CHRISTIAN NORBERG-SCHULZ

THE PHENOMENON OF PLACE

Our cvcryday life..world consists of concrete "phenomena." lt consists of people, of ani­

mals, of flowers, crees and forcsts, of stone, earth, wood and water, of cowns, streets and
houses, doors, windows, and fumicurc. And it consists of sun, moon, and stars, of drift­
ing clouds, of night and day and changing seasons. But it also comprises more incangible
phenomena such as fcclings. This is what is "givcn," this is ehe "content" of our existencc.
Thus Rilke says: "Are we perhaps � eo say: house, bridge, fountain, gate, jug, fruit crec,
window,-at best: Pillar, tower."' Evcrything clsc, such as acoms and mol�cs, numbcrs,
and all kinds of"daca," are abscractions or cools which are constructed eo serve othcr pur­
poses than thosc of evcryday life. Today it is cominon eo mistake ehe tools for realicy.
Tue concrete things which consticuce our giv;en world are interrelated in compla
and pcrhaps contradictory ways. Some of ehe phenomena may for instancc comprisc
others. Tue forcst consists of trccs, and ehe town is made up of houses. "Landscape" is
such a comprchcnsivc phenomenon. In gencral we may say that some phenomena form
an "environment" eo others. A concrete term for environmenc is pla«. lt is common
usage eo say that accs and occurrenccs take place. In fact it is meaninglcss eo imagine any
happcning without referencc eo a localicy. Placc is evidcntly an integral part of existencc.
Whac, then, do we mean wich ehe word •placc?" Obviously we mean somcthing more
than abstract location. We mean a cocalicy made up of concrete things having material
substance, shapc, texture, and colour. Togcther these things determine an "environmen­
tal character," which is ehe essence of placc. In general a placc is given as such a charac­
ter or "atmosphere." A place is therefore a qualitative, "total" phenomenon, which we
cannoc reduce eo any of its propcrtics, such as spatial relationships, without losing its
concrete nature out of sight.

From An:hit«IMra/Associalion QJ,artmy 8, no. 4 (1976): 3-10. Courcesy of die a11thor and p,p,lishcr.

414 PHENOMENOLOGY
 Everyday cxperienoc morcover teils us that different actions need different environ­
mcnts to takc plaoc in a satis&ctory way. & a consequencc, towns and houscs consist of
a multitudc of particular places. Thls fu:t is of coursc takcn into considcration by cur­
rcnt theory of planning and architccturc, but so far the problcm has bcen trcatcd in a too
absttact way. "Taking plaoc" is usually undcrstood in a quantitative, "functional" sense,
with implications such as spatial distribution and dimcnsioning. But arc not "functions"
inter-human and similar cverywhcrc? Evidently not. "Similar" functions, even the most
basic oncs such as slccping and cating, takc plaoc in very different ways, and dcmand
placcs with different propcrtics, in accordancc with different cultural traditions and dif­
ferent environmental conditions. The functional approach therefore left out the placc as
a concrete "herc" having its particular idcntity.
Being qualitative totalitics of a complex nature, placcs cannot be dcscribed by
means of analytic, "scicntific" conccpts. & a matter of principle sciencc "abstracts"
from the given to arrive at neutral, "objcctive" knowlcdge. What is lost, howcver, is
the cveryday life-world, which ought to be the real concern of man in gcncral and plan­
ners and architectS in particular.2 Fortunatdy a way out of the impasse crists, that is,
the method known as phmomnwlogy. Phenomen�logy was conccivcd as a "return to
things," as opposcd to abstractions and mental constructions. So far phenomeno­
logists havc been mainly concemcd with ontology, psychology, crhics, and to some
extent acsthctics, and havc given rclativdy little attention to thc phenomcnology of
thc daily environmcnt. A few pioneer works howcver cxist but they hardly contain any
dircct rcfcrcncc ro architccture. 3 A phcnomenology of architccture is therefore urgently
necded.
Some of the philosophers who have approachcd the problcm of our life-world, have
used language and litcrature as sourccs of "information." Poctry in &et is able to con­
cretize those totalitics which elude sciencc, and may therefore suggcst how wc might pro­
cccd to obtain the needed understanding. One of the poerns used by [Martin] Heidcggcr
to cxplain the nature of language, is the splendid "A Winter Evening" by GeorgTrakl.4
The words ofTrakl also serve our purpose very wdl, as they make present a total lifc-sit­
uation where the aspcct of placc is strongly feit:

A Winter Evening
Window with falling snow is arrayed,
long rolls the vcsper bell,
The housc is providcd wcll,
The table is for many laid.
Wandcring oncs, morc than a lew,
Come to the door on darksome courscs,
Golden blooms the trcc of graccs
Drawing up the canh's cool dcw.
Wanderer quictly steps within;
Pain has turncd the thrcshold to stone.
Therc lie, in limpid brightncss shown,
Upon thc table brcad and wine.l

