)
5. early adulthood (19-29yrs)
6. middle adulthood (30-60yrs)
7. late adulthood /old age (61 and above)
Teachers as Consumers/End Users of Research

Research gives teachers and also policy makers important knowledge to use in decision making for the
benefit of the learners. Research enables teachers to come up with informed decision on what to teach and
how to teach.

The Scientific Method (by Dewey)

1. identify and define the problem

2. Determine the hypothesis (hypothesis or educated guess)
3. Collect and analyze data
4. Formulate conclusions
5. Apply conclusions to the original hypothesis.

Research Design

1. Case Study – an in-depth look at an individual.

2. Correlational Study – a research design that determines associations. It is useful because the more

strongly two events are correlated, the more we can predict one from the other.

3. Experimental – determines cause and effect relationships. This method involves manipulating one

variable to determine if changes in one variable cause changes in another variable. This method relies

on controlled methods, random assignment and the manipulation of variables to test a hypothesis. Only

reliable method of establishing cause and effect.

4. Naturalistic Observation – focuses on children’s experiences in natural settings.

5. Longitudinal – studies and follows through a single group over a period of time. The same individuals

are studied over a period of time, usually several years or more.

6. Cross Sectional – individuals of different ages are compared at one time.

7. Sequential – combined cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches to learn about life-span

development. Starts with cross-sectional study (individuals of diff. ages). A number of months or years

after, the same individuals are tested again (longitudinal).

8. Action research – is a reflective process of progressive problem-solving led by individuals working

with others in team or as part of a community of practice to improve the way they address issues and

solve problems.
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

Freud’s is the most popular psychologist that studied the development of personality, also probably the
most controversial.

Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development

This theory is quite interesting for many because Freud identified specific erogenous zones for each
stage of development. These are specific “pleasure areas” that become focal points for the particular stage. If
needs are not met along the area, a fixation occurs.

1. Oral Stage – (0-1yrs). The erogenous zone is the mouth. During the oral stage, the child is focused on
oral pleasures (sucking chewing biting).
-oral receptive – stronger tendency to smoke, drink alcohol, overeat.
-oral aggressive – with a tendency to bite his or her nails, or use curse words or even gossip.

2. Anal Stage – (1-3yrs). The child’s focus of pleasure in this stage is the anus. The child finds
satisfaction in eliminating and retaining feces. The child needs to work on toilet training.
-anal retentive – an obsession with cleanliness, perfection, and control.
-anal expulsive – where the person become messy and disorganized.

3. Phallic – (3-6yrs). The pleasure or erogenous zone is the genitals. During the preschool age, children
become interested in what makes boys and girls different. Preschoolers will sometimes be seen
fondling their genitals. During this stage boys develop unconscious sexual desire for their mother. Boys
then see their father as a rival for her mother’s affection. These feelings comprise what Freud called
Oedipus Complex. Psychoanalyst also believed that girls may also have a similar experience,
developing unconscious sexual attraction towards their father. This is called as the Electra Complex.

4. Latency Stage – (6 to 12yrs or puberty). It’s during this stage that sexual urges remain repressed. The
children’s focus is the acquisition of physical and academic skills. Boys usually relate with boys and
girls with girls during this stage. The child engages in nonsexual activities, such as developing social
and intellectual skills.

5. Genital Stage – (puberty onwards). It begins at the start of puberty when sexual urges are once again
awakened. In the earlier stages, adolescents focus their sexual urges towards the opposite sex peers,
with the pleasure centered on the genitals.

Freud’s Personality Components

For each person, the first to emerge is the id, followed by the ego, and last to develop is the superego.

The id. Freud says that, a child is born with the id. The id plays a vital role in one’s personality because as a
baby, it works so that the baby’s essential needs are met. The id operates on the pleasure principle. It
focuses on immediate gratification or satisfaction of its needs. When id wants something, it wants it now and it
wants it fast.

The ego. It operates using the reality principle. It is aware that others also have needs to be met. It is practical
because it knows that being impulsive or selfish can result to negative consequences later, so it reasons and
considers the best response to situations. (toddler - preschooler)

The superego. The end of the phallic stage, superego develops. The superego embodies a person’s moral
aspect. The superego is likened to conscience because it exerts influence on what one considers right and
wrong.
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development (Piaget called his general theoretical framework “genetic espistemology”.)

Basic Cognitive Concepts

Schema. Refer to the cognitive structures by which individuals intellectually adapt to and organize their environment. It is
an individual’s way to understand or create meaning about a thing or experience. It is like the mind has a filing cabinet and
each drawer has folders that contains files of things he has had an experience with.

