Industrial Boilers Planner Guide (Steam Systems 1) PDF

Planner Guide
Industrial Boiler – Steam Systems 1
Small to medium size steam boilers

1 System Description 7
2 Product overview 9
3 Benefit of Hoval steam boilers 9
4 System P&I Diagram 10
5 Design Basics 12
5.1 Steam production 12
5.2 Technical parameters for saturated steam boilers 12
Capacity 12
Pressure 12
6 Steam boilers control systems 13

6.1 Capacity control 13
6.2 Level control 13
6.3 Plant periphery 13
6.4 Sludge blow down device (purge) 13
6.5 Desalting 13
6.6 Condensate return 14
6.7 Water treatment plant 14
6.8 Feed water tank 13
6.9 Efficiency of steam boiler plants 14
7 Saturated steam tables – part 1 15
8 Saturated steam tables – part 2 16
9 Technical details for industrial boilers 17
10 Selection of burners / technical data for boilers up to ~ 5 to/h steam capacity (Part 1) 18
Selection of burners / technical data for boilers up to ~ 5 to/h steam capacity (Part 2) 18
11 Properties of some supply fuel oils (av. values – physical standard condition) 19
12 Properties of some supply gases (av. values – physical standard condition) 20
13 Excess of air – calculation 21
3
14 Boiler load / output – Steam quantity 21
15 Conversion from “ Nm3 ” to “ operating m3 ” (gas, air, smoke gas) 22
16 Conversion from “operation m3 ” to “Nm3 ” (gas, air, smoke gas) 22
17 Feed water tank and feed water conditioning 23

17.1 Operating temperature 23
17.2 Cavitation of the boiler feed pump 24
17.3 Feed tank design 25
17.4 Feed tank materials 26
17.5 Feedtank capacity 26
17.6 Feed tank piping 26
17.7 Pressurised deaerator 29
17.8 Conditioning treatment 29
18 Water preparation for steam boiler plants 30

18.1 Good quality steam 31
18.2 External water treatment 31
18.3 Ion exchange 32
18.4 Base exchange softening 32
18.5 Dealkalisation 34
18.6 Dealkaliser 34
18.7 Demineralisation 35
18.8 Selection of external water treatment plant 36
18.9 Shell boiler plant 36
18.10 Summary 36
18.11 Boiler – and Feed water specifications for Hoval steam boilers 37
19 Purge pit – part 1 38
21 Calculation of temperatures and quantities (Mixture of 2 water streams) 40
22 Pressure loss at steam pipes (see also point 25, 26, 28 and 32) 40
23 Pressure loss at straight water pipes 42
24 Determination of pipe size 42
25 Flow speed at pipes (liquid, gaseous) 43
4
26 Steam pipes – dimensions 44
27 Condensate pipes – dimensions 45
28 Pipe expansion and support 46

28.1 Allowance for expansion 46
28.2 Pipework flexibility 47
28.3 Expansion fittings 48
28.4 Pipe support spacing 52
29 Pipe dimensions and weights 53
30 Dimensions for gaskets and connections – Part 1 54
32 Steam lines and drains 56

32.1 Main steam lines 56
32.2 Piping layout 56
32.3 Water hammer and its effects 57
32.4 Branch lines 58
32.5 Rising ground and drainage 60
32.5 Steam separators 60
32.6 How to drain steam mains 61
32.7 Summary 62
33 Steam consumption of plants 63

33.1 Non-flow type applications 64
33.2 Flow type applications 66
33.3 Warm-up and heat loss components 68
33.4 An outflow heater 68
34 Steam consumption of plant items 69

34.1 Heating calorifiers 69
34.2 Hot water storage calorifiers 70
34.3 Drying cylinders 71
34.4 Presses 72
35 Safety valves – Installation 73

35.1 Seat tightness 73
35.2 Safety valve installation 73
35.3 Installation 74
35.4 Reaction forces when discharging 76
5
36 Required formulas and conversion tables 78

36.1 Conversion of pressure units (quick use – rounded) 78
36.2 Conversion of anglo - american units to SI units 78
Length 78
Area 78
Volume 78
Flow (volume) 78
Force 78
Energy, work or amount of heat 78
Power or heat flow rate 78
Conversion of water hardness units 78
36.3 Software Conversions see (examples - freeware) 81
37 Literature references 81
38 Versions-Info
39 P + I Diagram 82
6
1
1 System Description 2
3
The Hoval steam system “1” was developed to provide 4
for the following applications a medium / high 5
output of saturated steam where simple, safely and
6
cost-efficient solutions are necessary.
7
• Small / medium sized soft drink manufacturers 8
(steam for bottle washing and production) 9
• Brick- and building material industry 10
(steam for production) 11
• Meat industries
12
(steam for cooking process and production)
13
•B
akeries (steam for production)
•F
ood industries (steam for production) 14
• Laundries (steam for washing machines and ironing) 15
• Hotels (steam for cooking and laundry supply) 16
•H
ospitals (steam for cooking, supply to heat 17
exchangers – sterilization)
18
• Textile industries (steam for production)
19
• Small / medium sized breweries
(steam for brewing procedures)
20
• Small / medium sized paper and cellulose industries 21
(steam for production) 22
• Small / medium sized car parts industries 23
(steam for production)
24
• Pharmacy industries (steam for production)
25
• Chemical industries (steam for production)
26
Principally anywhere, where steam is necessary 27
as a heat carrier or as a power transmission force. 28
29
Steam plays an important role in many processes as 30
energy carrier or driving force. More and more
31
emphasis is laid on a highest possible efficiency and a
lowest possible environmental harm.
32
33
Steam boilers do also represent a danger potential though. 34
The equipment, as well as the installation and 35
operation of steam boiler plants are therefore legally 36
ruled in many countries, e.g. by
37
• 97/23/EG European pressure devices – Guiding rule
• EN 12953
38
• TRD 39
7
1 Benefit of steam 1. Planner: Easy to plan (providing fast information in the

required quality and quantity)
2
Steam has some outstanding characteristics: 2. Installer: Easy to purchase (one order, one supplier)
3 • High pressure for drive of machines 3. Owner: Product costs are not necessarily to be low
4 • High temperature for technical processes (high quality material and manufacturing, high
5 • Flow to consumers without extern energy (pumps) efficiency, Swiss engineered products)
• Steam transfer through small pipe dimensions 4. Installer: Administration cost (responsible one stop shop)
6
5. Installer: Installation cost (principle P&I including all
7 The medium temperature does not change in information and supply of components for a
8 evaporation and condensation process perfect functional system)
9 6. Installer: System integration (Hoval System technology
In addition to the above also our best cost of ownership and controls matches all building requirements,
10 philosophy has been taken in consideration which means, eg. BMS, lead lag, etc.)
11 the best price value for the end-user. 7. Installer: Commissioning costs (since all components
12 match from the beginning,checked by Hoval
This takes in consideration the following aspects: engineers and Hoval on site engineers fast
13
commissioning is possible)
14 Planning costs 1. Planning 8. Owner: Running cost (high efficiency, engineered pro-
15 Procurement costs 2. Purchase ducts with focus to conservation of energy and
3. Product
16 4. Administration
environment lead to low running cost. Cheap pro-
ducts are not always cheap in the long run time.)
17 Installation costs 5. Installation 9. Owner: Environmental costs (all our products comply with
18 6. System integration the latest regulations and they are even better)
7. Commissioning
19 10. Owner: Maintenance costs (engineered products with
focus to easy maintenance lead to lower costs)
20 Operating costs 8 .Operating 11. Owner: Service cost’s (engineered quality products
21 9. Environmental usually need less Service in life)
10. Maintenance
22 12. Owner: Disposal cost’s (Construction in combination
Service costs 11. Service
23 with the selected materials allow a cost
Disposal costs 12. Disposal effective disposal)
24
25
26 Hoval is worldwide
known as technological
27 leading supplier of
28 innovative easy- systems
29 for heat and ventilation
technology with a high
30 measurably economical
31 and ecological added
value for the customer.
32
33
34
35 Innovative
easy-systems
36 with measurable
37 added value
38
39
8
Last but not least, a Hoval steam system provides you the system for steam demand and all the rest heated with 1
following advantages: hot water system). This gives best efficiency and load
2
• Long life time of boiler, thanks the internal construction. rates for both systems!
• Less fuel consumption since our steam systems operate • Less pipe work, fittings (boiler could be supplied
3
on highest efficiency completely “preinstalled”) 4
• Reduced heat transmission loss of boilers due to • More than 35 years experience on steam and 5
completely watercooled boiler walls superheated hot water systems
6
• More safety by using 2 boilers smaller capacity instead of
one large boiler and finally, behind all you will find the Hoval family, 7
• Easy to be operated by boiler operator friendly, professional, solution oriented, enthusiastic 8
• Lower investment cost for a split system (small steam and responsible for energy and environment. 9
10
11
2 Product overview 12
13
Hoval steam boiler series THD-U (size 500 – 5000 kg/h), steam pressure 10, 13, 16 bar(g) 14
Hoval feedwater tanks “SPW-D” (size 500 – 3000 L) – pressureless
15
16
Hoval feedwater tanks “SPW-E” (size > 3000 L / 0,5 bar(g)) – see steam system 2 for details
17
Hoval feedwater pumps
18
Hoval switchboards and SPS-controls
19
Hoval selected and matched control valves, safety valves, pressure gauges, sensors, etc. 20
21
22
23
3 Benefit of Hoval steam boilers 24

25
26
Compact 3-pass boiler construction according actual High efficiency rate – up to higher then 90% – without eco
EN-norms (mainly EN 12953 and PED – 97/23/EG) 27
Easy to be equipped with economizer (on request)
Natural circulation boiler with good purge possibilities
28
Very good cleaning possibilities (easy to swivel boiler
Flame tube dimensioned according actual burner front door, no turbulators at the boiler smoke gas tubes)
29
technology Easy to maintain – except fire proof concrete at boiler
30
Relative thin turning chamber head results in front door there´s no other concrete at the boiler. 31
a very good connection between distance of Reliable due to long year experience on boiler 32
smoke tubes comparing to turning chamber head production and design. 33
thickness and an optimized flexibility against heat tensions.
Boiler could be supplied completely (mechanically and 34
100% water cooled turning chamber back wall electrically) installed – so there´s a lot less work to do on site. 35
made from seamless fin-tubes, no anchors necessary
and extension of heat transfer area at the „hot zone“
Efficiency coded according real boiler operation 36
temperature
of the boiler. 37
Boiler safety instrumentation with 1 safety pressure
Good insulation – without metallic supports 38
limiter, 2 safety valves and 2 independent water level
Big water space – insensible against moving load peaks insufficiency electrodes. 39
9
1
2
3
4 System P & I Diagram
4
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35
36
37
38
39
10
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2
3
4
5
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9
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38
39
11
1
2
5 Design Basics
3
4 5.1. Steam production
5
6 At the process of heating, the water or the steam wants pressure inside the boiler will decrease (due to steam
to expand but this is avoided by the boiler shell. The more consumption) the burner will switch on. The load regulation
7
energy is added by the firing into the closed boiler, the for the burner is always done according steam pressure
8 higher the pressure in the boiler will rise. at the boiler.
9
10 After reaching the needed pressure the steam can be led Saturated steam from the boiler includes an water content
to the consumers by opening the main steam valve. If the between 1 and 2 %.
11
12
Pressure Temperature Enthalpy Evaporation- Enthalpy Volume Density
13 Gauge Absolute water heat steam steam steam
pressure pressure h´ r h´´
14 bar(g) bar °C kJ / kg kJ / kg kJ / kg m3 / kg kg / m3
15 0 1 99,6 417 2258 2675 1,694 0,5904
16 0,5 1,5 111,4 467 2226 2693 1,159 0,8628
17 1 2 120,2 505 2201 2706 0,885 1,129
18 6 6 165,0 697 2065 2762 0,2727 3,667
19 10 11 184,1 781 1999 2780 0,1774 5,637
20 13 14 195,0 830 1958 2788 0,1407 7,106
21 16 17 204,3 872 1921 2793 0,1166 8,575
22 20 21 214,9 920 1878 2798 0,0949 10,54
23 25 26 226,0 972 1829 2801 0,0769 13,01
24 30 31 235,7 1017 1785 2802 0,0645 15,51
25 89 90 303,3 1364 1381 2745 0,0205 48,79
26
27 Saturated steam from the boiler includes an water content between 1 and 2 %.
28
29
30 5.2. Technical parameters for saturated steam boilers
31
32 Capacity Pressure
33 Heat capacity kW (10 bar) ~ kg/h x 0,65 Recommended operation pressure = boiler design pressure - 15%*
34 h ´´ 10 bar = 2780 kJ/kg * Hysteresis of safety valve
35 - h ´ 100 °C = 418 kJ/kg*
36 h = 2362 kJ/kg = 0,6561 kW/kg
37 * feed water temperature from feed water tank
38
39 This statement of capacity refers to a constant duration load!
12
6 Steam boilers control systems 1

2
3
6.1 Capacity control 6.3 Plant periphery 4
5
The capacity regulation of the steam boiler is done There are a lot of factors and materials, which can
6
related to pressure. endanger and impair the boiler operation:
• two levels (smaller plants) • too cold feed water – it leads to high heat tension 7
burner on/off and full/min. load in the boiler 8
• modulating (bigger plants) water hardness – calcium and magnesium may 9
create a boilerstone / scale (more fuel consumption,
Protection against too high pressure overheated materials)
10
• Manometer (indication operation pressure) • gases and acids – attack the boiler material 11
• Safety pressure limiter (switches off firing) • salts – impair the level regulation and supervision 12
Safety valve (leads off the inadmissible • dirt – lays itself as sludge and leads to material
13
over pressure outside) overheating
Therefore the boiler has to be suitably protected. 14
15
6.2. Level control 16
6.4 Sludge blow down device (purge)
The steam boiler has to be fed with as much water
17
as it evaporates. Because of the starting operation and the use of dosing 18
• two levels chemicals some boiler sludge is created, which lays itself 19
(pump on/off) on the bottom. This boiler sludge is removed out of the
20
• continuously by pump boiler discontinuously by a fast sealing valve (manually
(frequency converter on pump)* or automatically with time control). 21
• continuously by regulation valve 22
• three-components regulation 23
6.5 Desalting
Protection against water shortage
24
In the water there are solved earth alkaline (carbonates,
• water level glasses salts), which do not flow with the steam but will remain at 25
• water shortage safeties the boiler water (thickening the boiler water). This is 26
measured by use of conductivity in µS/cm. A too high
27
Protection against overfilling thickening leads to foaming of the boiler water, which will
• high water level electrode impair the level regulation, the level safety sensors as well 28
as the steam quality. 29
*Attention: lower loads as approximately 20% are not possible with
frequency converters (due to min. rpm ofpump and needed flow pressure) –
30
That is why the conductivity in the boiler water has to be
the pump has to beswitched on/off for this load! This could 31
lead to damages on plants which are equipped with economisers. supervised and regulated. Therefore a part of the “bad”
boiler water is continuously led off and replaced by fresh 32
feed water (manual measure and valve adjustment or 33
conductivity control with desalination control) = Energy loss!
34
Attention: The desalting rate has to be considered at the 35
feed water pump design too!
36
37
38
39
13
1 6.6 Condensate return 6.8 Feed water tank