N O R B E R G•SC H U LZ 41!
 Wc shall not repeat Heidcgger'a profound analysis of the poem, but ratber point out
a few properties which illuminate our problem. In general, Trakl uses concme imaga
which we all know from our everydayworld. He talb about •snow,• •wmdow,• •house.•
"tablc," "door," "tree." "threshold,• •bread and winc," •darlmas,• and •light," and he
characterizes man as a 'wanderer.• These images, howevcr, also imply more general suuc­
tures. First of all thc poem distinguisbes between an ""'1iM and an insük. The ""'1iM ia
prcsented in thc fust two lines of thc fust stanza, and oompriaes NlhlTdJ as weil as man-
1111Uie clemcnts. Natural place is prcscnt in thc falling mow which implies winter, and by
the cvcning. Thc vcry titlc of thc pocm "places" evcrything in this natural context. A win­
ter evcning, however, is something morc than a point in thc calendar. As a concrctc pres­
encc, it is experienccd as a set of particular qualitics, or in general as a Stimmimgor "char­
actcr,• which forms a background to acts and occurrences. In thc pocm this character is
givcn by thc snow falling on the window, cold, soft and soundless, hiding the contours
of those objecu which arc still rccogniud in thc approaching darkness. The word
"falling" morcover creatcs a sense of space, or rather: an implied presence of earth and
sky. With a minimu.m of words, Trakl thus brings a total natural cnvironment to lifc. But
the outside also has man-madc propcnics. This is indicated by the vcspcr bell, which
is hcard everywhcrc, and makcs thc "private" insidc becomc part of a comprchensivc,
"public" totality. Thc vcspcr bell, howevcr, is something morc than a practical man-madc
artifact. lt is a symbol, which rcminds us of the common values which are at the basis
of that totality. In Heidcgger's words: "the tolling of thc evcning bell brings men, as
6
mortals, before the divine. "
Thc insitk is prcscnted in the next two verses. lt is dcscribcd as a house, which offers
man shdtcr and security by being encloscd and "weil provided." lt has, howevcr, a win­
dow, an opcning which makcs us cxpcrience thc insidc as a complcment to thc outside.
As a final focus within the house wc find the tablc, which "is for many laid.• At thc table
men come togcther, it is thc cmtre which morc than anything dsc constitutes the inside.
l)ie character of the insidc is hardly told, but anyhow prcscnt. lt is lurninous and warm,
in contrast to the cold darkncss outside, and its silence is pregnant with potential sound.
In gcneral thc inside is a comprehcnsiblc wodd of thingr, whcrc the lifc of "manf rnay
take place.
In the next two stanzas the pcrspcctivc is deepcned. Hcrc thc 1114,ming of places and
things comes forth, and man is prcsented as a wanderer on "darksome courses." Rather
than being placed safely within the house he has crcated for hirnsdf, he comes from thc
outside, from thc "path of lifc," which also represents man's attcmpt at "orienting" him­
self in the givcn unknown environmcnt. But nature also has another side: it offers thc
grace of growth and blossom. In thc irnagc of the "golden" trcc, earth and sky arc uni­
fied and become a world. Through man's labour this world is brought insidc as brcad and
winc, whcreby the insidc is "illurninatcd," that is, becomes mcaningful. Without thc
"sacred" fruits of sky and earth, the inside would remain "cmpty." Thc house and the
table rcceive and gathcr, and bring the world "close. • To dwe/J in a house thnefi," means
tlJ inhabit the wor/d. But this dwdling is not easy; it has to be rcachcd on dark paths, and
a thrcshold separates the outside from thc inside. Rq,rcscnting the "rift" between "oth­
emcss" and manifest meaning, it embodies suffering and is "turncd to stone. • In the
threshold, thus, the probkm of dwdling comes to the forc.7

-416 PHENOMENOLOGY
 Trakl's pocm illuminates some essential phenomena of our lifc-world, and in partic­
ular the basic properties of place. First of all it teils us that every situation is local as weil
as gcneral. Thc winter evening described is obviously a local, notdic phenomenon, but
the implied notions of outside and inside are gcnetal, as are the meanings connected with
this distinction. The poem hence concretizes basic properties of existence. "Concretiu:"
here means to make the genetal "visible" as a concrcte, local situation. In doing this the
poem moves in the opposite dircction of scientific thought. Whereas science departs from
the "given," poetty brings us back to the concrete things, uncovering the meanings inher­
ent in the life-world.8
Furthermore Trakl's poem distinguishes between natural and man-made dements,
whereby it suggests a point of depanure for an "environmental phenomenology."
Natural elements are cvidently the primary components of the given, and places are in
fact usually defined in geographical terms. We must repeat however, that "place" means
something more than location. Various attempts at a description of natural places are
offered by current literature on "landscape," but again we find that the usual approach
is too abstract, being based on "functional" or perhaps "visual" considerations. 9 Again we
must turn to philosophy for help. As a first, fundamental distinction Heidegger intro­
duces the concepts of "earth" and "sky," and says: "Earth is the serving bearer, blossom­
ing and fruiting, spreading out in rode and water, rising up into plant and animal..."
"The sky is the vaulting path of the sun, the course of the changing moon, the glitter of
the stars, the year's seasons, the light and dusk of day, the gloom and glow of night, the
demency and indemency of the weather, the drifting douds and blue depth of the
ether... "'0 Like many fundamental insights, the distinction between earth and sky might
seem trivial. lts importance however comes out when we add Heidegger's definition of
"dwelling:" "the way in which you are and I am, the way in which we humans art: on the
earth, is dwelling..." But "on the earth" alteady means "under the sky. •II He also calls
what is betwt:t:n earth and sky the world, and says that "the world is the house where the
mortals dwdl. "12 In other words, when man is capable of dwelling the world becomes an
"inside."
In gcnetal, nature forms an extended comprehensive totality, a "place," which
according to local circumstances has a particular identity. This identity, or "spirit," may
be described by means of the kind of concrete, "qualitative" terms Heidegger uses to
characterize earth and sky, and has to take this fundamental distinction as its point of
departure. In this way we might arrive at an existentially relevant understanding of land­
scapt:, which ought to be preserved as the main designation of natural places. Within the
landscape, however, there are subordinate places, as weil as natural "things" such as
Trakl's "tree." In these things the meaning of the natural environment is "condensed.•
The man-made parts of the environment are first of all "settlements" of different
scale, from houses and furms to villages and towns, and secondly "paths" which connect
these settlements, as weil as various dements which ttansform nature into a "cultural land­
scape.• If the settlements are organically related to their environment, it implies that they
serve as foci where the environmental character is condensed and "explained." Thus
Heidegger says: "the single houses, the villages, the towns are works of building which
within and around themsdves gather the multifarious in-between. The buildings bring the
earth as the inhabited landscape dose to man, and at the same time place the dosenes,s of