Assimilation. This is the process of fitting new experiences into an existing or previously created cognitive structure or
schema.

Accommodation. A process of creating new scheme by modifying an existing scheme.

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Stage 1. Sensori-motor stage. (0-2yrs). This is the stage when a child who is initially reflexive in sucking, grasping and
reaching becomes more organized in his movement and activity. It focuses on the prominence of the senses and muscle
movement. Teacher’s should aim to provide a rich and stimulating environment with appropriate objects to play with.

Object permanence. This is the ability of the child to know that an object still exist even when out of sight.

Stage 2. Pre-Operational Stage. (2-7). Intelligence at this stage is intuitive in nature. At this stage, the child can now
make mental representation and is able to pretend, the child is now ever closer to the use of symbols.

Symbolic Function . ability to represent objects and events. A drawing, a written word, or a spoken word comes to be
understood as representing a real object like MRT train.

Egocentrism . this is the tendency of the child to only see his point of view and to assume that everyone also has his
same point of view. The child cannot take the perspective of others.

Centration . refers to the tendency of the child to only focus on one aspect of a thing or event and exclude other aspects.
For example, when a child is presented with two identical glasses with the same amount of water, the child will say they
have the same amount of water. However, once water from one glass is transferred to an obviously taller but narrower
glass, the child might say that there is more water in the taller glass.

Irreversibility . pre-operational children still have the inability to reverse their thinking. They can understand that 2 + 3 =
5, but they cannot understand that 5 – 3 = 2.

Animism . tendency of children to attribute human like traits or characteristics to inanimate objects. (talking to objects)

Transductive Reasoning . child’s type of reasoning that is neither inductive nor deductive.

Stage 3. Concrete-Operational Stage. (8-11). This stage is characterized by the ability of the child to think logically but
only in terms of concrete objects.

Decentering. Refers to the ability of the child to perceive the different features of objects and situations.

Reversibility . the child can now follow that certain operations can be done in reverse. (commutative property, subtraction
is the reverse of addition, ball of clay shaped into a dinosaur can again be rolled back into a ball of clay.

Conservation. Ability to know that certain properties of objects like number, mass volume, or area do not change even if
there is a change in appearance.

Seriation. Ability to order or arrange things in a series.

Stage 4. Formal-Operational Stage. (12 and above). Thinking becomes more logical. They can now solve abstract
problems and can hypothesize.

Hypothetical Reasoning. Ability to come up with different hypothesis about a problem and to gather and weigh data in
order to make a final decision. The individuals can now deal with “what if” questions.

Analogical Reasoning. Ability to perceive the relationship in one instance and then use that relationship to narrow down
possible answers in another similar situation or problem.

Deductive Reasoning. Applying general rule to specific situation.

Erikson’s Psycho-social Theory of Development

Stage 1. Trust vs. Mistrust (0-18months) HOPE

According to Erikson, if the interactions infants have with other people in their environment are positive, then
infant will learn that people in their environment can be trusted. If, however, the interaction lacks in warmth caring
and the basic needs of the infant go unsatisfied, the infant will learn/develop mistrust.

Stage 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (18mos-3yrs) WILL POWER / DETERMINATION

It is important for the toddler to explore his or her environment in an effort to establish some independence
from parents. If mom and dad, permits the child to explore and manipulate his or her environment, the child will
develop a sense of autonomy or independence. The parents should not discouraged the child, but neither should
they push. They should be “firm but tolerant”. This way the child will develop both self-control and self-esteem. If the
child’s exploration and attempts to be independent are discouraged, she will likely feel ashamed of these efforts,
and develop doubts about his/her ability.

Stage 3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6yrs) PURPOSE

Initiative means a positive response to the world’s challenges, taking on responsibilities, learning new skills,
feeling purposeful. Parents can encourage initiative by encouraging children to try out their ideas. We should accept
and encourage fantasy and curiosity and imagination. This is the time for play, not for formal education. If the child’s
efforts to explore or his/her questions are treated nuisance, the child may felt guilty about getting in the way.

Stage 4. Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12yrs) COMPETENCE

The developmental crisis focuses on the child’s ability to win recognition through performance. The child
who is encouraged to complete tasks and who receives praise for his/her performance is likely to develop a sense of
industry an eagerness to produce. If the child does not experience success if his/her efforts are treated unworthy
and intrusive –the child will develop a sense of inferiority.