2
In many processes there is some condensate created, At the feed water tank the feed water for the steam boiler
3 which should be returned to the boiler. is prepared.
4
5 According to the system structure this return is done By preheating the feed water:
• directly from the consumers to the feed water tank • too high temperature differences (warmth tensions) in
6
• back to an open system (pressure less condensate tank the boiler will be avoided
7 – expansion steam losses) • the gases O2 and CO2 which are contained in the water
8 • in a closed system (direct return into the steam boiler, are largely reduced
9 efficient at a high condensate percentage and high • the dosing chemicals are brought to their full efficiency
pressures)
10 The content of the feed water tank should correspond
11 to the boiler capacity, in order to
12 6.7 Water treatment plant • s ecure a reserving time in the case of an external
damage
13
The required water quantity, which does not return to • bring the dosing chemicals to their full efficiency
14 the boiler circuit as condensate, has to be replaced with
15 additional water (freshwater). Layouts of feed water tanks:
16 •D irect heating (90-95 °C) – smaller plants with open feed
By the water treatment station this additional water water tanks , often suspect because of oxygen contact,
17 is conditioned. For the treatment there are different higher operation costs because of higher consumption
18 procedures available: of chemicals
19 • soften (ion exchanger) • Thermal degasifying 105 °C – good removal of the gases
• part- or full desalting O2 and CO2 out from the feed water, operation pressure
20
• reverse osmosis 0,5 bar(g) will prevent a oxygen contact.
21 • chemicals dosing
22 (for oxygen binding, pH – value stabilisation, corrosion Attention: The steam demand for the feed water tank and/or deaerator
has to be considered at the layout of the boiler capacity.
23 protection)
24 The selection of the process depends on the following

25 parameters: 6.9 Efficiency of steam boiler plants
26 • raw water total hardness
• raw water carbonate hardness Steam boilers have an efficiency grade of 88-91 % acc.
27
• returned condensate percentage to operation pressure, and at exhaust gas temperatures
28 • required steam quality of 200° to 280°C. So there is a considerable energy
29 loss going through the chimney which could be reduced
30 The higher the carbonate hardness and the demand of by additional systems (example: economisers).
additional water, the more economic are desalting plants
31
and reverse osmosis systems.
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
14
1
7 Saturated steam tables – part 1 For details (freeware – download) see: www.x-eng.com
2
Absolute pressure Temperature Steam volume Steam density Water enthalpy Steam enthalpy Evaporation 3
enthalpy
p t v‘‘ ϱ h‘ h‘‘ r 4
bar °C m³/kg kg/m³ kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg
0,010 6,98 129,200 0,008 29,34 2514,4 2485,0 5
0,015 13,04 87,980 0,011 54,71 2525,5 2470,7 6
0,020 17,51 67,010 0,015 73,46 2533,6 2460,2
0,025 21,10 54,260 0,018 88,45 2540,2 2451,7 7
0,030 24,10 45,670 0,022 101,00 2545,6 2444,6
8
0,035 26,69 39,480 0,025 111,85 2550,4 2438,5
0,040 28,98 34,800 0,029 121,41 2554,5 2433,1 9
0,045
0,050
31,04
32,90
31,140
28,190
0,032
0,035
129,99
137,77
2558,2
2561,6
2428,2
2423,8
10
0,055 34,61 25,770 0,039 144,91 2564,7 2419,8 11
0,060 36,18 23,740 0,042 151,50 2567,5 2416,0
0,065 37,65 22,020 0,045 157,64 2570,2 2412,5
12
0,070 39,03 20,530 0,049 163,38 2572,6 2409,2 13
0,075 40,32 19,240 0,052 168,77 2574,9 2406,2
0,080 41,53 18,100 0,052 173,86 2577,1 2403,2 14
0,085 42,69 17,100 0,055 178,69 2579,2 2400,5
15
0,090 43,79 16,200 0,058 183,28 2581,1 2397,9
0,095 44,83 15,400 0,062 187,65 2583,0 2395,3 16
0,10
0,15
45,83
54,00
14,670
10,020
0,065
0,100
191,83
225,97
2584,8
2599,2
2392,9
2373,2
17
0,20 60,09 7,650 0,131 251,45 2609,9 2358,4 18
0,25 64,99 6,204 0,161 271,99 2618,3 2346,4
0,30 69,12 5,229 0,191 289,30 2625,4 2336,1
19
0,40 75,89 3,993 0,250 317,65 2636,9 2319,2 20
0,45 78,74 3,576 0,280 329,64 2641,7 2312,0
0,50 81,35 3,240 0,309 340,56 2646,0 2305,4 21
0,55 83,74 2,964 0,337 350,61 2649,9 2299,3 22
0,60 85,95 2,732 0,366 359,93 265w3,6 2293,6
0,65 88,02 2,535 0,395 368,62 2656,9 2288,3 23
0,70
0,75
89,96
91,79
2,365
2,217
0,423
0,451
376,77
384,45
2660,1
2663,0
2283,3
2278,6
24
0,80 93,51 2,087 0,479 391,72 2665,8 2274,0 25
0,85 95,15 1,972 0,507 398,63 2668,4 2269,8
0,90 96,71 1,869 0,535 405,21 2670,9 2265,6
26
0,95 98,20 1,777 0,563 411,49 2673,2 2261,7 27
1,00 99,63 1,694 0,590 417,51 2675,4 2257,9
1,5 111,37 1,159 0,863 467,13 2693,4 2226,2 28
2,0 120,23 0,885 1,129 504,70 2706,3 2201,6 29
2,5 127,43 0,718 1,392 535,34 2716,4 2181,0
3,0 133,54 0,606 1,651 561,43 2724,7 2163,2 30
3,5 138,87 0,524 1,908 584,27 2731,6 2147,4
31
4,0 143,62 0,462 2,163 604,67 2737,6 2133,0
4,5 147,92 0,414 2,417 623,16 2742,9 2119,7 32
5,0 151,84 0,375 2,669 640,12 2747,5 2107,4
5,5 155,46 0,343 2,920 655,78 2751,7 2095,9
33
6,0 158,84 0,316 3,170 670,42 2755,5 2085,0 34
6,5 161,99 0,293 3,419 684,12 2758,8 2074,0
7,0 164,96 0,273 3,667 697,06 2762,0 2064,9 35
7,5 167,75 0,255 3,915 709,29 2764,8 2055,5 36
8,0 170,41 0,240 4,162 720,94 2767,5 2046,5
8,5 172,94 0,227 4,409 732,02 2769,9 2037,9 37
9,0 175,36 0,215 4,655 742,64 2772,1 2029,5
38
9,5 177,66 0,204 4,901 752,81 2774,2 2021,4
10 179,88 0,194 5,147 762,61 2776,2 2013,6 39
15
1
2
8 Saturated steam tables – part 2 For details (freeware – download) see: www.x-eng.com
3 Absolute pressure Temperature Steam volume Steam density Water enthalpy Steam enthalpy Evaporation
enthalpy
4 p t v‘‘ ϱ h‘ h‘‘ r
bar °C m³/kg kg/m³ kJ / kg kJ / kg kJ / kg
5 10,5 181,98 0,185 5,39 771,87 2777,95 2006,05
6 11 184,07 0,175 5,64 781,13 2779,70 1998,50
11,5 186,02 0,169 5,88 789,78 2781,20 1991,40
7 12 187,96 0,163 6,13 798,43 2782,70 1984,30
12,5 189,79 0,157 6,37 806,57 2784,05 1977,50
8 13 191,61 0,151 6,617 814,70 2785,4 1970,7
13,5 193,33 0,146 6,86 822,39 2786,60 1964,20
9 14 195,04 0,141 7,106 830,08 2787,8 1957,7
14,5 196,67 0,136 7,35 837,38 2788,85 1951,45
10 15 198,29 0,132 7,596 844,67 2789,9 1945,2
11 15,5
16
199,83
201,37
0,128
0,124
7,84
8,085
851,62
858,56
2790,80
2791,7
1939,20
1933,2
12 16,5
17
202,84
204,31
0,120
0,117
8,33
8,575
865,20
871,84
2792,55
2793,4
1927,35
1921,5
13 17,5
18
205,71
207,11
0,113
0,110
8,82
9,065
878,21
884,58
2794,10
2794,8
1915,90
1910,3
14 18,5 208,46 0,108 9,31 890,70 2795,45 1904,80
19 209,80 0,105 9,555 896,81 2796,1 1899,3
15 19,5 211,09 0,102 9,80 902,70 2796,65 1893,95
20 212,37 0,100 10,05 908,59 2797,2 1888,6
16 20,5 213,61 0,097 10,30 914,28 2797,70 1883,40
21 214,85 0,095 10,54 919,96 2798,2 1878,2
17 22 217,24 0,091 11,03 930,95 2799,1 1868,1
23 219,55 0,087 11,52 941,60 2799,8 1858,2
18 24 221,78 0,083 12,02 951,93 2800,4 1848,5
19 25
26
223,94
226,04
0,080
0,077
12,51
13,01
961,96
971,72
2800,9
2801,4
1839,0
1829,6
20 27
28
228,07
230,05
0,074
0,071
13,51
14,01
981,22
990,48
2801,7
2802,0
1820,5
1811,5
21 29 231,97 0,069 14,51 999,53 2802,2 1802,6
30 233,84 0,067 15,01 1008,4 2802,3 1793,9
22 31 235,65 0,065 15,52 1016,90 2802,30 1785,40
32 237,45 0,062 16,02 1025,4 2802,3 1776,9
23 34 240,88 0,059 17,03 1041,8 2802,1 1760,3
36 244,16 0,055 18,05 1057,6 2801,7 1744,2
24 38 247,31 0,052 19,07 1072,7 2801,1 1728,4
40 250,33 0,050 20,10 1087,4 2800,3 1712,9
25 42 253,24 0,047 21,14 1101,6 2799,4 1697,8
26 44
46
256,05
258,75
0,045
0,043
22,18
23,24
1115,4
1128,8
2798,3
2797,0
1682,9
1668,3
27 48
50
261,37
263,91
0,041
0,039
24,29
25,36
1141,8
1154,5
2795,7
2794,2
1653,9
1639,7
28 55 269,33 0,036 28,07 1184,9 2789,9 1605,0
60 275,55 0,032 30,83 1213,7 2785,0 1571,3
29 65 280,82 0,030 33,65 1241,1 2779,5 1538,4
70 285,79 0,027 36,53 1267,4 2773,5 1506,0
30 75 290,50 0,025 39,48 1292,7 2766,9 1474,2
80 294,97 0,024 42,51 1317,1 2759,9 1442,8
31 85 299,23 0,022 45,61 1340,7 2752,5 1411,7
90 303,31 0,021 48,79 1363,7 2744,6 1380,9
32 95 307,21 0,019 52,06 1386,1 2736,4 1350,2
33 100
110
310,96
318,05
0,018
0,016
55,43
62,48
1408,0
1450,6
2727,7
2709,3
1319,7
1258,7
34 120
130
324,65
330,83
0,014
0,013
70,01
78,14
1491,8
1532,0
2689,2
2667,0
1197,4
1135,0
35 140
150
336,64
342,13
0,012
0,010
86,99
96,71
1571,6
1611,0
2642,4
2615,0
1070,7
1004,0
36 160 347,33 0,009 107,4 1650,5 2584,9 934,3
170 352,66 0,008 119,5 1691,7 2551,6 859,9
37 180 356,96 0,007 133,4 1734,8 2513,9 779,1
190 361,43 0,007 149,8 1778,7 2470,6 692,0
38 200 365,70 0,006 170,2 1836,5 2418,4 591,9
220 373,69 0,004 268,3 2011,1 2195,6 184,5
39 221,20 374,15 0,003 315,5 2107,4 2107,4 0
16
1
9 Technical details for industrial boilers See external catalogue
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
17
1
2
10 Selection of burners
3
4 Technical data for boilers up to ~ 5 to/h steam capacity (part 1)
5 To select the burner you need to know the following data:
6 Fuel type light Oil – diesel (example) Flame tube diameter 606 mm (example)
Mode of the burner two stage burner (example) Boiler flue gas side resistance 4,9 mbar (example)
7 Boiler load 1300 kW (example) Boiler efficiency at (full load) 92,7 % (example)
8 Flame tube length 1624 mm (example) or Burner capacity 1453 kW (example)
9 Note: Hoval industrial boilers are produced with direct burner connections to boiler front door (no adapter flange necessary) –
10 so it´s absolutely necessary to know the exact burner type and dimensions before ordering the boiler!
11 For more details about burner selection see below-mentioned list and Hoval technical catalogue.
12
13
14 Technical data for boilers up to ~ 5 to/h steam capacity (Part 2)
15 Boiler Boiler flame Boiler flame Smoke gas Smoke gas Turning Burner head Burner Burner
capacity tube tube resistance resistance chamber capacity capacity
Boiler type
16 [kW]
length
[m]
diameter
[mm]
without ECO
[mbar]
with ECO
[mbar]
lenght
[mm]
lenght
[mm]
without Eco
[kW]
with Eco
[kW]
17 THD-U 500 - 10 bar 326 1495 575 3,10 6,10 - 400 366 347
18 THD-U 650 - 10 bar 424 1645 575 3,30 6,30 - 400 474 451
THD-U 800 - 10 bar 522 1795 650 3,60 6,60 - 400 585 555
19 THD-U 1000 - 10 bar 652 2045 650 4,20 7,20 - 400 729 694
20 THD-U 1200 - 10 bar 783 2395 700 4,70 7,70 - 400 873 832
THD-U 1600 - 10 bar 1044 2495 725 5,50 8,50 - 400 1165 1111
21 THD-U 2000 - 10 bar 1304 2540 850 5,70 8,70 - 400 1455 1387
22 THD-U 2500 - 10 bar 1631 2640 925 6,50 9,50 - 400 1822 1735
THD-U 3000 - 10 bar 1957 2640 975 6,70 9,70 - 400 2189 2082
23 THD-U 3500 - 10 bar 2283 2890 1100 5,00 8,00 - 400 2551 2429
24 THD-U 4000 - 10 bar 2609 3390 1100 7,30 10,30 - 400 2908 2776
THD-U 4500 - 10 bar 2935 3390 1150 6,90 9,90 - 400 3272 3122
25 THD-U 5000 - 10 bar 3261 3390 1200 6,90 9,90 - 400 3631 3469
26
27 Boiler Boiler
capacity capacity
Boiler Boiler flame
flame tube tube diameter
Smoke gas
resistance
Smoke gas
resistance
Turning
chamber
Burner
head
Burner
capacity
Burner
capacity
28 Boiler type max. norm. length inside/outside without ECO
max/norm.
with ECO
max/norm.
length length without ECO
max/norm.
with ECO
max/norm.
29 [kW] [kW] [mm] [mm] [mbar] [mbar] [mm] [mm] [kW] [kW]
THSD-I E 25/20 -10 bar 1630 1304 1826/1450 1726 / 1381
30 13 bar 1635 1308 2300 650 11/8,5 14/11,5 380 300 1842/1462 1732 / 1385
31 16 bar 1639 1311 1854/1472 1736 / 1388
THSD-I E 30/25 -10 bar 1956 1630 2197 / 1840 2072 / 1726
32 13 bar 1963 1635 2500 700 12/9 15/12 380 300 2216 / 1834 2079 / 1732
33 16 bar 1967 1639 2225 / 1847 2083 / 1736
THSD-I E 35/30 -10 bar 2283 1956 2567 / 2188 2418 / 2072
34 13 bar 2290 1963 2700 750 12/9,5 15/12,5 380 300 2590 / 2194 2425 / 2079
35 16 bar 2295 1967 2607 / 2222 2431 / 2083
THSD-I E 45/40 -10 bar 2934 2608 3293 / 2914 3108 / 2762
36 13 bar 2944 2617 3050 800 12/8 15/13 380 300 3322 / 2941 3118 / 2772
37 16 bar 2951 2623 3346 / 2961 3126 / 2778
THSD-I E 55/50 -10 bar 3586 3260 4005 / 3629 3798 / 3453
38 13 bar 3596 3271 3500 850 12,5/10 15,5/13 380 300 4040 / 3661 3809 / 3465
39 16 bar 3606 3278 4068 / 3686 3820 / 3472
18
1
11 Properties of some supply fuel oils (av. values - physical standard condition)
2
3
4
5
Parameters Symbol Unit Extra-light fuel oil (diesel) Heavy fuel oil
6
Calorific value LCV MJ/kg 42,7 40,7 7
8
LCV kWh/kg 11,86 11,3
9
LCV Mcal/kg 10,2 9,72 10
11
Density at 15 °C ρ15 kg/l 0,84 0,96
12
Flame point ∆F °C 70 120 13
14
Viscosity
15
at 20 °C ν mm²/s Max. 6 - 16
17
at 50 °C ν mm²/s 2 Max. 50
18
at 100 °C ν mm²/s - 30 19
20
Combustion value at λ =1
21
Air consumption vL m³/kg 11,0 10,7 22
23
Smoke gas volume dry vA,tr m³/kg 10,3 10,0
24
Smoke gas volume – wet vA,f m³/kg 11,8 11,4 25
26
Water quantity at smoke gas vH2O m³/kg 1,5 1,4
27
Max. Carbon dioxide CO2,max Vol.-% 15,5 15,9 28
29
Contents:
30
Carbon C Weight-% 86 84 31
32
Hydrogen H Weight-% 13 12
33
Sulphur S Weight-% < 0,2 (< 0,1) < 2,8 (changes possible) 34
35
Oxygen O2 Weight-% 0,4 0,5
36
Nitrogen N Weight-% 0,02 0,3 37
38
Water H 2O Weight-% 0,4 0,4
39
19
1
2
12 Properties of some supply gases (av. values - physical standard condition)
3
4
5 Parameters Symbol Unit Natural gas Natural gas Propane Butane
“L” “H” C3H 8 C4H10
6
7 Calorific value LCV kWh/m³ 8,83 10,0 25,9 34,4
8 LCV MJ/m³ 31,8 36,0 93,2 123,8