NORBERG·SCHULZ 417
neighbourly dwclling undcr the expansc of thc sky. "'3 Tue buic propeny of man-madc
places is thcrefore cooe<:nuation ",!ld cnclosurc. They arc "insides" in a full sense, which
means that they �gather" what is known.To fulfill this function they have opcnings which
relatc to ehe outside. (Only an inside can in f.ict havc opcnings.) BuildiQgs � furthcrmore
relared to thcit cnvi,onmcnt by rcsting on tbe ground and ri. sing towards ehe sky. Finally
rhe man-madc cnvironments aomprisc anif.icrs OI' "things," wliich may serve as intcrnal
foci, and cmphasize thc gathering function of the sertlcment. In Hcidcggcr's words: "thc
th.ing things world," where "thinging" is used in the original sense of �g;J-thering," and
further: "Only what conjoios itself our of world bccomcs a thing."14
Our introductory remarks give several indications about the ,tructu" of places.
Some of rhcse have already bcen worked out by phenomcnologisr philosophers, and offer
a good point of deparrure for a more complete phenomenology. A first step is raken with
thc distinction of oa1ural an.d man-made phenomeoa. A second step is reprcsented by
ehe categories of earth-sky (horizontal-verrical) and ourside-inside. These caregories have
spatial implicatioos, and "space" is hence re-introduced, not primarily as a mat�cmarical
concept, bur as an existential dimension. '1 A final and particularly important stcp is
takcn wich the concept of "charaetcr." Charaetcr is dercrmined by how rhings are, an.d
gives our invcstigarion a basis in the concrecc phenomena of our cvcryday lifc-wodd.
Only in rhis way we may fully grasp the geniw loc� thc "spirit of placc" which the
ancients recognized as that "opposite" man has to corne to terms with, io be able ro
dwell. 16 The concept of geniw loci denotes thc cssence of place.

THE STRUCTURE OF PLACE

Our preliminary discussion of the phenomena of placc led ro ehe conclusion that the
structure of place ought to bc describcd in terms of "landscape" aod "settlcmcnt," and
ana.lyzcd by means of the caregories "spacc" and "characrer." Whereas "space" dcnotes thc
three-dimensional organii.ation of the elcments which makc up a place, "character"
denotes the general "atmosphere" which is the most comprehensive property of any
place. lnstead of making a distinction berween space and character, it is of course possi­
ble to employ one comprchensive concept, sucll·as "lived space. "'7 For our purpose, how­
ever, ic is praccical to disringuish berween space and character. Similar spatial organii.a­
tions may possess very different characrcrs according to ehe concrete trcatment of the
space-dcfining elemenrs (ehe bounda ry). Thc history of basic spatial forms have been
given cver oew charaeterizing inre.rpretarions. 18 On the other hand it has to be pointed
out that ehe spatial organii.ation puts ccrrain limirs to characterii.arion, and that the two
concepts are interdependent.
"Space" is certaioly no new term in architectural theory. But spacc can mean many
things. In current lircrature we may distinguish bctwecn two uses: space as threc-dimen­
sional geometry, and space as perceptual field.1� None of rhese however are satisf.ictory,
bcing abstractions fi-om ehe intuitive three-dimensional totaliry of everyday expcrience,
which we. may call •concrete space." Concrete human actions in f.ict do not take place in
an homogeneous isotropic space, but in a space distinguished by qualitative differenccs,
such as "up" and "down." In architcctural theory sevcral attcmpts have been made 10
define space in concrete, qualitative terms. [Sigfried] Giedion, thus uses the distinction
between "outside" and "inside" as thc basis for a grand view of architeetural history. 10

418 PHENOMENOLOGY
 Kevin Lynch pcnctrates dccpcr into qie structure of concrete spacc, inrroducing tbe con­
ccprs of "node" ("landmark"), "path," "edge," and "district," to denote tbosc: clemenrs
which form the basis for man's orientatiol\ i .n spacc. 11 Paolo Portoghesi fn i ally deflnes

spaGC ;is a ''system of places," implying that the concept of space has its roors-i n
. concrere
siruations,, alrhough spaccs may be describtd by means of marhematics."' Tbc latt,er view
oorresponds to Heidegger's Statement tbat ''.spaccs receive their being &om locations and
not from 'spacc.'"'3 The outside-inside relation which is a primary aspect of concrctc
space, implics that spaccs possess a varying degrcc of txtmsion and enclosurt:. W hereas
landSClpes are distinguished by a varied, bm basically continuous exrension, settlements
are encloscd cntities. Settlement and landscape thercfore have a figure-ground relation­
ship. In general, any enclosure bccomes manifest as a "figure" in relation to the extended
ground of tbe landscape. A setdement loses its identiry if tbis tdationship is corrupted,
just as much as tbe landsca pe loses its idenrity as comprehensive extension. In a wider
conrext any enclosure bccomes a centre, which may function as a "focus" fur its sur­
roundings. From the ccntre spacc extends with a varying degree of continuity (rhythm)
in different directions. Evidendy the main directions are horizontal and vertical, that is,
the dircctions of carrh and sky. Cmtral�tion, direction, and rhythm are therefore othcr
important propetties of concrete space. Finally it has to bc mentioned tbat natural ele­
ments (such as hills) and settlemenrs may be clustered or grouped wirb a varying degree
of proximity.
All the spatial properties menrioned are of a "topological" kind, and correspond 10
the well-known "principles of organization" of Gestalt thcory. Thc primary existential
importancc of these principles is confirmed by the rcsearches of Piaget on the child's con­
ception of spacc. 24 Geometrical modes of orgartization only develop later in life to serve
particular purposes, and may in general be ·undersrood as a morc "precise" deflnition of
tbe basic copological strucrures. Tbc topological enclosure thus becomes a circlc, thc
"frec" curvc a straight linc, and the duster a grid. In archirecrurc gcomcrry is used to
make a general comprehensive system martifest, such as art inferred "cosmic order."
Any endosure is defined by a boundary: Heidegger says: "A boundary is not that at
which something stops but, as 1he Greeks recognizcd, the boundary is thar, from which
something bcgins its presencing."' 1 The boundaries of a built spacc are known as Jwor,
wa/4 artd ceiling. Thc boundaries of a landscape are structurally similar, and consist of
ground, horizon, artd sky. This simple struccural similarity is of basic importancc for tbe
relationship between natural and man-made places. The cnclosing properties of a bound­
ary are dctermined by irs opening.s, as was poctically inruited by Trakl whcn using the
images of window, door, and tbreshold. In general rhe boundary, and in particular the
wall, makes the spatial scructure visible as continuous artd/or discontinuous cxtcnsion,
direction and rhythm.
"Character" is ar the same time a more general and a morc concrcte concept than
"spacc. • On the one hand ir denotes a gcneral comprchensive atmospherc, artd on thc
orher rhc concrerc form and substancc of spacc•defining elements. Any real pmence is
6
intimately linked with a character.' A phenomcnology of charactcr has ro comprisc a
survey of manifest characters as weil as an investigarion of their concrete determinants.
We have pointed out that different actions demand places with a different charactcr. A
dwelling has to bc "protective," an office "practical," a ball-room "fesrive," and a church