Stage 5. Identity vs. Role of Confusion (12-18yrs) FIDELITY accepting the imperfections

The developmental crisis of adolescence center on the youth’s attempt to discover his/her identity. Positive
resolution is instill a sense of self-confidence and stability. Failure to establish a sense of identity within society (“I
don’t know what I want to be when I grow up”) can lead to role confusion.

Stage 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (18-40) LOVE

The young adult’s personality – stemming from his/her sense of self – is influenced by efforts to establish an
intimacy, a close psychosocial relationship, with other person. Failure to establish a close relationship with another
leads to a sense of isolation, a feeling of being alone.

Stage 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (40-60) CARE

Generativity is an extension of love into the future. Child bearing and maturing occupy the thoughts and
feelings of people at this stage of the life-span. Unsuccessful resolution leads to a sense of stagnation, the feeling
that one’s life is at a “dead end”. By failing to achieve these objectives, we become stagnant and feel unproductive,
self-absorption, caring for no one.

Stage 8. Integrity vs. Despair (60 and above) WISDOM

Integrity is a sense of understanding how one fits into one’s culture and accepting that one’s place is unique
and unalterable. An inability to accept one’s sense of self at this stage leads to despair – the feeling that time is too
short and that alternate roads to integrity are no longer open.
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

LEVEL 1. Pre-Conventional Level

Moral reasoning is based on the consequences/result of the act, not on the whether the act itself is good or
bad.

Stage 1. Punishment / Obedience . One is motivated by fear of punishment. He will act in order to avoid
punishment. Ex.. we follow the law because we do not want to go to jail.

Stage 2. Mutual Benefit / Instrumental Relativist. One is motivated to act by the benefit that one may obtain
later. Ex . you scratch my back and I’ll scratch yours. A person steals money from another person because he
needs money to buy food for his hungry children.

LEVEL 2. Conventional

Moral reasoning is based on the conventions or norms of society.

Stage 3. Social Approval . one is motivated by what others expect in behavior, good boy, good girl. The
person acts because he/she values how he/she will appears to others. He/she gives importance on what
people think or say. (interpersonal relationship)

Stage 4. Law and Order. One is motivated to act in order to uphold law and order the person will follow the
law because it is a law.

LEVEL 3. Post-Coventional

Moral reasoning is based on enduring or consistent principles. It is not just recognizing the law, but the
principles behind the law.

Stage 5. Social Contract. Laws that are wrong can be changed. One will act based on social justice and the
common good. The person looks at various opinions and values of different people before coming up with the
decision.

Stage 6. Universal Principles. This is associated with the development of one’s conscience. Having a set of
standards that drives one to possess moral responsibility to make societal changes regardless of
consequences to oneself. The person may even violate the laws and rules as the person becomes attached to
his own principles.
Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory

The key theme of Vygotsky’s theory is that social interaction plays a very vital role in cognitive development.
He believed that individual development could not be understood without looking into the social and cultural context
within which development happens. In his theory social interaction and language are the two central factors in
cognitive development.

Zone of Proximal Development

 Zone of actual development – when a child attempts to perform a skill alone, she may not be immediately
proficient at it. So, alone she may perform at a certain level of competency. We refer to this as the zad
 More knowledgeable other (MKO) – competent adult, or a more advanced peer.
 Zone of proximal development – the difference between what the child can do alone and what she can
accomplish with the guidance of another.
 Scaffolding – the support or assistance that lets the child accomplish a task he cannot accomplish
independently.

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory

Bronfenbrenner’s model also known as Bioecological Systems Theory presents child development within
the context of relationship systems that comprise the child’s environment.

Macrosystem – this system includes the

Macrosystem
cultural values, customs, and laws that
affect an individual’s environment.

Exosystem/Mesosystem

Exosystem – the bigger social

government Parent-teacher system that does not directly affect
neighborhood Community-church individuals. This includes the
Parents
workplace Microsystem/chronosystem parent’s work like the location,
schedules.
Family school

Mesosystem – a relationship between a

Microsystem – It comprises structures
which the child directly interacts with. It
includes structures such as one’s family,
school and neighborhood. The child is
affected by the behavior of the parents
however, the child also affects the
behavior of the parent and these are
called bi-directional influences.
child’s family and the child’s school. For
The individual example, the interaction between the
parents and teachers, or parent and
(self) health services or the community and the
church.
Chronosystem – covers the element of
time as it relates to a child’s
environments. This involves patterns of
stability and change in the child’s life.