9
LCV Mcal/m³ 7,59 8,6
10
Explosion limit
11 (Vol % gas / air, at 20°C)
12 Lowest limit LFL Vol.-% 5 4 2,1 1,4
13
Highest limit HFL Vol.-% 15 16 9,0 9,3
14
15 Density ρ Kg/m³ 0,829 0,784 2,011 2,708
16 Relative Density d Kg/m³ 0,641 0,606 1,555 2,094

17
Combustion value at λ =1
18
19 Air consumption vL m³/m³ 8,36 9,47 24,37 32,37
20 Smoke gas volume dry vA,tr m³/m³ 7,64 8,53 22,81 29,74
21
Smoke gas volume – wet vA,f m³/m³ 9,36 10,47 26,16 34,66
22
23 Max. Carbon dioxide CO2,max Vol.-% 11,8 12,00 13,7 14,0
24 Water quantity at smoke gas

(related to input gas quantity)
vH2O m³/m³ 1,72 1,94 3,29 4,2
25 Dew point ∆T °C 58 58 54 53
(dry combustion air)
26
27 Contents:
28 Nitrogen N2 Vol. 14 3,1 - -
29
Oxygen O2 Vol. - - - -
30
Carbon dioxide
31 CO2 Vol. 0,8 1,0 - -
32 Hydrogen H2 Vol. - - - -
33
Carbon monoxide CO Vol. - - - -
34
Methan
35 CH4 Vol. 81,8 92,3 - -
36 Ethan C 2H 6 Vol. 2,8 2,0 - -
37 Propane C 3H 8 Vol. 0,4 1,0 100 -

38
Butan C4H10 Vol. 0,2 0,6 - 100
39
20
1
13 Excess of air – calculation 2
λ = Excess air value
3
VL CO2,max 21 %
λ =
VL (stö)
≈
CO2,metered
≈
(21 % - O2,metered) 4
VL = Effective air quantity m3(i.N.)/kg (or m3) 5
CO2,max Vtr,stö
λ=1+
CO2,metered - 1 * VL,stö
VL,stö = stoichiometrical air quantity m3
6
(i.N.)/kg (or m3/m3 i.N.) 7
O2, metered Vtr,stö
λ=1+
21 – O2, metered * VL,stö 8
Vf = Effective smoke gas quantity (wet) m3
9
Guide value for Vtr,stö / VL,stö (i.N.)/kg (or m3/m3 i.N)
10
Natural gas Propane Fuel oil extra light Heavy
(diesel) fuel oil CO2,max = max. CO2-content at stoichiometrical 11
Vtr,stö / VL,stö 0,91 0,93 0,93 0,94 combustion (Vol %) 12
Effective dry smoke gas quantity CO2,metered = CO2-content (Vol.-%)
13
14
Vtr = Vtr, stö + (λ- 1) * VL, stö Vtr,stö = Effective smoke gas quantity 15
(dry) m3 (i.N.)/kg (or m3/m3 i.N)
Effective wet smoke gas quantity 16
at stoichiometrical combustion
17
Vf = Vf, stö + (λ- 1) * VL, stö
O2 = O2-content – dry (Vol.-%) 18
19
20
21
14 Boiler load / output – Steam quantity 22
23
14.1 Steam quantity calculation
24
1 t/h saturated steam ≈ 0,65 MW boiler load* 1 kg oil produces round 16 kg steam 25
* at 12 bar(g) and 102°C feed water temperature
26
1 kg oil or 1 m3 gas results in following saturated steam To produce 1t saturated steam the following oil- or gas
27
quantity (kg/h): quantity is needed (kg or m3):
28
kJ kJ 2,34 * 108
Lower calorific value in or * boiler efficiency in % 29
kg m3 kJ kJ
234000
Lower calorific value in
kg
or
m3 * boiler efficiency in % 30
31
32
14.2 Boiler load, firing load and fuel consumption in connection with boiler efficiency
33
Boiler output – produced Boiler Needed quantity of extra light fuel oil 34
saturated steam quantity efficiency Firing load Needed quantity of heavy fuel oil (diesel)
35
t/h MW % MW kg/h kg/h
36
1 0,65 85 0,77 67,5 64,5
1 0,65 88 0,74 65,5 62,5
37
1 0,65 90 0,72 64,0 61,0 38
1 0,65 92 0,71 62,5 59,5 39
21
1 14.3 Exact calculation of fuel consumption at 14.4 Determination of efficiency

2 known steam capacity and steam parameters with smoke gas measurement*
3 ηK (in %) = 100% – XA%
4 mB or VB =
MD * (h‘‘-h‘sw) * 100%
Smoke gas loss XA = f *
ϑ A– ϑ L in %
Hu * nk CO2,tr
5
mB bzw. VB = fuel consumption in kg/h or m³/h
6
MD = steam quantity in kg/h XA = Smoke gas loss
7 h‘‘ = Enthalpy of steam in kJ/kg ϑA = Metered smoke gas temperature
8 h‘sw = Enthalpy of feed water in kJ/kg ϑL = Metered combustion air temperature
9 H u = lower calorific value in kJ/kg or kJ/m3 CO2,tr = metered CO2-value at dry smoke gas in vol.-%
ηK = boiler efficiency in % f = Constant figure
10
11 Extra light fuel oil Heavy fuel oil Natural gas Propane/Butane
12 f 0,59 0,61 0,46 0,50
13 * calculation base: Siegert formula
14
15
16 15 Conversion from “Nm³” to “operating m³” (gas, air, smoke gas)
17
18
Example 3861 Nm³/h
19 Voperation = Vnorm * (1013 / (1013 + p)) * ((273 + t) / 273)
20 Voperation = operation cubic meter (per hour) at actual gas temperature and gas pressure
21 Vnorm = Norm cubic meter (per hour) at 0°C and 1013 mbar
22 p = gas pressure in mbar

t = gas temperature in °C
23
For this example = 1068,10606 operation m³/h
24 actual gas temperature 15 °C (see local indication + fill in)
25 actual gas pressure 2850 mbar (see local indication + fill in)
26
27
28
29
30 16 Conversion from “operation m³” to “Nm³” (gas, air, smoke gas
31
32 Example 360 operation m³/h
33 Vnorm = Voperation / ((1013 / (1013 + p)) * ((27 3+ t) / 273))
34 Voperation = operation cubic meter (per hour) at actual gas temperature and gas pressure
35 Vnorm = Norm cubic meter (per hour) at 0°C and 1013 mbar
p = gas pressure in mbar
36
t = gas temperature in °C
37 For this example = 1301,33144 Nm3/h
38 actual gas temperature 15 °C (see local indication + fill in)
39 actual gas pressure 2850 mbar (see local indication + fill in)
22
1
17 Feed water tank and feed water conditioning 2
The importance of the boiler feed tank, where boiler feed
3
water and make-up water are stored and into which 4
condensate is returned, is often underestimated. Most 5
items of plant in the boiler house are duplicated, but it is
6
rare to have two feed tanks and this crucial item is often
the last to be considered in the design process. 7
The feed tank is the major meeting place for cold make-up 8
water and condensate return. It is best if both of these if 9
flow through sparge pipes installed well below the water
surface in the feed water tank. The sparge pipes must be
Fig. 3.11.1 Water temperature versus oxygen content 10
adequately supported. 11
12
Calculation 2
Feedtank temperature = 85°C 13
17.1 Operating temperature
From Figure 3.11.1, 14
the oxygen content
It is important that the water in the feed tank is kept at a of water at 85°C = 2.3 ppm 15
high enough temperature to minimise the content of

Amount of
sodium sulphite required = (2.3 x 8)+4 = 22.4 ppm 16
dissolved oxygen and other gases. The correlation bet-
ween the water temperature and its oxygen content in a
Amount of
sodium sulphite required = 22.4 ppm x 100 / 45 = 49.8 ppm
17
feed tank can be seen in Figure 3.11.1.
(45% concentrated) 18
Annual amount of 49.8 ppm dissolved O2
If a high proportion of make-up water is used, heating the sodium sulphite required = 10 000kg / h x 6 000 h / year x
1 000000 ppm to 1 kg 19
feed water can substantially reduce the amount of oxygen Annual amount of
sodium sulphite required = 2988 kg / year 20
scavenging chemicals required.

Annual costs
of sodium sulphite = 2988 kg / year x £1 / kg 21
Example 3.11.1:
Cost savings associated with reducing the dissolved oxygen in feed water by heating.

Annual cost
of sodium sulphite = £ 2988 / year
22
Basis for calculation: Annual cost saving 23
This is the difference between the two values calculated:
• The standard dosing rate for sodium sulphite is 8 ppm per 1 ppm
of dissolved oxygen. Annual cost saving = £ 5 653 - £ 2 988 24
• It is usual to add an additional 4 ppm to maintain a reserve in the boiler.
• Typical liquid catalysed sodium sulphite contains only 45% sodium sulphite.
Annual cost saving = £2 665/year
25
Percentage of £ 2665 100
For the example:
annual cost saving =
£5653 * 1 26
Percentage of
The average generation rate
of the boiler = 10 000 kg/h
annual cost saving = 47% 27
The boiler operation per annum = 6 000 h/year 28
The cost of sodium sulphite = £1000/1000kg=£1/kg
29
Calculation 1 Obviously a cost is involved in heating the feed tank, but
Feedtank temperature = 60°C since the water temperature would be increased by the
30

From Figure 3.11.1,
the oxygen same amount inside the boiler, this is not additional energy, 31

content of water at 60°C = 4.8 ppm
Amount of
only the same energy used in a different place. 32
sodium sulphite required = (4.8 x 8)+4 = 42.4 ppm 33
Amount of The only real loss is the extra heat lost from the feed tank
sodium sulphite required = 42.4 ppm x 100 / 45 = 94.2 ppm
itself. Provided the feed tank is properly insulated, this 34
(45% concentrated)
Annual amount of 94.2ppm dissolved O2 extra heat loss will be almost insignificant. 35
sodium sulphite required = 10 000kg / h x 6 000 h/year x
Annual amount of
1 000000 ppm to 1 kg An important additional saving is reducing the amount of 36
sodium sulphite added to the boiler feed water. This will
sodium sulphite required = 5653 kg / year
Annual costs of reduce the amount of bottom blow down needed, and this
37
sodium sulphite = 5653 kg / year x £1/kg
saving will more than compensate for the small additional 38
Annual cost of
sodium sulphite = £ 5653 / year heat loss from the boiler feed tank. 39
23
1 To avoid damage to the boiler itself flash to steam at the low pressure area at the eye of the
The boiler undergoes thermal shock when cold water is pump impeller. If this happens, bubbles of steam are formed
2
introduced to the hot surfaces of the boiler wall and its as the pressure drops below the water vapour. When the
3 tubes. Hotter feed water means a lower temperature pressure rises again, these bubbles will collapse and water
4 difference and less risk of thermal shock. flows into the resulting cavity at a very high velocity.
5 This is known as ‚cavitation‘; it is noisy and can seriously
To maintain the designed output damage the pump.
6
The lower the boiler feed water temperature, the more heat To avoid this problem, it is essential to provide the best
7 is required in the boiler to produce steam. It is important to possible Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) to the pump so
8 maintain the feed tank temperature as high as possible, to that the static pressure is as high as possible. This is
9 maintain the required boiler output. greatly aided by locating the feed tank as high as possible
above the boiler, and generously sizing the suction pipe
10 work to the feed pump (Figure 3.11.2).
11 17.2 Cavitation of the boiler feed pump See capacity curves of selected feed water pump for
12 details about “NPSH” value and respect additional figures
Caution: very high condensate return rates (typically over for higher temperatures! If in doubt contact Hoval
13
80%) or damages at temperature regulators or condensate specialist! Also it´s to observe that pump cavitation danger
14 traps may result in excessive feed water temperature, and increase if pumps are operated below the designed
15 cavitation in the feed pump. lifting pressure; the necessary “NPSH” value increase due
16 If water close to boiling point enters a pump, it is liable to to higher flow rates!
17
18
19
20 Figure 3.11.2 NPSH above feedpump
21
22
23
24 Boiler feedtank
25
26
27
28
29
30
31 NPSH
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
24
17.3 Feed tank design 1