N O R B E RG· S C H U lZ 419
"solcmn." Whcn wc visit a forcign ciry, wc arc usually struck by its particular cbaractcr,
which bccomcs an. imponant parr of the expcriencc. Landscapes also posscss character,
somc of which is of a particular "natural" kind. Thus wc talk about "barren" and "fer­
tile:," "smiling" and "threatening" landscapcs. In gencral we havc to cmphasize that all
p'4us ha11e characur, and tha� character is the basic mode j{;. which thc world is. "givcn.•
To some exrent the cha_racter of a place is a function o.f �ime; it chan_gcs wich the seaso_ns,
thc coursc of ehe day, and ehe weathcr, factors which above all dctcrmine different con­
ditions of light.
Th� character is detcrmined by the material and formal const.itution of the place.
We must therefore ask: how is ehe ground 0n which we walle, how is the sky above our
heads, or in gcncral: how arc ehe boundaries which definc ehe place. How a boundary is
depcnds upon its formal articulation, which is. again related eo rhc way it is "built."
Looking at a building from this point of vicw, we have to conside.r how it rcsts on
ehe ground and how it ri= towards thc sky. Particular attcntion has 10 be givcn to its
lateral boundaries, or walls, which also contribute decisively to determine the character
of the -urban environment. We are indebted to Robert Venturi for having recognized this
fact, after it had been considered for many years "immoral" to talk about "facades. ••7
Usually ehe charactcr of a "f.unily" ofbuildings which constitutc a placc, is "condcnscd"
in characteristic motifi, such as particular types of windows, doors, and roo&. Such
motifs may become "convencional elements," which serve eo transpose a character from
one place to anothcr. In thc boundary, thus, character and space come together, and we
may agree with Venturi when hc defines architecturc as "ehe wall between the inside and
ehe outside . .,,a
Except for the inru.itions ofVenturi, the problem of character has hardly been con­
side.red in current arehitectural eheory. As a result, eheory has to a high extent lost conract
wich ehe concrete life-world. This is particularly ehe case wich technology, which is today
considered a mere means to satisfy practical demand. Character however, depcnds upon
how things are made, and is therefore determined by ehe technical realization ("building").
Heidegger points ouc ehat the Greek word techne meant a creative "re-vealing" (Entbergm)
of truth, and belonged eo poie<is, that is, "maki,;g, "2J A phenomenology of place therefore
has 10 comprise the basic modes of construction and their relationship 10 formal arcicu­
lation. Only in this way architectural theory gets a truly concrcte basis.
The structure of place becomes manifest as environmental totalities which comprise
rhe aspects of character an.d space. Such places are known as "countries," "regions," "land­
scapcs," "setdcmcnts," and " bu.ildings." Here we return to ehe concrete "ehings" of our
everyday lifc-world, which was ouc point of departure, and remember Rilke's words: "Are
we pcrhaps hm 10 say..." Whcn places are classified we should therefore usc rerms such
as "island," "promontory," "bay," "forest," "grove," or "square," "street," "courryard," and
"floor," "wall," "roof," •ceiling," "window," and "door."
Places are hencc designated by noum. This implies they arc considered real "things
that exist," which is original meaning of ehe word "substantive." Space, inscead, as a sys­
tem of relations, is denoted by prepositiom. In our daily life wc hardly talk abouc "space,"
but about things that arc "over" or "under," "before," or "behind" each other, or we use
preposit:ions such as "at," uin," �within," "on,"' "upon/' Ql,to,U '�from," "al.ong," "nexr." All
these prepositions denore topological relations of rhe kind menrion .ed before. Character,

420 PHENOMENOLOGY
finally, is dcnotcd by .Jj�aiws, as was indicatcd abovc. A charactcr is a complex, totaJity,
and a singlc adjcctivc evidcntly cannot cover rnorc 1han on_e aspect ofthis totalicy. Oftcn,
however, cha(after � so distinc. t that onc ward sccms suftkient to grasp its csscncc. We
sec, thus, that the very structu_i;e_ of evcryday language confi_rrns our analysis of place.
Countries, rcgions, l;mdscapes, setdements, bu.ildings land their sub-places) form a
series with a gradually dim_injshing scale. The stcps in this series may be callcd "cnviron•
mental levels."10 At' the "top" of the seric.s wc find the more comprchensive natural places
which "contain" the man-made placcs on rhe "lowd' kvds. The latter bave the "garher•
ing" and "focussing" funcrion mentioned above. In otber words, man "receivcs" the cnvi•
ronment and mal<es it focus in buildings and rhings. Thc things theceby "explain" rhe
environment and make its character manifest. Thereby the things themsclvcs become
meaningful. That is the basic function of tktail in our surroundings. 3' This docs not
imply, howcvcr, that the different levels must have the same structure. Architccrural bis•
rory in fact shows th_at this is rardy the case. Vernacular serdemems usually have a topo·
logical organization, although the single houses may be strictly geomerrical. In larger
citics we often find topologically organizcd neighbourhoods within a gcneral geometri•
cal structure, etc. We shall return to the particular problems of structural correspondence
later, but have 10 say some words abour the main "stcp" in ehe scale of cnviron. mcntal
levels: the relation berween natural and man-madc placcs.
Man-madc placcs arc rclatcd ro nature in thrcc basic ways. Firstly, man warm to make
the natural srrucrure more precise. That is, he wants to visualiu his "understanding" of
nature, "exprcssing" thc existential foothold hc has gaincd. To achieve this, he /n,i/d.s what
he has seen. W'hcre nature suggests a ddimitcd spacc he builds an enclosure; where narure
appcars "centraliz.cd," he erects a Ma �i, whcrc nature indicatcs a direction , he makes a
parh. Secondly, man has to symboliu his understanding of nature (including himself}.
Symbolization implics thar an cxperienced meaning is "translat. cd" inro anothcr medium.
A natural character is for insrance rranslated into a building whose propeM:ics somehow
make the char.icter manifcsc.'l The purpose of symbolization is eo free the meaning from
the immediate situation, whereby ir becomcs a "culrural objecc," which may form part of
a more complex situation, or be moved ro anorher place. Finally, man needs to gather ehe
experienced meanings eo create for himsdf an imago mundi or microcosmos which con•
cretiz.es his world. Gaehering evidently depends on symbolization, and implics a transpo­
sition of meanings eo one place, which thercby becomes an existential "cenrre."
Visualization, symbolization and g-.it:hering are aspects of thc; gcneral proccsses of
serrling; and dwelling, in ehe existential sense of the word, dcpends on thesc functions.
l-:leidegger illustratcs the problem by mcans of the bridg� a "building" which visualiz.es,
symbolizcs, and gathers, and makcs the environment a unified whole. Thus he says:

Tue bridgc swing, over � sm,arn wich,.., and power. lt docs not just conncct banb truot
ar, already therc, the banks emerge as banks only as the bridge crosscs the strcam. Th,
bridge designcdly causes them to lic across from cach other. Onc sidc is set off against the
other by the bridge. Nor do the banks srretch along the strcam as indifferent oorder srrips
of rhe dry land. With � banl!s, the bridge bring, to � strcam the onc and thc othet
exparuc of the landscapc lying bchind thcm. lt bring, strcilm and bank and land imo cach
othcr's ncighbowhood. The bridge gather,; the c:arth as landscape around � strcam.34

NORBERG-SCHULZ 411
 Hcid,cggcr also dcscribcs ll'hat the bridgr gathers and thereby uncovers its value as
a symbol. We qnnot here entct into ,rhcsc detail,s, but want to emphasize that the land­
scapc as such gets its valuc through die bridg e. Bcfore, the mcaning of the landscape was
"hidden," and the building of thc bridge bring.s it out into thc open.
"Thc bridge gathcrs Being into a certain 'location' that we may calJ a '.place.' This
'place;' however, did not cxist as an entiry before ehe bridge (althougb there were always
many 'sites' along ehe rivcr-bank wherc it could arisc), but comcs-ro-prescnce wich and
as the bridgr."H Thc existential purpose of building (architecrurc) is thereforc to make a
sire bccome a place, that is, to uncover thc mcaning:s potentially prcscnt in the given
environmenr.
Thc structurc of a place is not a foced, eternal starc. As a rule placcs change, some­
times rapidly. This does ·not mean, however, rhar the gmiw loci ncccssarily changcs or
gets lost. Later we shall show that takingplace presupposcs that the places conserve their
identity during a certain srretch of time . Stabilitlll loci is a necessary condiri<in for human
life, How then is this stabiliry comparible wich ehe dynamics of change? First of all we
may point out that any placc ought eo have the "capacity" of receiving differrnt "cdn­
tents," narurally within certain limits.3 6 A place which is only firm! for one particular
purpose would soon become useless. Secondly it is evident that a place may be .cinter­
preted" in different ways. To protcct and conserve the genius loci in fact mcans eo con­
cretize its essence in ever new hisrorical contexts. We might also say that the history of a
place ought eo be its "sclf-rcalization.• What was there as possibilities at the outset, is
uncovered through human action, illuminated and "kcpt" in works of architecrure which
are simultaneously "old and new."17 A place therefore comprises propertics having a vary­
ing degree of invariance.
In general we may conclude that place is ehe point of departure as weil as ehe goal
of our structural investigation; ar the ourser place is prescnted as a given, spontancously
experienced rotality, ar the end it appears as a srructured world, illuminaced by the analy­
sis of the aspeccs of spacc and characcer.

THE SPIRIT OF PLACE

Genius loci is a Roman concept. According to ancient Roman belief every "independent"
being has its gmius, its guardian spirit. This spi_rit gives life to pcople and places, accom­
panies ehern from birth to death, and determines their characcer or cssence, Even the
gods had rheir miw, a fact which illustrates ehe fundamental nature of ehe concept.18
g
The gmius thus denotcs what a rhing .is, or what it "wants to be," to use a word of Louis
Kahn. lt is not necessary in our context to go into ehe history of ehe concept of. genius
and its rdationship to the daimon of the Grecks. 'lt suffices to point out that ancient
man experienced his environmenr as consisring of definite characters. In particular he
recognized rhat it is of great existential imporrance to come to terms wich the gmius
of che locality where his lifc takcs place. In ehe past survival depended on a "good"
relacionship to the place in a physical as weil as a psychic sense. In ancient Egypt,
for instance, the country was not only cultivared in accordance with the Nile floods,
but ehe very structure of the landscape served as a model for the lay-out of the "public"
buildings which should give a man a sense of security by symbolizing an etcrnal
environmental order.l9

422 PHENOMENOLOGY
 During thc coursc of history thc grmus Iod has rcmained a living rcaUcy, although.
it may not havc bccn cxprcssivcly oamed as such. Anises and writcrs have found inspi­
r:uion in local vharactcr aJ)d havc "explained" thc phenomena .of cvcryday life as wcU as
art, refcrring to landscapcs and urban milieu. Th� Goethe says: "lt is evident, 1hat the
eye is educated by the t;hings it sccs froro childhood on, and therefore Venctian paintcrs
must sec everything. clcarcr and with more joy than other peoplc. "40 Still . in 196o
Lawrence DurreU wrotc: "As you get to know Europe slowly tasting the wines, cheeses
and tharacters of ehe· different countrics you. begin to rcalizc chat the important deter­
minant of any culturc is alter all-th.e spirit of place. "41 Modem tourism proves thac the
expcriencc of different places is a major human intercst, although als.o th.i� value today
cends ro gec lost. In fact modern man for a long time believed thac science. and technol­
1
ogy had freed him from a direct dcpendcnce on places.4 This belief has proved an
illusion; pollutioo and environmemal chaos have suddenly appeared as a frighccning
nemesiJ, and as a rcsult ehe problem of place has regained irs crue importancc.
We havc used the word "dwclling" co denote the total man-place rclationship. To
undcrstand more fully what this word implics, ic is uscful to rcturn to the dist.inction
be tween "spaClC'' and "tharacter." When man dwcUs, he is simultaneously locar e. d in spacc
and cxposcd to a ccrtain environmental character. T he two psychological functions
involved, may be called "ocientation" and- "identificarion.• 4J To gain an existential foothold
man has ro be able to orientate himsdf; he has to know where he is. But be also has co idm­
tifj himsclf wirb rhe environment, that is, he has to know lww he is. in a certain place.
The problem of orientation has bccn given a considerable attention in reccnt theo­
retical literature on planning and arcbitecture. Again we may refer to rhe work of Kevin
Ly nch, whose concepts of "node," "path," and "d.istrict" denoce ehe basic spatial struc­
tures which are ehe object of man's oriemac;on. The pcrceived interrelationship of rhese
elemcnts constitute an "enviro11memal image," and Lynch asserts: "A good. environmen­
tal image givcs ics posscssor an important sense of emotional sccurity. "44 Accord.ingly all
culturcs have developed "systems of orientation," that is, spatial scructurcs wh.ich facili­
tate ehe dcvelopmcnt of a good environmental image. "The world may be organized
around a set of focal points, or be broken into named regions, or be linked by rcmcm­
bered roures. " 4l Ofren thcse systcms of oriencarion arc bascd on or dcrived from a given
natural structure. Wherc ehe system is weak, rhe image-making becomcs difficulc, and
man feels "lose." "The terror of being lost comes from rhe neccssicy that a mobile organ­
6
ism be orientcd in its surround.ings. " 4 To be lost is evidendy ehe opposice of ehe feeling
of security which distinguishcs dwelling. The environmental quality which protects man
againsc getting lose, Lynch calls "imageabilicy," which means "rhat shape, colour, or
arrangement which faciliraccs ehe makin.g of vividly-identified, powcrfully-structurcd,
highly useful mental imagcs of the cnvironment. "47 Herc Lynch irnplies rhat rhc ele­
ments which constiruce ehe sparial structure are concrete "thing:s" wich "tharacter" and
"meaning." He limics himself. however, co discuss ehe spatial funcrion of thesc elements,
and chus leavcs us wich a fragmencary underscand.ing of dwelling.
Neverchelcss, ehe work of Lynch constitutes an essential contribution co rhc rhcory
of placc. lts importancc also consists .in thc fact thar h_is empirical studics of concrete
urban structure confirm ehe gcncral "principles of organ.ization" defined by Gestalt
psychology and by thc rcsearches into child psychology of Uean] Piager. ◄ll

NORBERG·SCHULZ 42J
 Without rcducing the importanc.e of oricntation, wc havc to strcss that dwdling
above: all prcsupposcs idmtifiation with the environment. Although orientation and
identificarion are a.spcas of one total relationship, they havc a cenain indcpendence
within the totaliry. lt is evidently possiblc to orientate oncself weil withour true idcntifi­
cation; one gets along without fecling „at home." And it is possible to fed at homc with­
out bcing weil acquaintcd with thc :,;patia..l .structurc: of tbc placc, tluu. i.s, thc place-is only
cxpcrienccd as a gratifying general charactcr. Truc bclonging howcvcr prcsupposcs th .u:
both psychological functions arc fully devdopcd. In primhive societics wc find chat even
ehe smallesc cnvironmental dctails are known and maningful, and tlut chcy make
up complcx spacial structurcs.49 In modern socicty, howevcr, attention has almoa:
cxclwivdy bccn conccntratcd on thc "pracrical" function of orientation, wherca.s idcnti­
fication has bccn lcft ro chancc. As a result truc dwdling, in a p.<ychological scruc, has
been subscicuted by alicnation. Ir is therefore urgencly ncoded to arrive at a fuller under­
stand.ing of the conccpts of "'idcntification" and „charaacr."
In our contcxt "'idcntificacion" mcans to bccomc '"friends" with a panicular
cnvironmem. Nordic man has to bc: &icnds with fog, icc, and cold winds; he has to
enjoy rhc crcaking sound of snow undcr ehe fcct when hc wallcs around, hc has to
apcricnce thc poccical valuc of bcing immerscd in fog, as Hcemann H� did when
he wroee ehe lincs: "strangc to walk in fug! Loncly is cvery bush and scone, no crec:
0
secs thc othcr, cvcrything is alonc..:1 Thc Arab, insccad, has to be a friend of ehe
infinirely extcndecl sandy dcsert, and thc burning sun. This docs not mcan that bis
seedements should not protect him aga.inst ehe na.rural "forccs"; a desert settlcmcnt in
fact primarily aims at the cxclus.ion of sand and sun. But it implics thae the environment
is cxpcricnccd as mtaningfaL [Otto Friedrich) Bollnow says appropriatcly: "Fcdc
Stimmung ist Übereinstimmung," that is, cvery character consisu in a cocrcspondencc
bctwecn outer and inner world, and bctwecn body and psyche. 51 For modern urban
man ehe föcndshlp with a natural cnvironment is rcduccd to fragmenrary rdacions.
lnstcad he has to idencify with man-made things, such as srretts and houses.
Tue German-born Amcrican architccr Ger.Jlard. Ka.llmann oncc told a story which
illustratcs what this mcans. Visiting at the end of thc Sccond World War his native
Berlin afi:cr many ycan: of absence, he. wantcd eo sec the housc where hc had grown up.
As musr bc expcctcd in Berlin, thc housc bad disappearcd, and Mr. Kallmann feit somc­
what lost. Thcn hc suddcnly rccogniztd thc typical pavcmcnt of ehe sidcwalk: ehe Aoor
on which hc bad playcd as a child! And hc cxpericnccd a ,uong fu:üng of having
rccurned home.
Thc story teaches us ehae rhe objects of idencificacion arc concretc environmencal
propertics and that man's rdationship to ehcsc is usually dcvdoped during childhood.
Tue child grows up in grcen, brown, or whitc spaccs; it walks or plays on sand, earth,
stonc, or moss, undcr a cloudy or sercne sky; it grasps and lifts hard and soft ehings;
it hears noiscs, such as thc sound of the wind moving the lcavcs of a panicular kind of
cree; and it cx:pcricnces h.cat and cold. Thw the child gm acquaintcd wich the cnviron­
1
ment. and dcvclops perccptual schemata which dctcrmine all furure expericnces.'
Tue schemata comprisc universal structures which are ineer-human, as wcl1 as locally­
dcrcrmined and culturally-conditioncd serucrurcs. Evidcnrly evcry human bcing has eo
poucss schemata of orientation as weil as idcntification.