2
The feed tank (Figure 3.11.3) can influence the way in which Whilst cylindrical feed tanks, both vertical and horizontal,
the whole boiler house operates in several ways. By careful are not uncommon in other parts of the world, the rectan-
3
design of the feed tank and associated systems, substanti- gular shape is most regularly used for smaller capacities. 4
al savings can be made in energy and water treatment This normally offers the maximum volume of water storage 5
chemicals together with increased reliability of operation. for the floor area that it occupies.
6
7
8
Fig. 3.11.3 Boiler feed tank 9
10
11
12
13
Vent
Flash condensing 14
deareator head
15
16
17
Level control system 18
19
20
21
Cold make-up 22
Blowdown
heat recovery
Condensate
Return
23
24
25
Temperature 26
control system
27
28
29
Steam Recirculation
system 30
31
32
33
34
35
Feedwater to boiler 36
37
38
39
25
1 17.4 Feed tank materials: 17.5 Feedtank capacity

2
• Carbon steel: Probably the most common construction The feed tank provides a reserve of water to cover the
3 material for feed tanks: interruption of make-up water supply. Traditional practice
4 is to have a feed tank with sufficient capacity to allow
5 Uncoated, it is a relatively low cost material but it is one hour of steaming at maximum boiler evaporation;
extremely susceptible to corrosion. This weakness can be this gives the needed reaction time for the dosing
6
improved by applying suitable coatings to the surface, but chemicals at the feed tank too. For larger plants this may
7 the cost of this can be more than the cost of the tank, be impractical and an alternative might be to have a
8 especially as the coating will also need regular mainte- smaller ‚hotwell‘ feed tank with additional cold treated water
9 nance. storage. It should also have sufficient capacity above its
normal working level to accommodate any surges in the
10 • Plastic: This material is not usually suitable for feed tanks rate of condensate return. This capacity is referred to as
11 due to the high cost of materials able to withstand the ‚ullage‘.
12 relatively high temperatures involved. However, plastic is
a suitable material for the cold make-up water tank. A high condensate return rate can occur at start-up when
13
condensate lying in the plant and pipe work is suddenly
14 • Austenitic stainless steel: The enhanced life of a returned to the tank, where it may be lost to drain through
15 properly made feed tank in this material will invariably the overflow. If this occurs, it may be wise to review the
16 justify the higher initial cost. Type 304L is generally condensate return system, to control the return rate and
selected as the most appropriate grade of stainless steel. avoid wastage.
17
18
19 17.6 Feed tank piping
20
21 Fig. 3.11.4 The feed tank in relation to the other elements within a steam system
22
23
24 Make-Up water
25
26 Steam
Load
27
Feedtank
28
29
30
31 Boiler
32
33 Feedpump
34
35
36
37
38
Boiler blowdown
39
26
Condensate return down. Make-up (chemically treated) water will therefore 1

As steam is generated, the water within the boiler evapo- have to be introduced to the system to maintain the correct
2
rates and is replaced by pumping feed water into the boiler. working levels.
3
As the steam passes around the system to the various The return of condensate represents huge potential for 4
items of steam-using plant, it changes state back to conden- energy savings in the boiler house. Condensate has a high 5
sate, which is, essentially, very good quality hot water. heat content and approximately 1% less fuel is required for
6
every 6°C temperature rise in the feed tank.
Unless some contamination is likely (perhaps due to the 7
process), this condensate is ideal boiler feed water. It Figure 3.11.5(a) shows the formation of steam at 10 bar g 8
makes economic sense, therefore, to return as much as when the boiler is supplied with cold feed water at 9
possible for re-use. In reality, it is almost impossible to 10°C. The portion at the bottom of the diagram represents
return all the condensate; some steam may have been the enthalpy (42 kJ / kg) available in the feed water.
10
injected directly into the process for applications such as A further 740 kJ / kg of heat energy has to be added to 11
humidification and steam injection, and there will usually be the water in the boiler before saturation temperature at 12
water losses from the boiler itself, for instance, via blow 10 bar g is reached.
13
14
15
Fig. 3.11.5 Comparison of energy to raise steam at 10 bar(g)
16
17
Formation of 1 kg of
18
Formation of 1 kg of
steam @ 10 bar g – steam @ 10 bar g –
feedwater 70°C
19
feedwater 10°C
Requires 9.2% less energy 20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
27
1 Figure 3.11.5(b) again shows the formation of steam at 10 Vent

bar g, but this time the boiler is fed with feed water heated The feed tank must be vented to prevent any build-up of
2
to 70°C by returning more condensate. pressure. The vent should be fitted with a vent head which
3 incorporates an internal baffle to separate entrained water
4 The increased enthalpy contained in the feed water means from the steam for discharge through a drain connection.
5 that the boiler now only has to add 489 kJ / kg of heat
energy to bring it up to saturation temperature at 10 bar(g). Overflow
6
This represents a saving of 9.2% in the energy needed to This should be fitted with a ‚U‘ tube water seal to prevent
7 raise steam at this same pressure. flash steam loss.
8
9 The returned condensate is virtually pure water and this Feed pump take-off
saves not only on water costs but also on water treatment It should be generously sized so that friction losses are
10 chemicals, which reduces the losses associated with blow minimised, and the net positive suction head (NPSH) to the
11 down. feed pump is maximised.
12
If pressurised condensate is being returned then flash Drain
13
steam will be released in the feed tank. This flash steam A drain connection should be fitted in the bottom of the
14 needs to be condensed to ensure that both the heat and feed tank to facilitate its emptying for inspection.
15 water content are recovered. The traditional method of
16 doing this has been to introduce it into the feed tank Insulation
through sparge pipes. The feed tank should be adequately insulated to prevent
17 heat losses. The advice of a reputable insulation specialist
18 should be sought in selecting the correct material and
19 Make-up water economic thickness.
This is cold water from the water treatment plant that
20
makes up any losses in the system. Inspection opening
21 An adequately sized inspection opening should be fitted to
22 Many water treatment plants need a substantial flow enable internal inspection and the fitting of ancillaries, as
23 through them in order to achieve optimum performance. A appropriate.
‚trickle‘ flow as a result of a modulating control into the feed
24 tank can, for example, have an adverse effect on the Water level control
25 performance of a softener. For this reason a small plastic Traditionally, float controls have been used for this
26 or galvanised steel cold make-up tank is often fitted. The application. Modern controls use level probes, which will
flow from the softener is controlled ‚on / off‘ into the give an output signal to modulate a control valve. Not
27
make-up tank. From there a modulating valve controls its only does this type of system require less maintenance
28 flow into the feed tank. but, with the use of an appropriate controller, a single
29 probe may incorporate level alarms and remote
30 This type of installation leads to ‚smoother‘ operation of the indicating devices.
boiler plant. To avoid the relatively cold make-up water
31
sinking directly to the bottom of the tank (where it will be Level probes can be arranged to signal high water level,
32 drawn directly into the boiler feed water line), and to ensure the normal working (or control) water level, and low
33 uniform temperature distribution, it is common practice to water level. The signals from the probe can be linked
sparge the make-up water into the feed tank at a higher to a control valve on the cold water make-up supply.
34
level. The probe is fitted with a protection tube inside the feed
35 tank to protect it from turbulence, which can result in
36 Steam injection false readings.
37 As previously mentioned, there are significant advantages
to maintain the feed tank contents at a high temperature. Water level indicator
38
One of the most convenient ways of achieving this higher A local level indicator or water level gauge glass on the
39 temperature is by injecting steam into the feed tank. feed tank is recommended, allowing the viewing of the
28
contents for confirmation purposes, and for commissioning impurities that find a way through the main treatment 1
level probes. system. The objectives of water treatment are:
2
• To prevent scale formation from low remaining levels of
Temperature gauge hardness which may have escaped treatment.
3
This can be a local or remote reading device. Sodium phosphate is normally used for this, and causes 4
the hardness to precipitate to the bottom of the boiler 5
where it can be blown down.
6
17.7 Pressurised deaerator • To deal with any other specific impurities present.These
will be specific substances for specific applications. 7
On larger boiler plants, pressurised deaerators are someti- • To maintain the correct chemical balance in the boiler 8
mes installed and live steam is used to bring the feed water water - to prevent corrosion it needs to be somewhat 9
up to approximately 105°C to drive off the oxygen. Pressu- alkaline and not acidic.
rised deaerators are usually thermally efficient and will Typically a 1% caustic solution will be used to achieve
10
reduce dissolved oxygen to very low levels. a target pH of between 9 and 11. EN-norms 11
recommends pH 10.5 - 12.0 for shell boilers at 10 bar, pH 12
Pressurised deaerators: 9 could be used in higher pressure boilers only.
13
• Must be fitted with controls and safety devices. • To condition any suspended matter.
• Are classified as pressure vessels, and will require This will be a flocculant or coagulant, which will cause the 14
periodic, formal inspection. suspended matter to agglomerate and sink to the bottom 15
of the boiler from where it can be blown down. 16
This means that pressurised deaerators are expensive, and • To provide anti-foaming protection.
are only justified in very large boiler houses. If a pressure • To remove traces of dissolved gases.
17
deaerator is to be considered, its part load performance (or These are primarily oxygen and carbon dioxide and the 18
effective turndown) must be investigated. presence of these dissolved gases in the boiler plant and 19
system will cause corrosion. It is, therefore, necessary to
20
remove and / or neutralise them if damage is to be
17.8 Conditioning treatment prevented. 21
22
This is additional treatment which supplements external Carbon dioxide 23
treatment, (for example, the base exchange system) and is Dissolved carbon dioxide is often present in feed water in
the form of carbonic acid and this causes the pH level to
24
generally carried out by adding chemicals in metered
amounts, into either the feed water tank or the feed water fall. Proper pH control will correct this but carbon dioxide 25
pipeline prior to its entry into the boiler. is also released in boilers due to heating of carbonates 26
and bicarbonates. These decompose into caustic soda
27
The chemical treatment required with the release of carbon dioxide. This may need to be
depends on many factors such as: dealt with by use of a condensate corrosion inhibitor, to 28
• The impurities inherent in the make-up water prevent corrosive attack to the condensate system. 29
and its hardness. 30
• The volume of condensate returned for re-use and its Oxygen
31
quality in terms of pH value, TDS content, and hardness. The most harmful of the dissolved gases is oxygen, which
• The design of the boiler and its operating conditions. can cause pitting of metal. Very small amounts of oxygen 32
can cause severe damage. It can be removed both 33
Deciding on the type of chemical regime and water mechanically and chemically. The amount of dissolved
34
treatment system is a matter for a skilled water treatment oxygen present is dependent on the temperature of the
specialist who should always be consulted. feed water; the lower the feed water temperature, the
35
larger the volume of dissolved oxygen present. 36
The purpose of the conditioning treatment is to enhance 37
the treatment of the raw water after it has been processed Any remaining oxygen is then dealt with by the addition
38
as far as possible by the main water treatment plant. It of a chemical oxygen scavenger such as catalysed
ensures quality because, inevitably, there will be some sodium sulphite. 39
29
1 8 ppm of sodium sulphite is sufficient to deal with 1 ppm of Further detail on this complicated subject is available from
dissolved oxygen. However, it is usual to add an extra (or water treatment handbooks and water treatment specia-
2
‚reserve‘) of 4 ppm of sodium sulphite because: lists; this is very much a matter for expert advice and
3 • There is a significant danger of corrosive damage. professional analysis.
4 • The chemical dosing system is usually ‚open loop‘ with
5 water samples taken at intervals, and adjustments made There are however, one or two areas which call for further
to the dosing rate. explanation:
6
• There is a concern about complete dispersion of the • The main boiler water treatment programme is aimed at
7 chemical, perhaps due to the method of injection, changing scale-forming salts into soft or mobile sludges.
8 circulation currents, or stratification within the feed tank. The sludge conditioners used in the chemical dosing
9 prevent these solids from depositing on metal surfaces
The total dosing rate, therefore, is 8 ppm of sodium and keep them in suspension.
10 sulphite per 1 ppm of dissolved oxygen plus 4 ppm. • Under high pressures and temperatures, silica can
11 present a real problem because it can combine with the
12 Other oxygen scavengers involve organic compounds metal heating surfaces to cause hot spots. Special
or hydrazine. The latter, however, is thought to be synthetic polymers can prevent this problem.
13
carcinogenic, and is not generally used in low and medium • Alkalinity levels in the boiler are particularly important and
14 pressure plants. these are controlled by the addition of sodium hydroxide.
15
16 Other ‚internal treatment‘ to provide protection for the boiler Maintaining a pH level of between 10.5 - 12 will avoid
and the condensate system can include: corrosion problems by providing stable conditions for the
17 • Neutralising amines – These have a neutralising effect on formation of a film of magnetite (Fe3O4) in a thin, dense layer
18 the acid generated by the solution of carbon dioxide in on the metal surfaces, protecting them from corrosive attack.
19 condensate.
• Filming amines – These create an oil attractive, water Chemicals added during the conditioning treatment will
20
repellent film on metal surfaces which is resistant to both increase the TDS level in the boiler water and a higher rate
21 carbon dioxide and oxygen. of blow down will be required.
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
18 Water preparation for steam boiler plants
29
30
The operating objectives for steam boiler plant include: • Freedom from scale – If hardness is present in the feed
31
• Safe operation. water and not controlled chemically, then scaling of the
32 • Maximum combustion and heat transfer efficiency. heat transfer surfaces will occur, reducing heat transfer
33 • Minimum maintenance. and efficiency – making frequent cleaning of the boiler
• Long working life. necessary. In extreme cases, local hot spots can occur,
34
leading to mechanical damage or even tube failure.
35 The quality of the water used to produce the steam in the • Freedom from corrosion and chemical attack – If the
36 boiler will have a profound effect on meeting these objec- water contains dissolved gases, particularly oxygen,
37 tives. corrosion of the boiler surfaces, piping and other equip-
ment is likely to occur.
38
There is a need for the boiler to operate under the
39 following criteria: If the pH value of the water is too low, the acidic solution will
30
attack metal surfaces. If the pH value is too high, and the These problems may be completely or in part due to 1
water is alkaline, other problems such as foaming may occur. foaming in the boiler. However, because foaming is
2
endemic to boiler water, a better understanding of foam
Caustic embrittlement or caustic cracking must also be itself is required:
3
prevented in order to avoid metal failure. Cracking and • Surface definition – Foam on a glass of beer sits on top 4
embrittlement are caused by too high a concentration of of the liquid, and the liquid / foam interface is clearly 5
sodium hydroxide. Older riveted boilers are more suscep- defined. In a boiling liquid, the liquid surface is indistinct,
6
tible to this kind of attack; however, care is still necessary varying from a few small steam bubbles at the bottom of
on modern welded boilers at the tube ends. the vessel, to many large steam bubbles at the top. 7
• Agitation increases foaming – The trend is towards 8
smaller boilers for a given steaming rate. Smaller boilers 9
18.1 Good quality steam have less water surface area, so the rate at which steam
is released per square metre of water area is increased.
10
If the impurities in the boiler feed water are not dealt with This means that the agitation at the surface is greater. It 11
properly, carryover of boiler water into the steam system follows then that smaller boilers are more prone to 12
can occur. This may lead to problems elsewhere in the foaming.
13
steam system, such as: • Hardness – Hard water does not foam. However, boiler
• Contamination of the surfaces of control valves – This water is deliberately softened to prevent scale formation, 14
will affect their operation and reduce their capacity. and this gives it a propensity to foam. 15
• Contamination of the heat transfer surfaces of process • Colloidal substances – Contamination of boiler water with 16
plant – This will increase thermal resistance, and reduce a colloid in suspension, for example milk, causes violent
the effectiveness of heat transfer. foaming. Note: Colloidal particles are less than 0.0001 mm
17
• Restriction of steam trap orifices – This will reduce in diameter, and can pass through a normal filter. 18
steam trap capacities, and ultimately lead to water logging • TDS level – As the boiler water TDS increases, the steam 19
of the plant, and reduced output. bubbles become more stable, and are more reluctant to
20
burst and separate.
21
Carryover can be caused by two factors: 22
• Priming – This is the ejection of boiler water into the Corrective action against carryover 23
steam take-off and is generally due to one or more of the The following alternatives are open to the Engineering
Manager to minimise foaming in the boiler:
24
following:
• Operating the boiler with too high a water level. • Operation – Smooth boiler operation is important. With a 25
•O perating the boiler below its design pressure; this boiler operating under constant load and within its design 26
increases the volume and the velocity of the steam parameters, the amount of entrained moisture carried
27
released from the water surface. over with steam may be less than 2%.
• Excessive steam demand. If load changes are rapid and of large magnitude, the 28
• Foaming – This is the formation of foam in the space pressure in the boiler can drop considerably, initiating 29
between the water surface and the steam off-take. The extremely turbulent conditions as the contents of the 30
greater the amount of foaming, the greater the problems boiler flash to steam. To make matters worse, the
31
which will be experienced. reduction in pressure also means that the specific volume
The following are indications and consequences of the steam is increased, and the foam bubbles are 32
of foaming: proportionally larger. 33
•W ater will trickle down from the steam connection of If the plant conditions are such that substantial changes in
34
the gauge glass; this makes it difficult to accurately load are normal, it may be prudent to consider:
determine the water level. •M odulating boiler water level controls if on / off are
35
•L evel probes, floats and differential pressure cells currently fitted. 36
have difficulty in accurately determining water level. • " Surplussing controls" that will limit the level to 37
• Alarms may be sounded, and the burner(s) may even which the boiler pressure is allowed to drop.
38
"lockout". This will require manual resetting of the boiler • A steam accumulator
control panel before supply can be re-established. (contact your Hoval agency for details) 39
31
1 • " Feed-forward" controls that will bring the boiler up 18.3 Ion exchange
2 to maximum operating pressure before the load is
applied. An ion exchanger is an insoluble material normally made in
3 • " Slow-opening" controls that will bring plant on-line the form of resin beads of 0.5 to 1.0 mm diameter. The
4 over a pre-determined period. resin beads are usually employed in the form of a packed
5 • Chemical control – Anti-foaming agents may be added bed contained in a glass reinforced plastic pressure vessel.
to the boiler water. These operate by breaking down the The resin beads are porous and hydrophilic – that is, they
6
foam bubbles. However, these agents are not effective absorb water. Within the bead structure are fixed ionic
7 when treating foams caused by suspended solids. groups with which are associated mobile exchangeable
8 • Control of TDS – A balance has to be found between: ions of opposite charge. These mobile ions can be repla-
9 • A high TDS level with its attendant ced by similarly charged ions, from the salts dissolved in
economy of operation. the water surrounding the beads.
10 • A low TDS level which minimises foaming.
11 • Safety – The dangers of overheating due to scale, and of
12 corrosion due to dissolved gases, are easy to understand. 18.4 Base exchange softening
In extreme cases, foaming, scale and sludge formation
13
can lead to the boiler water level controls sensing This is the simplest form of ion exchange and also the
14 improper levels, creating a danger to personnel and most widely used. The resin bed is initially activated
15 process alike. (charged) by passing a 7-12% solution of brine (sodium
16 chloride or common salt) through it, which leaves the resin
rich in sodium ions. Thereafter, the water to be softened is
17
18.2 External water treatment pumped through the resin bed and ion exchange occurs.
18 Calcium and magnesium ions displace sodium ions from
19 It is generally agreed that where possible on steam boilers, the resin, leaving the flowing water rich in sodium salts.
the principal feed water treatment should be external to the Sodium salts stay in solution at very high concentrations
20
boiler. and temperatures and do not form harmful scale in the
21 boiler.
22 A summary of the treated water quality that might be
23 obtained from the various processes, based on a typical From Figure 3.10.1 it can be seen that the total hardness
hard raw water supply, is shown in Table 3.9.2. This is the ions are exchanged for sodium. With sodium base
24
water that the external treatment plant has to deal with. exchange softening there is no reduction in the total
25 dissolved solids level (TDS in parts per million or ppm) and
26 External water treatment processes can be listed as: no change in the pH. All that has happened is an exchange
27 • Reverse osmosis – A process where pure water is of one group of potentially harmful scale forming salts
forced through a semi-permeable membrane leaving a for another type of less harmful, non-scale forming salts.
28 concentrated solution of impurities, which is rejected to As there is no change in the TDS level, resin bed
29 waste. exhaustion cannot be detected by a rise in conductivity
30 (TDS and conductivity are related). Regeneration is
• Lime; lime / soda softening – With lime softening, therefore activated on a time or total flow basis.
31
hydrated lime (calcium hydroxide) reacts with calcium and
32 magnesium bicarbonates to form a removable sludge. Softeners are relatively cheap to operate and can produce
33 This reduces the alkaline (temporary) hardness. Lime / treated water reliably for many years. They can be used
34 soda (soda ash) softening reduces non-alkaline (perma- successfully even in high alkaline (temporary) hardness
nent) hardness by chemical reaction. areas provided that at least 50% of condensate is returned.
35 Where there is little or no condensate return, a more
36 • Ion exchange – Is by far the most widely used method of sophisticated type of ion exchange is preferable.
37 water treatment for shell boilers producing saturated
steam. This tutorial will concentrate on the following Sometimes a lime / soda softening treatment is employed
38
processes by which water is treated: Base exchange, as a pre-treatment before base exchange. This reduces the
39 Dealkalisation and Demineralisation. load on the resins.
32
1
Fig. 3.10.1 Base exchange softening
Brine regeneration
2
Raw water TDS = 200 ppm 3
Ca(HCO3)2 = Calcium bicarbonate 4
MgCl2 = Magnesium chloride
5
Na2SO4 = Sodium sulphate
6
7
8
SAC SAC = Strong acid cation resin 9
Na+ Na+ = Sodium form
10
11
Softened water = 220 ppm 12
2NaHCO3 = Sodium bicarbonate 13
2NaCl = Sodium chloride
Na2SO4 = Sodium sulphate 14
15
16
18.5 Dealkalisation 17
There are several types of dealkaliser but the most common
18
The disadvantage of base exchange softening is that there
is no reduction in the TDS and alkalinity. This may be variety is shown in Figure 3.10.2. It is really a set of three 19
overcome by the prior removal of the alkalinity and this units, a dealkaliser, followed by a degasser and then a base 20
is usually achieved through the use of a dealkaliser. exchange softener.
21
22
23
24
25
26
Fig. 3.10.2 A dealkalisation plant 27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
1 2 3 4 5 36
Ca(HCO3)2 2H2CO3 H 2O H 2O H2O
MgCl2 MgCl2 MgCl2 MgCl2 2NaCl 37
Na2SO4 Na2SO4 Na2SO4 Na2SO4 Na2SO4 38
pH 7.6 pH 4.5 - 5.0 pH 4.5 - 5.0 pH 7.5 - 8.5
39
33
1 18.6 Dealkaliser
2
The system shown in Figure 3.10.3 is sometimes called hardness would pass straight into the boiler. A dealkalisation
3 ‚split-stream‘ softening. A dealkaliser would seldom be used plant will remove temporary hardness as shown in Figure
4 without a base exchange softener, as the solution produced 3.10.3. This system would generally be employed when a
5 is acidic and would cause corrosion, and any permanent very high percentage of make-up water is to be used.
6
7
8
9
10
11 Fig. 3.10.3: The dealkalisation process
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
34
18.7 Demineralisation 1
2
This process will remove virtually all the salts. It involves solids. It is used for very high pressure boilers such as
passing the raw water through both cation and anion those in power stations.
3
exchange resins (Figure 3.10.4). Sometimes the resins may 4
be contained in one vessel and this is termed ‚mixed bed‘ If the raw water has a high amount of suspended solids this 5
demineralisation. will quickly foul the ion exchange material, drastically
6
increasing operating costs. In these cases, some pre-treat-
The process removes virtually all the minerals and produces ment of the raw water such as clarification or filtration may 7
very high quality water containing almost no dissolved be necessary. 8
9
10
Fig. 3.10.4: Demineralisation
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
1 2 3 4 29
Ca(HCO3)2 2H2CO3 H 2O H 2O
30
MgCl2 2HCI 2HCI H2O
31
Na2SO4 H2SO4 H2SO4 H 2O
Na2SiO3 H2SiO4 H2SiO3 H 2O 32
pH 7.6 pH 2.0 - 2.5 pH 2.0 - 2.5 pH 8.5 - 9.0 33
34
35
36
37
38
39
35
1 18.8 Selection of external water treatment plant 18.9 Shell boiler plant
2
Looking at Table 3.10.1, it is tempting to think that a Generally, shell boilers are able to tolerate a fairly high TDS
3 demineralisation plant should always be used. However, level, and the relatively low capital and running costs of
4 each system has a capital cost and a running cost, as base-exchange softening plants (see Table 3.10.2) will
5 Table 3.10.2 illustrates, plus the demands of the individual usually make them the first choice.
plant need to be evaluated. If the raw water supply has a high TDS value, and / or the
6
condensate return rate is low (< 40%), there are a few
7 Process Hardness ppm Non- TDS options which may be considered:
hardness ppm
8 Non salts ppm • Pre-treatment with lime / soda which will cause the
Alkaline alkaline
9 alkaline hardness to precipitate out of solution as calcium
carbonate and magnesium hydroxide, and then drain from
10 Raw water 200 50 60 310
the reaction vessel.
11 Lime 30 50 58 138 • A dealkalisation plant to reduce the TDS level of the water
12 Lime / soda 30 0 108 138
supplied to the boiler plant.
13
Lime / base exchange 5 0 133 138 Within the last years it´s common used to install an reverse
14 osmosis plant to reduce TDS level – the operation is simply
15 Base exchange 5 0 255 260
and the investment costs for the modules were greatly
16 Dealkalisation 5 50 60 115 reduced during the years.
17 Dealkalisation + base
5 0 110 115
exchange
18 18.10 Summary
19 Demineralisation 1 0 2 3
The quality of raw water is obviously an important factor
20 Reverse osmosis 20 5 6 31
when choosing a water treatment plant. Although TDS
21 levels will affect the performance of the boiler operation,
Table 3.10.1: Water quality versus treatment process
22 other issues, such as total alkalinity or silica content can
23 sometimes be more important and then dominate the
selection process for water treatment equipment.
24 Type of system Comparative cost sale
Capital cost Running cost
25
Base exchange 1 1
26
27 Dealkalisation + base exchange 3 3
28 Demineralisation 15 12
29 Table 3.10.2: Relative costs of water treatment processes