..� PHENOMENOLOGY
 Tbc idmtity ofa pc,non i.s dcfincd in rcrms of thc schemata devei<>p<d. bccausc rhcy
determinc thc "world" which is accessiblc. This fact is confirmed by common linguistic
usagc. W'hcn a pcrson wants to reJI who he is, it is in fact wual to say: "I am a New
Yorkcr," or •[ am a Roman." This mcans somcthing much morc concrcte than to say:
"'1 am an architcct," or ptrhaps: "l am an optimist ... We undcrstand that human identity
is to a high extcnt a function of placcs and chings. Thus Hcidcggcr says: "Wir sind die
Be--Dingten."B lt is rhcrcforc not only impon:am thar our environmcnt has a spatial
structurc which facilitatcs oricntation, bur char it consists of concrcrc objects of idcntifi­
cation. Human id,ntity pmuppom the id,ntity ofplaet.
Idcnrificacion and oricntation arc primary aspccts of man's bcing-in-the-world.
Whereas idcntification is the basis for man's sense of belonging, oricntation is the func­
tion which enablcs him ro be that homo viator which is part of his nature. lt is charac­
rcriscic for modern man that for a long time he gave ehe role as a wandcrcr pride of place.
He: wanred. eo bc: ..frc:e" and conqucr ehe world. Today wc: srarc eo rc:alize thar truc: frcc­
do.ro presupposcs bc:longing, and thac "<lwclling" means bdonging to a concrcte place.
The word to "dwell" has scvcn.l connocations which confirm and illuminacc our
thcsis. Firstly it ought ro be memioned that •dwell" is derived &om thc Old None dv,lja,
which mcant eo linger or remain. Analogously, Hcideggcr related. ehe German ·wohnen"
to ;cblcibc:n" and "'sich aufhalten. "H Furthe.rmore hc points out thae ehe Gothic wunian
meant to "be ae peace," "eo remain in pcacc." The German ward for "'peace; Friede,
means to be free:, that is, protectcd from harm and dangcr. This proecccion is achievcd.
by means of an Umfriedung or cnclosurc. Fried, is also rclated to zufried,n (content),
mund(friend), and the Gothicfrijön (love). Heideggcr uscs rhcse ünguisric rclationships
to show that dwelling m,am to b, at p,ac, in a prot<cted p!ac,. Wc should also mcntion
thar ehe German word for dwelling Wohnung. dcrivcs from das Gtwohntr, which means
"'
whar is known or habitual. "Habit and "habitat"" show an anflogous relationship. In
othcr words, man knows whac has bccomc acccssiblc to him through dwclling. Wc hcrc
rcturn to thc Überrin.rtimmung or correspondcnce bctwc:cn man and his environment,
and arrivc at rhc vcry rooe of thc problcm of "gathcring." To ga.thcr means that thc cvery­
day lifc-world has becomc „gewohnt"' or "habitual." Bur gathcring is a concm:c phc­
„
nornenon, and rhw leads us eo ehe final connotation of dwelling."' Again ie is Hcidcgger
who has uncovered a fundamental rdationship. Thw hc poinu out that ehe Old English
and High Gcrman word for "building.,. bua-n., mcant to dwcll, and that ie is intimatdy
rclared to the vcrb to be. "What rhcn docs ich bin mcan? The old wonf bauro, to which
rhe bin belong,, answers: ich bin, du bis� mcan: 1 dwdl, you dwdl. The way in which
you 2.rC and [ am, the manner in which we humans "" on canh, is buan, dwcUing. "5S
Wc may concludc that dwclling means to gather thc world as a concrctc building or
"rhing," and that the archerypal act of building is the Umfriedung or enclosure. Trakl's
poeric intuition of thc insidcNoursidc rclationship ehw gcts ies confirmarion, and we
6
understand that our concept of concretization dcnotes thc csscncc of dwclling.s
Man dwclls whcn hc is ablc to conctetize the world in buildings and things. k wc
havc menrioncd abovc, ..concrctization" is rhc function of thc work ofan:, as opposcd to
rhe ".1.bscraceion" of scicnceF Works of an concretize what rcmains "bc:cwccn" thc pure
objccts of sc::icncc. Our cvcryday lifc-world consists ofsuch "intermcdiary" objccts, and
wc undcrscand that thc fundamental function of art is to gaeher the contradictions and

N O R B E R G · SC H U l Z +11
complcxities ofthc lili:-world. Bcing an ;-,.. ,,.,,,,.;, die won, of an helpo man <o dwdL
[Friedrich] H6klerlin was right wh<n hc said:

Fu/1 •f.,,,.;,, y,,,-,,ir.O, ""'"

Dwt/Js on thU �.,,,;,.

This mcans: man's mcrits do not count much if he is unable ro dwcll J>Hfk.Jly, that
is, ro dwell in the rruc sense ofthe word. Thw Heidegger says: "Pocrry does not ßy above
and surmount thc canh in ordcr to escapc if and hovcr ovcr it. Poec:ry is what 6nt brinp
man omo thc canh, making him belong to it, and thw brings him inro dwdling."""
Only poccry in all its forms (also as thc: •an of living'") makcs human cxisrencc mcan­
ingful. and mtttning is the fundamental human necd.
Architccrurc bclongs to poetry, and its purposc is to help man to dwcll. Bur archi­
tcctUrc is a difficuh an. To makc practical towns and buildings is not cnough.
Archircaure comcs inco bring whcn a „total cnvironmcnt is made visible." to quote thc
dcfinition of Suzannc langer.'9 In general, this means to concrctize the xmiu.s laci. We
h2vc sccn that this is donc by mcans ofbuildings which gathcr thc propcrrics of thc place
and bring thcm closc ro man. Tbc basic act of archic«rurc is thcrcforc eo understand thc
;,vocarion• of thc placc. [n this way we protcct thc ca.rtb and become oul'ldves pan of a
comprchcnsivc totality. What is hcrc advocatcd i.s not somc k.ind of "'environmental
.
dcccrminism .. We. only rccognize ehe fact that man is an imcgral part of thc cnviron•
mcnt. and that ic can only lead to human alicnacion and cnvironmcntal disrupcion ifhe
forgets that. To bclong eo a placc mcans eo havc an existential foothold, in a concrctc
cvcryd2y sense. Whcn God said ro Adam: "You shall bc a fugicivc wd a wanderet on thc
Eanh"6o he put m•n in front ofhis most basic problem: to cross thc thmhold and regain
thc lost pl2ce.