30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
36
1
18.11 Boiler – and Feed water specifications for 2
Hoval steam boilers:
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
37
1
2
19 Purge pit – part 1
3 3.)Construction:
1.) General:
4 Hot boiler water is not allowed to be drained directly into Pit lining made from armoured concrete (temperature
5 the city sewer network. The temperature should normally resistant)
lower then 60°C (depends to local requirements). So it´s Pit cladding made from clinker brick and alkaline resistant
6
necessary to cool the boiler waste water and vent the mortar
7 expansion steam before running the water into the sewer Inlet- and outlet pipes made from corrosion resistant
8 system. For fast “cool-down” it´s recommended to install a material
9 cooling water supply pipe. If there´re special requests Vent pipe made from “Eternit”-pipe or similar material
about drain temperature it may be necessary to install 2 (steam resistant and to be installed over the roof or to
10 another safe area)
pits in serial connection.
11 Cooling water inlet to be ended at least 50 mm above the
12 2.) Selection of purge pit size: highest water level
The pit size depends to The inspection opening of pit has to be done with lockable
13
• boiler size cover
14 • boiler operation pressure It´s recommended to install an “expansion vessel” in front
15 • heat carrier (low-pressure steam, high-pressure steam, of purge pit inlet – this will separate the inlet hot stream into
16 low-temperature heating water, high temperature water) water and steam, the inlet pressure and turbulences at the
Selection is done according selection table (see “Purge- purge pit will be reduced.
17
pit – part 2”)
18 4.) Notes:
19 Example: Boiler with 150m² heat transfer surface, 8 bar • Purge pits which are installed enclosed to cellar or other
building walls are to be done with special care; leaking
20 working pressure results in pit size = > 400 L
water will destroy the walls (due to high alkalinity). Install
21 Sometimes – especially if purge and desalination rates are expansion compensation material between cladding and
22 higher it´s recommended to calculate the purge pit volume lining to absorb thermal expansions between cladding
23 exactly; if bigger pit volumes are necessary extend the and lining.
dimensions accordingly (length * width; the depth could • If the purge quantity is higher than 3% of maximum boiler
24
stay like example drawing). output it´s recommended to install a continuous “TDS”
25 regulation (conductivity regulation).
26 • Install a “siphon” at overflow pipe (to protect sewer
Example: system against steam entry) and don’t forget a cleaning
27
V = VH + VH * F opening for the siphon.
28
V = (TH-TA) / (TA – TC)
29 5.) Operation:
30 V=
VH =
Minimum water volume of pit below the water level
Estimated volume of hot water discharged at one time
Before using the boiler purge valve cool down the pit by
opening the cooling water inlet; if pit volume is cooled down
31 F= The estimated factor
TH = Maximum Temperature of hot water discharged into the pit open the purge valve.
32 TC = Assumed temperature of cold water in the pit (say 15°C)
For “automatic” purge systems it´s recommended to have
TA = Temperature of waste allowed into the sewer (say 50°C)
33 the cooling water supply automatically regulated too.
To size a cooling pit to receive a discharge of 200 litres of hot water (with
34 100°C), where the maximum permissible discharge temperature to the sewer
is 50°C. The temperature of the cold water in the cooling pit is 20°C.
35
36 F = (100 – 50) / (50 – 20) = 1,66
37 V = 200 litres + 200 litres * 1,66 = 533 litres
38 Therefore the capacity of the cooling pit (below min water level)
should be > 533 litres.
39
38
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3
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39
39
1
2 21 Calculation of temperatures and quantities (Mixture of 2 water streams)
3
4 VG, TG
There´re following possible variations: If V1 and V2 are not known:
5 TG =
(V1*T1+V2*T2)
VG =
(V1*T1+V2*T2)
V1 = VG *
(TG-T2)
VG TG (T1-T2)
6
V1, T1 V2, T2
(VG*TG-V2*T2) (VG*TG-V2*T2) (TG-T1)
7 T1 = V1 = V2 = VG *
TG * VG = V1 * T1 + V2 * T2 V1 T1 (T2-T1)
8 V = Volume flow [Litre]
(VG*TG+V1*T1) (VG*TG-V1*T1)
9 T = Temperature [°C]
T2 =
V2
V2 =
T2
10
11
12 22 Pressure loss at steam pipes (see also point 25,26,28 and 32)
13
14 Δp = C *
ϱ * w2 Armatures and pipe pieces: C = ξ
2
15 Pipes: C = λ l/d with λ = 0,0206 (according Eberle)
16
17
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20
21
22
23
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25
26
27
28
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31
32
33
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35
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37
38
For piping elements with same dimension take the resis- single values (Σ C and operating values you´ll find the
39 tance values from above picture. With summary of all complete pressure loss – in bar - at following picture.
40
Example: 1
Piping elements in DN 50 Operation values:
2
20 m straight pipe: C = 8,1 Temperature: 300°C
1 piece 90° corner valve C = 3,3 Absolute steam pressure: 16 bar 3
2 special flow valves C = 5,6 Flow speed: 40 m/sec 4
1 piece T-piece C = 3,1 5
2 pieces elbow 90° C = 1,0
6
Summary of all “C” Σ C = 21,1 Result: ΔP = 1,1 bar 7
8
9
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12
13
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19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
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31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
41
1
2
23 Pressure loss at straight water pipes
3 Following picture is valid for cold water and new “cast iron” Pressure loss:
2
Volume stream:
Hv = c * w
• π
4 pipes. The pressure loss values are to multiply with:
(2 * g)
with C = λ l/d V = w * A=w * d 2 *
4
0,8 for new milled steel pipes
5 1,25 for older (slightly rusty) steel pipes Example: Result:
Cast iron pipe DN 80 Pressure loss height Hv = 2,0m/100m
6 1,7 for old encrusted pipes (observe real inner diameter too!) Volume stream V = 20 m³/h Flow speed w: 1,1 m/sec
7
8
Pressure loss table (water)
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
42
1
24 Determination of pipe size 2
24.1 Flow speed values (for the orientation) Feed water pressure pipes 1,5 – 3,5 m/sec
3
Cooling water suction pipes 0,7 – 1,5 m/sec 4
Steam vent pipes and exhaust vapors 15 – 25 m/sec Cooling water pressure pipes 1,0 – 2,0 m/sec 5
Expansion steam at condensate pipes 20 – 40 m/sec Sanitary and domestic water pipes 1,0 – 2,0 m/sec
6
Saturated steam headers < 15 m/sec Compressed air pipes 15 – 25 m/sec
Saturated steam pipes (< 10 bar) 15 – 20 m/sec Fuel oil (light) – suction pipes < 1 m/sec 7
Saturated steam pipes (10 – 40 bar) 20 – 40 m/sec Fuel oil (light) pressure pipes 1,5 – 2 m/sec 8
Superheated steam pipes (small capacity) 40 – 50 m/sec Fuel oil (heavy) – suction pipes 0,1 – 0,5 m/sec 9
Superheated steam pipes (high capacity) 50 – 65 m/sec Fuel oil (heavy) – pressure pipes 0,5 – 1 m/sec
Condensate pipes (in front of traps) 1 – 2 m/sec Natural gas (main pipes) – up to 2 bar 4 – 20 m/sec
10
Feed water suction pipes 0,5 – 1,0 m/sec Natural gas (main pipes) – up to 5 bar 11 – 35 m/sec 11
12
13
14
25 Flow speed at pipes (liquid, gaseous) 15
16
4
17
V̇ = volume flow m³/sec V̇ = volume flow m³/h
w * d2 18
W = flow speed V̇ =
m/sec w = flow speed m/sec
A = flow area m²
354
d = pipe inside diameter mm 19
d = pipe inside diameter 20
21
Flow speed diagram: 22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
43
1
2
26 Steam pipes - dimensions
3 Example: S
team temperature: 300°C Steam quantity: 30 to/h
4 Absolute steam pressure: 16 bar Pipe dimension: DN 200
5
Result: Flow speed “w” = 43 m/sec
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
44
1
27 Condensate pipes – dimensions 2
3
The section of pipeline downstream of the trap will carry Water: 4
both condensate and flash steam at the same pressure and The density of saturated water at 0.5 bar g is 950 kg/m3, 5
temperature. This is referred to as two-phase flow, and the
0.921kg 6
mixture of liquid and vapour will have the characteristics of and the volume occupied by 0.921kg: = 0.001 m3
both steam and water in proportion to how much of each is
950 kg/m3 7
present. Consider the following example. 8
Steam: 9
An item of plant uses steam at a constant 4 bar g pressure. From steam tables, specific volume (vg) of steam at 0.5 bar
A mechanical steam trap is fitted, and condensate at
10
g = 1.15 m/kg
saturation temperature is discharged into a condensate 11
The volume, occupied by the steam is
main working at 0.5 bar g.
0.079 kg x 1.15 m/kg = 0.091 m 12
The total volume occupied by the steam and condensate 13
Determine the proportions by mass, and by volume, of
water and steam in the condensate main. mixture is: 14
0.001 m (water) + 0.091 m (steam) = 0.092 m
15
By proportion (%):
16
Part 1 - Determine the proportions by mass
From steam tables:
0.001
x
100 17
The water occupies = = 1% space
At 4.0 bar g hf = 640.7 kJ/kg
0.092 1 18
At 0.5 bar g hf = 464.1 kJ/kg hfg = 2225.6 kJ/kg
0.091 100
19
The steam occupies = x = 99% space
0.092 1 20
Equation 2.2.5 is used to determine the proportion
of flash steam: From this, it follows that the two-phase fluid in the trap 21
discharge line will have much more in common with steam 22
(hf at P1) - (hf at P1)
Proportion of flash steam = than water, and it is sensible to size on reasonable steam 23
hfg at P2 velocities rather than use the relatively small volume of
Equation 2.2.5 24
condensate as the basis for calculation. If lines are
undersized, the flash steam velocity and backpressure will 25
Where: increase, which can cause waterhammer, reduce the trap 26
P1 = Initial pressure capacity, and flood the process.
27
P2 = Final press Steam lines are sized with attention to maximum velocities.
hf = Specific liquid enthalpy (kJ/kg) Dry saturated steam should travel no faster than 40 m/s. 28
hfg = Specific enthalpy of evaporation (kJ/kg) Wet steam should travel somewhat slower (15 to 20 m/s) 29
as it carries moisture which can otherwise have an erosive 30
and damaging effect on fittings and valves.
640.7- 464.1 100 31
Proportion of flash steam = x = 7.9 % Trap discharge lines can be regarded as steam lines
2225.6 1
carrying very wet steam, and should be sized on similarly 32
Clearly, if 7.9% is flashing to steam, the remaining 100 - 7.9 low velocities. 33
= 92.1% of the initial mass flow will remain as water. Condensate discharge lines from traps are notoriously 34
more difficult to size than steam lines due to the two-phase
flow characteristic. In practice, it is impossible (and often
35
Part 2 - Determine the proportions by volume unnecessary) to determine the exact condition of the fluid 36
Based on an initial mass of 1 kg of condensate discharged inside the pipe. 37
at 4 bar g saturation temperature, the mass of flash steam Although the amount of flash steam produced (see Figure
38
is 0.079 kg and the mass of condensate is 0.921 kg 14.3.2) is related to the pressure difference across the trap,
(established from Part 1). other factors will also have an effect. 39
45
1 Conclusion: For designing the dimension of condensate

Fig. 14.3.2 Quantity of flash steam graph
2 lines always check the amount of expansion steam. For
normal operation conditions of steam systems it´s always
3 to design the condensate line according to expansion
4 steam quantity!
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
28 Pipe expansion and support
24
28.1 Allowance for expansion increase from ambient to working temperatures. This will
25 create stress upon certain areas within the distribution
26 All pipes will be installed at ambient temperature. Pipes system, such as pipe joints, which, in the extreme, could
carrying hot fluids such as water or steam operate at higher fracture. The amount of the expansion is readily calculated
27
temperatures. using Equation 10.4.1, or read from an appropriate chart
28 It follows that they expand, especially in length, with an such as Figure 10.4.1.
29
30
Where:
31 Expansion (mm) = L x ΔT x α L = Length of pipe between anchors (m)
32 ΔT = Temperature difference between ambient temperature and operating temperatures (°C)
Equation 10.4.1
33 α = Expansion coefficient (mm/m °C) x 10-3
34
Temperature range (°C)
35 Material
<0 0 - 100 0 - 200 0 - 300 0 - 400 0 - 500 0 - 600 0 - 700
36 Carbon steel 0.1% - 0.2% C 12,8 13,9 14,9 15,8 16,6 17,3 17,9 -
37 Alloy steel 1% Cr 0.5% Mo 13,7 14,5 15,2 15,8 16,4 17,0 17,6 -
38 Stainless steel 18% Cr 8% Ni 9,4 20,0 20,9 21,2 21,8 22,3 22,7 23,0
39 Table 10.4.1 Expansion coefficients (a) (mm/m °C x 10-3)
46
Example 10.4.1 28.2 Pipework flexibility 1

A 30 m length of carbon steel pipe is to be used to trans-
2
port steam at 4 bar g (152°C). If the pipe is installed at The pipework system must be sufficiently flexible to
10°C, determine the expansion using Equation 10.4.1. accommodate the movements of the components as they
3
expand. In many cases the flexibility of the pipework 4
Expansion (mm) = L x ΔT x α system, due to the length of the pipe and number of bends 5
Where: L = 30m and supports, means that no undue stresses are imposed.
6
ΔT = 152°C – 10°C In other installations, however, it will be necessary to
ΔT = 142°C incorporate some means of achieving this required 7
α in the range 0 - 200 = 14.9 x 10-3 mm/m°C for flexibility. 8
carbon steel pipe 9
Expansion = 30 m x 142°C x 14.9 x 10-3 mm/m°C An example on a typical steam system is the discharge of
Expansion = 63.5 m condensate from a steam mains drain trap into the conden-
10
Alternatively, the chart in Figure 10.4.1 can be used for sate return line that runs along the steam line (Figure 11
finding the approximate expansion of a variety of steel pipe 10.4.2). Here, the difference between the expansions of the 12
lengths – see Example 10.4.2 for explanation of use. two pipework systems must be taken into account. The
13
steam main will be operating at a higher temperature than
Example 10.4.2 that of the condensate main, and the two connection points 14
Using Figure 10.4.1. Find the approximate expansion from will move relative to each other during system warm-up. 15
15°C, of 100 metres of carbon steel pipework used to 16
distribute steam at 265°C.
17
Temperature difference is 265 - 15°C = 250°C. 18
19
Where the diagonal temperature difference line of 250°C
20
cuts the horizontal pipe length line at 100 m, drop a vertical
line down. For this example an approximate expansion of 21
330 mm is indicated. 22
23
24
Fig. 10.4.2 Flexibility in connection to condensate return line
25
26
The amount of movement to be taken up by the piping and
27
any device incorporated in it can be reduced by ‚cold draw‘.
The total amount of expansion is first calculated for each
28
section between fixed anchor points. The pipes are left 29
short by half of this amount, and stretched cold by pulling 30
up bolts at a flanged joint, so that at ambient temperature,
31
the system is stressed in one direction. When warmed
through half of the total temperature rise, the piping is 32
unstressed. At working temperature and having fully 33
Fig. 10.4.1 A chart showing the expansion in various steel pipe lengths expanded, the piping is stressed in the opposite direction. 34
at various temperature differences The effect is that instead of being stressed from 0 F to +1 F
units of force, the piping is stressed from -½ F to + ½ F
35
units of force. 36
bar g 1 2 3 4 5 7,5 10 15 20 25 30 37
In practical terms, the pipework is assembled cold with a
°C 120 134 144 152 159 173 184 201 215 226 236 38
spacer piece, of length equal to half the expansion,
Table 10.4.2 Temperature of saturated steam between two flanges. When the pipework is fully installed 39
47
1 and anchored at both ends, the spacer is removed and the Roller supports (Figure 10.4.5 and 10.4.6) are ideal methods
2 joint pulled up tight (see Figure 10.4.3). for supporting pipes, at the same time allowing them to
move in two directions. For steel pipework, the rollers
3 should be manufactured from ferrous material. For copper
4 pipework, they should be manufactured from non-ferrous
5 material. It is good practice for pipework supported on
rollers to be fitted with a pipe saddle bolted to a support
6
bracket at not more than distances of 6 metres to keep the
7 pipework in alignment during any expansion and contraction.
8
9 Where two pipes are to be supported one below the other,
it is poor practice to carry the bottom pipe from the top pipe
10 using a pipe clip. This will cause extra stress to be added
Fig. 10.4.3 Use of spacer for expansion when pipework is installed
11 to the top pipe whose thickness has been sized to take
12 only the stress of its working pressure.
All pipe supports should be specifically designed to suit the
13
The remaining part of the expansion, if not accepted by the outside diameter of the pipe concerned.
14 natural flexibility of the pipework will call for the use of an
15 expansion fitting.
16 In practice, pipework expansion and support can be 28.3 Expansion fittings
classified into three areas as shown in Figure 10.4.4.
17
The expansion fitting (‚C‘ Figure 10.4.4) is one method of
18 accommodating expansion. These fittings are placed within
19 a line, and are designed to accommodate the expansion,
without the total length of the line changing. They are
20
commonly called expansion bellows, due to the bellows
21 construction of the expansion sleeve.
22 Other expansion fittings can be made from the pipework
Fig. 10.4.4 Diagram of pipeline with fixed point, variable anchor point
23 and expansion fitting itself. This can be a cheaper way to solve the problem, but
more space is needed to accommodate the pipe.
24
25 The fixed or ‚anchor‘ points ‚A‘ provide a datum position Horseshoe or lyre loop
26 from which expansion takes place. When space is available this type is sometimes used. It is
27 The sliding support points ‚B‘ allow free movement for best fitted horizontally so that the loop and the main are on
expansion of the pipework, while keeping the pipeline in the same plane. Pressure does not tend to blow the ends
28 alignment. of the loop apart, but there is a very slight straightening out
29 The expansion device at point ‚C‘ is to accommodate the effect. This is due to the design but causes no misalign-
30 expansion and contraction of the pipe. ment of the flanges.
If any of these arrangements are fitted with the loop
31
vertically above the pipe then a drain point must be
32 provided on the upstream side as depicted in Figure 10.4.8.
33
34
35
36
37
38
39 Fig. 10.4.5 Chair and roller Fig. 10.4.6 Chair roller and saddle Fig. 10.4.8 Horseshoe or lyre loop
48
Expansion loops 1
2
3
4
5
W
Welded bend
radius = 1.5 Ø
6
7
W 8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Fig. 10.4.9 Expansion loop
Welded joint
15
16
The expansion loop can be fabricated from lengths of Expansion bellows
17
straight pipes and elbows welded at the joints (Figure An expansion bellows, Figures 10.4.12, has the advantage 18
10.4.9). An indication of the expansion of pipe that can be that it requires no packing (as does the sliding joint type). 19
accommodated by these assemblies is shown in Figure But it does have the same disadvantages as the sliding
20
10.4.10. joint in that pressure inside tends to extend the fitting,
It can be seen from Figure 10.4.9 that the depth of the loop consequently, anchors and guides must be able to with- 21
should be twice the width, and the width is determined from stand this force. 22
Figure 10.4.10, knowing the total amount of expansion 23
expected from the pipes either side of the loop.
24
Fig. 10.4.10 Expansion loop capacity for carbon steel pipes
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
Fig. 10.4.12 Simple expansion bellows
34
35
36
Bellows may incorporate limit rods, which limit over-com- 37
pression and over-extension of the element. These may
38
have little function under normal operating conditions, as
most simple bellows assemblies are able to withstand small 39
49
1 lateral and angular movement. However, in the event of depending upon the relative positions of bellows anchors
2 anchor failure, they behave as tie rods and contain the and guides. In terms of preference, axial displacement is
pressure thrust forces, preventing damage to the unit whilst better than angular, which in turn, is better than lateral.
3 reducing the possibility of further damage to piping, Angular and lateral movement should be avoided wherever
4 equipment and personnel Figure 10.4.13 (b). possible.
5
Where larger forces are expected, some form of additional Figure 10.4.13 (a), (b), and (c) give a rough indication of
6
mechanical reinforcement should be built into the device, the effects of these movements, but, under all circumstan-
7 such as hinged stay bars Figure 10.4.13 (c). ces, it is highly recommended that expert advice is sought
8 There is invariably more than one way to accommodate the from the bellows‘ manufacturer regarding any installation of
9 relative movement between two laterally displaced pipes expansion bellows.
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39 Fig. 10.4.13: (a) Axial movement of bellows
50
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Fig. 10.4.13 (b) Lateral and angular movement of bellows
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
Fig. 10.4.13: (c) Angular and axial movement of bellows 39
51
1 28.4 Pipe support spacing

2
The frequency of pipe supports will vary according to the supports should be of the roller type as outlined previously.
3 bore of the pipe; the actual pipe material (i.e. steel or copper); •V ertical pipes should be adequately supported at the base,
4 and whether the pipe is horizontal or vertical.Some practical to withstand the total weight of the vertical pipe and the
5 points worthy of consideration are as follows: fluid within it. Branches from vertical pipes must not be
• Pipe supports should be provided at intervals not greater used as a means of support for the pipe, because this will
6
than shown in Table 10.4.3, and run along those parts of place undue strain upon the tee joint.
7 buildings and structures where appropriate supports may • All pipe supports should be specifically designed to suit
8 be mounted. the outside diameter of the pipe concerned. The use of
9 • Where two or more pipes are supported on a common oversized pipe brackets is not good practice.
bracket, the spacing between the supports should be that
10 for the smallest pipe. Table 10.4.3 can be used as a guide when calculating the
11 • When an appreciable movement will occur, i.e. where distance between pipe supports for steel and copper pipe
12 straight pipes are greater than 15 metres in length, the work.
13
14 Nominal pipe size (mm) Interval of horizontal run (metre) Interval of vertical run (metre)
Steel bore Copper outside diameter Mild steel Copper Mild steel Copper
15 15 1,2 2,4 1,8
16 15 1,8 3,0
17 20 22 2,4 1,2 3,0 1,8
18 25 28 2,4 0,5 3,0 2,4

32 35 2,4 1,8 3,7 3,0
19
40 42 2,4 1,8 3,7 3,0
20 50 54 2,4 1,8 4,6 3,0
21 65 67 3,0 2,4 4,6 3,7
22 80 76 3,0 2,4 4,6 3,7

100 108 3,0 2,4 5,5 3,7
23
125 133 3,7 3,0 5,5 3,7
24 150 159 4,5 3,7 5,5
25 200 6,0 8,5
26 250 6,5 9,0
27 300 7,0
28 Table 10.4.3 Recommended support for pipework

29 The subject of pipe supports is covered comprehensively in the European standard EN 13480, Part 3.
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
52
1
29 Pipe dimensions and weights 2
Steel „thread“- pipe Weight L 3
D s empty full insulated (max)*
(mm) (“) (DN) (mm) (kg / m) (kg / m) (kg / m) m
4
10,2 ⅛ 6 2,00 0,41 0,44 0,59 1,25 5
13,5 ¼ 8 2,35 0,65 0,71 0,88 1,50 6
17,2 ⅜ 10 2,35 0,85 0,97 1,17 2,25
7
21,3 ½ 15 2,65 1,22 1,42 1,63 2,75
26,9 ¾ 20 2,65 1,58 1,95 2,20 3,00
8
33,7 1 25 3,25 2,44 3,02 3,51 3,50 9
42,4 1¼ 32 3,25 3,14 4,15 4,86 3,75 10
48,3 1½ 40 3,25 3,61 4,98 5,94 4,25 11
60,3 2 50 3,65 5,10 7,31 8,83 4,75
12
76,1 2½ 65 3,65 6,51 10,23 12,77 5,50
88,9 3 80 4,05 8,47 13,59 17,08 6,00 13
114,3 4 100 4,50 12,10 20,80 26,31 6,00 14
139,7 5 125 4,85 16,20 29,47 35,45 6,00 15
165,1 6 150 4,85 19,20 38,16 44,83 6,00
16
Norm: DIN EN 10255 - 11/2004
(ex. DIN 2440 - 06/1978) 17
Steel pipe (seamless) Weight L 18
D s empty full insulated (max)* 19
(mm) (DN) (mm) (kg / m) (kg / m) (kg / m) m
10,2 6 1,6 0,34 0,38 0,53 1,25
20
13,5 8 1,8 0,52 0,60 0,77 1,50 21
17,2 10 1,8 0,68 0,83 1,02 2,25
22
21,3 15 2,0 0,96 1,19 1,40 2,75
26,9 20 2,3 1,40 1,79 2,22 3,00
23
33,7 25 2,6 1,99 2,63 3,12 3,50 24
42,4 32 2,6 2,55 3,64 4,39 3,75 25
48,3 40 2,6 2,93 4,39 5,39 4,25
26
60,3 50 2,9 4,11 6,44 8,03 4,75
76,1 65 2,9 5,24 9,12 11,70 5,50 27
88,9 80 3,2 6,76 12,10 15,72 6,00 28
114,3 100 3,6 9,83 18,83 24,25 6,00
29
139,7 125 4,0 13,40 27,02 33,05 6,00
168,3 150 4,5 18,20 38,37 43,66 6,00
30
219,1 200 6,3 33,10 67,75 72,95 6,00 31
273,0 250 6,3 41,40 96,11 104,15 6,00 32
323,9 300 7,1 55,50 131,57 141,56 6,00
33
355,6 350 8,0 68,60 160,95 170,74 6,00
406,4 400 8,8 86,30 207,05 217,91 6,00 34
457,0 450 10,0 110,00 262,67 274,44 6,00 35
508,0 500 11,0 135,00 323,79 335,87 6,00
36
610,0 600 12,5 184,00 457,26 471,16 6,00
37
Norm: DIN EN 10220 - 03/2003
38
* Maximum recommended support distance according to DIN 19882 (TRWI). The exact distances depend on the speciﬁc pipetype and manufacturer –
see separate description about “pipe supports” too! 39
53
1
2
30 Dimensions for gaskets and connections – Part 1
3 Dimensions and pressures used at Hoval steam systems
4 Gaskets (for flanges with flat surface) according DIN 2690
5
DN 10 15 20 25 32 40 50
6
PN 6 Dim - - 53/28 - - 85/49 95/61
7
PN 16 Dim 45/18 50/22 60/28 70/35 82/43 92/49 107/61
8
PN 40 Dim - 50/22 60/28 70/35 82/43 92/49 107/61
9
10
11 Screws for connections:
12 Armature / armature DN 10 15 20 25 32 40 50
13 dim./pieces - - M10x4 - - M12x4 M12x4
PN 6
14 length (mm) - - 40 - - 45 45
dim./pieces M12x4 M12x4 M12x4 M12x4 M16x4 M16x4 M16x4
15 PN 16
length (mm) 45 45 50 50 55 55 60
16 dim./pieces - M12x4 M12x4 M12x4 M16x4 M16x4 M16x4
PN 40
17 length (mm) - 50 50 55 55 55 60
18
19
Armature / flange DN 10 15 20 25 32 40 50
21 PN 6
length (mm) - - 40 - - 45 45
22 dim./pieces M12x4 M12x4 M12x4 M12x4 M16x4 M16x4 M16x4
PN 16
23 length (mm) 45 45 50 50 55 55 55
dim./pieces x M12x4 M12x4 M12x4 M16x4 M16x4 M16x4
24 PN 40
length (mm) x 50 50 55 55 55 60
25
26
Flange / flange DN 10 15 20 25 32 40 50
27
dim./pieces - - M10x4 - - M12x4 M12x4
28 PN 6
length (mm) - - 40 - - 45 45
29 dim./pieces M12x4 M12x4 M12x4 M12x4 M16x4 M16x4 M16x4
PN 16
30 length (mm) 45 45 50 50 55 55 55
31 PN 40
dim./pieces - M12x4 M12x4 M12x4 M16x4 M16x4 M16x4
length (mm) - 50 50 55 55 55 60
32
33
34 Armature / wafer check valve / flange DN 10 15 20 25 32 40 50
PN 6
36 length (mm) - - - - - - -
37 PN 16
length (mm) - - 70 70 85 85 100
38 dim./pieces - M12x4 M12x4 M12x4 M16x4 M16x4 M16x4
PN 40
39 length (mm) - - 70 75 85 90 100
54
1
Dimensions and pressures used at Hoval steam systems
3
Gaskets (for flanges with flat surface) according DIN 2690 4
DN 65 80 100 125 150 200 250
5
PN 6 Dim 115/77 132/90 152/115 182/141 207/169 262/220 353/274
6
PN 16 Dim 127/77 142/90 162/115 192/141 218/169 262/220 -
7
PN 40 Dim 127/77 142/90 168/115 195/141 225/169 292/220 -
8
9
10
Screws for connections: 11
Armature / armature DN 65 80 100 125 150 200 250 12
dim./pieces M12x4 M16x4 M16x4 M16x8 M16x8 M16x8 M16x12 13
PN 6
length (mm) 45 55 55 60 60 60 65 14
dim./pieces M16x4 M16x8 M16x8 M16x8 M20x8 M20x12 -
PN 16 15
length (mm) 60 60 65 70 75 80 -
16
PN 40
length (mm) 65 65 70 75 85 100 - 17
18
19
Armature / flange DN 65 80 100 125 150 200 250
20
PN 6 21
length (mm) 45 55 55 55 55 60 65
PN 16
dim./pieces M16x4 M16x8 M16x8 M16x8 M20x8 M20x12 - 22
length (mm) 55 60 60 65 70 75 -
23
PN 40
length (mm) 65 65 70 75 80 100 -
24
25
26
Flange / flange DN 65 80 100 125 150 200 250
27
PN 6 28
length (mm) 45 50 50 55 55 60 60
PN 16
length (mm) 55 60 60 65 65 70 - 30
PN 40
length (mm) 65 65 70 75 80 100 -
32
33
Armature / wafer check valve / flange DN 65 80 100 125 150 200 250 34
dim./pieces M12x4 M16x4 M16x4 M16x8 M16x8 M16x8 M16x12 35
PN 6
length (mm) - - - - - - -
36
PN 16 37
length (mm) 85 - - - - - -
PN 40
length (mm) 85 - - - - - - 39
55
1
2
32 Steam lines and drains
3
4 32.1 Main steam lines
5
Throughout the length of a hot steam main, an amount of heat With steam systems, this loss of energy represents
6
will be transferred to the environment, and this will depend on inefficiency, and thus pipes are insulated to limit these
7 the parameters identified in Block 2 – ‚Steam Engineering and losses. Whatever the quality or thickness of insulation,
8 Heat Transfer‘, and brought together in Equation 2.5.1. there will always be a level of heat loss, and this will cause
9 • ΔT
steam to condense along the length of the main.
Q=k*A*
10 X
This Tutorial will concentrate on disposal of the inevitable
Equation 2.5.1
11 condensate, which, unless removed, will accumulate and
12 Where: lead to problems such as corrosion, erosion, and water
Q̇ = Heat transferred per unit time (W) hammer.
13
k = Thermal conductivity of the material (W/m K or W/m
14 °C) In addition, the steam will become wet as it picks up water
15 A = Heat transfer area (m²) droplets, which reduces its heat transfer potential. If water
16 ΔT = Temperature difference across the is allowed to accumulate, the overall effective cross
material (K or °C) sectional area of the pipe is reduced, and steam velocity
17
Χ = Material thickness (m) can increase above the recommended limits.
18
19
20
21 32.2 Piping layout
22
23 The subject of drainage from steam lines is covered in the This slope will ensure that gravity, as well as the flow
European Standard EN 45510, Section 4.12. of steam, will assist in moving the condensate towards
24
EN 45510 states that, whenever possible, the main should drain points where the condensate may be safely and
25 be installed with a fall of not less than 1:100 (1 m fall for effectively removed
26 every 100 m run), in the direction of the steam flow. (See Figure 10.3.1).
27
28
Fig. 10.3.1: Typical steam main installation
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
56
Drain points 1
The drain point must ensure that the condensate can reach The bottom of the pocket may be fitted with a removable
2
the steam trap. Careful consideration must therefore be flange or blowdown valve for cleaning purposes.
given to the design and location of drain points. Recommended drain pocket dimensions are shown in
3
Table 10.3.1 and in Figure 10.3.4. 4
Consideration must also be given to condensate remaining
Table 10.3.1: Recomended drain pocket dimensions 5
in a steam main at shutdown, when steam flow ceases.
6
Gravity will ensure that the water (condensate) will run along
sloping pipework and collect at low points in the system.
Mains diameter – D Pocket diamter – d1 Pocket depth – d2 7
Steam traps should therefore be fitted to these low points. Up to 100 mm nb d1 = D Minimum d2 = 100 mm
8
125 - 200 mm nb d1 = 100 mm Minimum d2 = 150 mm
9
The amount of condensate formed in a large steam main 250mm and above d1 ≥ D/2 Minimum d2 = D
under start-up conditions is sufficient to require the provision
10
of drain points at intervals of 30 m to 50 m, as well as 11
natural low points such as at the bottom of rising pipework. 12
13
In normal operation, steam may flow along the main at
speeds of up to 145 km/h, dragging condensate along with 14
it. Figure 10.3.2 shows a 15 mm drain pipe connected 15
directly to the bottom of a main. 16
17
Steam Flow
18
Fig. 10.3.4 19
Condensate 20
21
Steam trap set
32.3 Water hammer and its effects 22
Fig. 10.3.2: Trap pocket too small
23
Water hammer is the noise caused by slugs of condensate
24
colliding at high velocity into pipe work fittings, plant, and
Although the 15 mm pipe has sufficient capacity, it is equipment. This has a number of implications: 25
unlikely to capture much of the condensate moving along • Because the condensate velocity is higher than normal, 26
the main at high speed. This arrangement will be ineffec- the dissipation of kinetic energy is higher than would
27
tive. normally be expected.
A more reliable solution for the removal of condensate is • Water is dense and incompressible, so the ‚cushioning‘
28
shown in Figure 10.3.3. The trap line should be at least 25 effect experienced when gases encounter obstructions is 29
to 30 mm from the bottom of the pocket for steam mains up absent. 30
to 100 mm, and at least 50 mm for larger mains. This • The energy in the water is dissipated against the obstruc-
31
allows a space below for any dirt and scale to settle. tions in the piping system such as valves and fittings
32
Steam 33
34
Steam Condensate
35
Steam
Slug
36
Pocket
Condensate 37
Steam
Steam trap set 38
Fig. 10.3.3: Trap pocket properly sized Fig. 10.3.5: Formation of a ‘solid’ slug of water 39
57
1 Indications of water hammer include a banging noise, and To summarise, the possibility of water hammer is
minimised by:
2 perhaps movement of the pipe.
In severe cases, water hammer may fracture pipeline • Installing steam lines with a gradual fall in the direction of
3 equipment with almost explosive effect, with consequent flow, and with drain points installed at regular intervals
4 loss of live steam at the fracture, leading to an extremely and at low points.
5 hazardous situation. • Installing check valves after all steam traps which would
Good engineering design, installation and maintenance will otherwise allow condensate to run back into the steam
6 line or plant during shutdown.
avoid water hammer; this is far better practice than
7 attempting to contain it by choice of materials and pressure • Opening isolation valves slowly to allow any condensate
8 ratings of equipment which may be lying in the system to flow gently through
the drain traps, before it is picked up by high velocity
9
Commonly, sources of water hammer occur at the low steam. This is especially important at start-up.
10 points in the pipe work (See Figure 10.3.6). Such areas are
11 due to:
12 • Sagging in the line, perhaps due to failure of supports. 32.4 Branch lines
• Incorrect use of concentric reducers (see Figure 10.3.7)
13
- Always use eccentric reducers with the flat at the
14 bottom.
15 • Incorrect strainer installation - They should be fitted with
16 the basket on the side.
• Inadequate drainage of steam lines.
17
• Incorrect operation - Opening valves too quickly at
18 start-up when pipes are cold
19
20 Fig. 10.3.6: Potential sources of waterhammer
21
22
23 Fig. 10.3.8: Branch line
24
25 Branch lines are normally much shorter than steam mains.
26 As a general rule, therefore, provided the branch line is not
27 more than 10 metres in length, and the pressure in the
main is adequate, it is possible to size the pipe on a
28 velocity of 25 to 40 m/s, and not to worry about the
29 Fig. 10.3.7: Eccentric and concentric pipe reducers pressure drop.
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
58
Branch line connections dirty steam reaching the equipment, which will affect 1
Branch line connections taken from the top of the main performance in both the short and long term.
2
carry the driest steam (Figure 10.3.8). If connections are The valve in Figure 10.3.9 (b) should be positioned as near
taken from the side, or even worse from the bottom (as to the off-take as possible to minimise condensate lying in
3
in Figure 10.3.9 (a)), they can accept the condensate and the branch line, if the plant is likely to be shutdown for any 4
debris from the steam main. The result is very wet and extended periods. 5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
(a) Incorrect (b) Correct
16
Fig. 10.3.9: Steam off-take 17
18
19
Drop leg upstream side of the closed valve, and then be propelled 20
Low points will also occur in branch lines. The most forward with the steam when the valve opens again - 21
common is a drop leg close to an isolating valve or a control consequently a drain point with a steam trap set is good
valve (Figure 10.3.10). Condensate can accumulate on the practice just prior to the strainer and control valve.
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
Fig. 10.3.10: Diagram of a drop leg supplying a unit heater 39
59
1 32.5 Rising ground and drainage