R. M. Rilke. Th< Duin• E/,pn. IX Ekgy, (New Yorlo 1971).

TilC: conccpt "c-vcryday lifc..workr was incrocluccd by Husscrl in Th, CrisiJ qf&Tf)JHlln
Srinrcn 11nd Tmn.s«,uirn111/ Phrnq�no""r, (1936).
Manin Hddcggcr, "Bauen Wohnen Denken"; ßoUnow, •Mensch und Raum"; Mcrkau-­
Ponry, "Phenomcnology of Pcrccpcion"; Bachclard. ·Poecict ofSpace•; also L Krust,
R4umüch, Umwrlt (Berlin: 1974).
He;dcgge,, "Languagc," in Alben Hofswlrer, ed., Po,,ry. lA,._, Th,Ufht (New Yodc 1971).
Ein Wimcrabmd
Wenn der Schnee ans Fenster rallt,
Lang die Abcndglodtc liuret:,
Vielen ist der Tuch bctt:itct
Und das Haw in wohlbcndlt.
Mancher auf dt"r Wandcnchaft
Komme ans Tor auf dunklen P&den.
Gokkn blüht der Baum der Gnaden
Aus de, &de kühlem Saft.
Wand�r tritt .,:till hcrdn;
Schmcn. vcrstciru-:rtc die Schwelle.
Da ergläm.t in reiner Helle
Auf dem r aschc Brot und Wein.

41" PHENOMENOlOGY
' Hodqgcr, l'wrry. op. cit„ 199.
Jbid,,204-
Chri,cian Norbcrg-Schub.. "symholizarion,• in 1.,,.,;,,,, in Ard,it,mu, (o.Jo and London,
19')).
, Sec for insuna, J. Appkmn, Th,� ,fl.nJK-,. (London, 1971).

..
10 Hcid,ggtt, /'wtry. op. ciL, ..9.
u Jbid„ 147• 1..49•
Hcid,ge,, ff�d,r H....jinu,d(Pfullingen, 19r,), 13.
IJ lbid„ 13.
14 Hcideggcr, Pwtry, op. cit., 181-182..
is Norbcrg..schulz., Exi1tmu, SpA« 1tnd Af'(hit«h4rt (London and New York: 1971), whcrc thc
conccpt „exincmial space• is uscd.
i6 Heidcggcr poinu out thc rclacionship bttwttn thc words nnt (ag-ainn, oppositc) and
GrtmJ(cnvironmcnt, loc:ality).
f7 This has bccn clo ne by somc writcrs such u K.. Graf von Dürckhcim, E. Stnus. and O.F.
BoUnow.
18 Wc m.ay comparc wich Albcrti's diuinction bnwttn •bcau[)'• and "oma.mcnt.•
19 Nori>c,g-Schub.. Exutn,,,, op. ci,.. 11'!:
10 S. Gicdion, Thr Emn"1 Prnm,: Tk &,jnnintJ 11/.A,rhitarurr (London: 196-4).
11 K. Lynch, Th, 1,,,,,t' •fthr City (Cambridge 196o).
22. P. Portoghesi, U inibW"oni d,/l"arrhitnturtl modmui (Bari: 1975), 88ff.
1! Hcideggtr, l'Mtry, op. cit., 154.
24 Norbcrg-Schuh, Existmct, op. cic., 18.
1s HCldcggcr. P«try. op. cit., 1s4."Prcscncc is thc old word for bcing."
26 O.F. Bollnow, D,u Wnt11 drr Stimmu"t'" (Fnnfun am Mein: 1956).
17 Roben Vcnruri, G,mplnity 11nd Conmulinion in Arrhit«tv.rr (� Yodc 1967), 88.
i8 lbid„ 89.
19 Heidcgg<r "Die Frage nach der Ttchnik, • in V.mnlg, wndAMft4tu Pfa/J;n,;,n (r91◄), lL
JO Norl>c,g-Schub.. Exi,t,,,,,, o p . ci,., 17.
31 lbid., 32.
}> D. F tty, G"'Nli,p•t,,. ,;,.,, wrgJ,;<h,,,,J,n K-h,tfi (Vienna and lnnsbruclc 1949).
JJ Norbcrg-Schuh, fntmtions, op. cit.
H Hcideggtr, P«r,y, op. cif.• lj1.
35 W. J. Richardson. Hridrr,grr; Throutl, Plxnommo"1t:J 16 Thoughr (Thc Haguc: 197-4), 585.
36 For thc conccpt of "capacity' sec Norbcrg-Schulz, lntmtiom, op. cit.
37 Vcmuri, Compln:i.ty and C4nmuliction. op. cir.
J8 P:aulys, &akn']C/oµdir MT KlassiKh<n Alumtmwisserut'ha.ft vn, 1, col. unfJ:
39 Norbtrg-Schulz., Me11ning in Wnu-rn Ard,ittttun (London and � York: 1975), 1off.
40 Goethe, ltaümüchr Ms, 8 (Octobcr 1786).
+r L. Durrdl, Sp;,;,.JP/,u, (London, 1969), 156.
42 Stt M.M. Wcbbcr, Explon,tions in«I Urban StruaNrr (Philaddphia: 196J), who talb about
"non-plaa wban rcalm.•
<l Norbcrg-Schulz., fntmtions, op. cit., whcrc 1hc conccpa: "cog.nitivc oricnation" and
"cathrctic oricnr.nion10 att uscd.
44 l.ynch, Thr /magr ofthr City, op. cif., 4.
+5 lbid., 7.
46 Ibid., n5.
i7 fbid., 9.
48 For a dctailcd discus.sion. s« Norberg-schulz. Existmcr, op. cit.
't9 A. R.apopon, "Aumalian Aborigincs and thc Definition of Place." in P. Oliver, cd.., Slxlrer,
s;p ,nd Symb.l (London, r97s).
SO Seltsam, ;,,, Nebr/ :r;w UMndnn! EittSam ist jedcT B,ud, '"'" Stein, krin &"m süht dm
ondnm, .frtkr ist 11/Jnn.
s1 Bollnow, Stimmungen. op . cic., 39.

N ORB ERG ·S CH U I Z "27