2
There are many occasions when a steam main must run velocity of not more than 15 m/s, to run the line at a slope
3 across rising ground, or applications where the contours of of no less than 1:40, and install the drain points at not more
4 the site make it impractical to lay the pipe with the 1:100 than 15 metre intervals (see Figure 10.3.11).
5 fall proposed earlier. In these situations, the condensate The objective is to prevent the condensate film on the
must be encouraged to run downhill and against the steam bottom of the pipe increasing in thickness to the point
6
flow. Good practice is to size the pipe on a low steam where droplets can be picked up by the steam flow.
7
8
Increase
9 in pipe
diameter Fall
10 Steam
velocity
11 Steam 15 m/s 30 m/s
velocity
12 30 m/s
13
14
15 Fig. 10.3.10: Diagram of a drop leg supplying a unit heater
16
17 Air and incondesable gases vented 32.5 Steam separators
18
19 Modern packaged steam boilers have a large evaporating
capacity for their size and have limited capacity to cope
20
with rapidly changing loads. In addition other circumstan-
21 ces, such as . . .
22 • Incorrect chemical feed water treatment and/or TDS control.
23 • Transient peak loads in other parts of the plant.
... can cause priming and carryover of boiler water into the
24
Dry Steam out steam mains.
25
26 Separators, as shown by the cut section in Figure 10.3.12,
27 may be installed to remove this water.
28 As a general rule, providing the velocities in the pipe work

29 are within reasonable limits, separators will be line sized.
30 A separator will remove both droplets of water from pipe
Wet Steam in walls and suspended mist entrained in the steam itself. The
31
presence and effect of water hammer can be eradicated by
32 fitting a separator in a steam main, and can often be less
33 expensive than increasing the pipe size and fabricating
34 drain pockets.
A separator is recommended before control valves and flow
35 meters. It is also wise to fit a separator where a steam
36 main enters a building from outside. This will ensure that
37 Moisture to trap set
any condensate produced in the external distribution
system is removed and the building always receives dry
38
steam. This is equally important where steam usage in the
39 Fig. 10.3.12: Cut section through a separator building is monitored and charged for.
60
32.6 How to drain steam mains average condensing rate, the time taken for the process 1
must be considered. For example, if the warm-up process
2
Steam traps are the most effective and efficient method of required 50 kg of steam, and was to take 20 minutes,
draining condensate from a steam distribution system. then the average condensing rate would be:
3
The steam traps selected must suit the system in terms of: 4
60 minutes
• Pressure rating Average condensing rate =
20 minutes *
50 kg = 150 kg 5
• Capacity
Note: Use this 150kg average condensate rate for dimensioning of
6
• Suitability
condensate trap with flow rate 150kg/h
7
Pressure rating is easily dealt with; the maximum possible • When using these capacities to size a steam trap, it is 8
working pressure at the steam trap will either be known or worth remembering that the initial pressure in the main 9
should be established. will be little more than atmospheric when the warm-up
Capacity, that is, the quantity of condensate to be dischar- process begins. However, the condensate loads will still
10
ged, which needs to be divided into two categories; generally be well within the capacity of a DN15 ‚low 11
warm-up load and running load. capacity‘ steam trap. Only in rare applications at very high 12
Warm-up load - In the first instance, the pipe work needs to pressures (above 70 bar g), combined with large pipe
13
be brought up to operating temperature. This can be determi- sizes, will greater trap capacity be needed.
ned by calculation, knowing the mass and specific heat of the Running load: Once the steam main is up to operating 14
pipe work and fittings. Alternatively, Table 10.3.2 may be used. temperature, the rate of condensation is mainly a function of 15
• The table shows the amount of condensate generated the pipe size and the quality and thickness of the insulation. 16
when bringing 50 m of steam main up to working tempe- Alternatively, for quick approximations of running load,
rature; 50 m being the maximum recommended distance Table 10.3.3 can be used which shows typical amounts of
17
between trapping points. steam condensed each hour per 50 m of insulated steam 18
• The values shown are in kilograms. To determine the main at various pressures. 19
20
Table 10.3.2: Amount of steam condensed to warm-up 50 m of schedule 40 pipe (kg)
Note: Figures are based on an ambient temperature of 20°C, and an insulation efficiency of 80% 21
Steam pressure Steam main size (mm)
- 18 °C
22
bar g 50 65 80 100 125 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 600
1 5 9 11 16 22 28 44 60 79 94 123 155 182 254
correction factor
1.39
23
2 6 10 13 19 25 33 49 69 92 108 142 179 210 296 1.35 24
3 7 11 14 20 25 36 54 79 101 120 156 197 232 324 1.32
4 8 12 16,17 22 30 39 59 83 110 131 170 215 254 353 1.29
25
5 8 13 17 24 33 42 63 70 119 142 185 233 275 382 1.28 26
6 9 13 18 25 34 43 66 93 124 147 198 242 285 396 1.27
7 9 14 18 26 35 45 68 97 128 151 197 250 294 410 1.26 27
8 9 14 19 27 37 47 71 101 134 158 207 261 307 428 1.25 28
9 10 15 20 28 38 50 74 105 139 164 216 272 320 436 1.24
10 10 16 20 29 40 51 77 109 144 171 224 282 332 463 1.24 29
12 10 17 22 31 42 54 84 115 152 180 236 298 350 488 1.23 30
14 10 17 23 32 44 57 85 120 160 189 247 311 366 510 1.22
16 11 19 24 35 47 61 91 128 172 203 265 334 393 548 1.21 31
18 12 23 31 45 62 84 127 187 355 305 393 492 596 708 1.21
32
20 17 26 35 51 71 97 148 220 302 362 465 582 712 806 1.20
25 17 29 39 56 78 108 164 243 333 400 533 642 786 978 1.19 33
30 1.18
40
19,21
22
32
34
41
46
62
67
86
93
117
127
179
194
265
287
364
395
437
473
571
608
702
762
859
834
1150
1322 1.16
34
50 24 37 50 73 101 139 212 214 432 518 665 834 1020 1450 1.15 35
60 27 41 54 79 135 181 305 445 626 752 960 1218 1480 2140 1.15
70 29 44 59 86 156 208 346 510 717 861 1100 1396 1694 2455 1.15
36
80 32 49 65 95 172 232 386 568 800 960 1220 1550 1890 2730 1.14 37
90 34 51 69 100 181 245 409 598 842 1011 1288 1635 1990 2880 1.14
100 35 54 72 106 190 257 427 628 884 1062 1355 1720 2690 3030 1.14 38
120 42 64 86 126 227 305 508 748 1052 1265 1610 2050 2490 3600 1.13 39
61
1 Table 10.3.3: Condensing rate of steam in 50 m of schedule 40 pipe - at working temperature (kg/h)
Note: Figures are based on an ambient temperature of 20°C, and an insulation efficiency of 80%
2
3 Steam pressure
bar g
Steam main size (mm) - 18 °C
50 65 80 100 125 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 600 correction factor
4 1 5 5 7 9 10 13 16 19 23 25 28 31 35 41 1.54
2 5 6 8 10 12 14 18 22 26 28 32 35 39 46 1.50
5 3 6 7 9 11 14 16 20 25 30 32 37 40 45 54 1.48
6 4 7 9 10 12 16 18 23 28 33 37 42 46 51 61 1.45
5 7 9 11 13 17 20 24 30 36 40 46 49 55 66 1.43
7 6 8 10 11 14 18 21 26 33 39 43 49 53 59 71 1.42
8 7 8 10 12 15 19 23 28 39 42 46 52 56 63 76 1.41
8 9 11 14 16 20 24 30 37 44 49 57 61 68 82 1.40
9 9 9 11 14 17 21 25 32 39 47 52 60 64 72 88 1.39
10 10 10 12 15 17 21 25 33 41 49 54 62 67 75 90 1.38
12 11 13 16 18 23 26 36 45 53 59 67 73 81 97 1.38
11 14 12 14 17 20 26 30 39 49 58 64 73 79 93 106 1.37
12 16 12 15 18 23 29 34 42 52 62 68 78 85 99 114 1.36
18 14 16 19 24 30 36 44 55 66 72 82 90 100 120 1.36
13 20 15 17 21 25 31 37 46 58 69 76 86 94 105 125 1.35
25
14 30
15
17
19
21
32
25
28
31
35
39
42
47
52
58
66
73
78
87
86
96
97
108
106
118
119
132
141
157
1.34
1.33
15 40 20 25 30 38 46 56 70 87 104 114 130 142 158 189 1.31
50 24 29 34 44 54 65 82 102 121 133 151 165 184 220 1.29
16 60 27 32 39 50 62 74 95 119 140 155 177 199 222 265 1.28
17 70 29 35 43 56 70 82 106 133 157 173 198 222 248 296 1.27
80 34 42 51 66 81 97 126 156 187 205 234 263 293 350 1.26
18 90 38 46 56 72 89 106 134 171 204 224 265 287 320 284 1.26
19 100 41 50 61 78 96 114 149 186 220 242 277 311 347 416 1.25
120 52 63 77 99 122 145 189 236 280 308 352 395 440 527 1.22
20
21
22 Suitability 32.7 Summary
23 A mains drain trap should consider the following constraints:
•Discharge temperature - The steam trap should discharge Proper pipe alignment and drainage means observing a
24
at, or very close to saturation temperature, unless cooling few simple rules:
25 legs are used between the drain point and the trap. This
26 means that the choice is a mechanical type trap (such as • Steam lines should be arranged to fall in the direction of
27 a float, inverted bucket type, or thermodynamic traps). flow, at not less than 100 mm per 10 metres of pipe
• Frost damage - Where the steam main is located outside (1:100). Steam lines rising in the direction of flow should
28 a building and there is a possibility of sub-zero ambient slope at not less than 250 mm per 10 metres of pipe
29 temperature, the thermodynamic steam trap is ideal, as it (1:40).
30 is not damaged by frost. Even if the installation causes • Steam lines should be drained at regular intervals of
water to be left in the trap at shutdown and freezing 30-50 m and at any low points in the system.
31
occurs, the thermodynamic trap may be thawed out • Where drainage has to be provided in straight lengths of
32 without suffering damage when brought back into use. pipe, then a large bore pocket should be used to collect
33 • Water hammer - In the past, on poorly laid out installa- condensate.
34 tions where water hammer was a common occurrence, • If strainers are to be fitted, then they should be fitted on
float traps were not always ideal due to their susceptibility their sides.
35 to float damage. Contemporary design and manufacturing • Branch connections should always be taken from the top
36 techniques now produce extremely robust units for mains of the main from where the driest steam is taken.
37 drainage purposes. Float traps are certainly the first • Separators should be considered before any piece of
choice for proprietary separators as high capacities are steam using equipment ensuring that dry steam is used.
38
readily achieved, and they are able to respond quickly to • Traps selected should be robust enough to avoid water-
39 rapid load increases. hammer damage and frost damage.
62
1
33 Steam consumption of plants: 2
3
The optimum design for a steam system will largely depend Calculation 4
on whether the steam consumption rate has been accura- In most cases, the heat in steam is required to do two 5
tely established. This will enable pipe sizes to be calcula- things:
6
ted, while ancillaries such as control valves and steam
traps can be sized to give the best possible results. The • To produce a change in temperature in the product, that is 7
steam demand of the plant can be determined using a providing a ‚heating up‘ component. 8
number of different methods: • To maintain the product temperature as heat is lost by 9
natural causes or by design, that is providing a ‚heat loss‘
• Calculation – By analysing the heat output on an item of component.
10
plant using heat transfer equations, it may be possible to 11
obtain an estimate for the steam consumption. Although In any heating process, the ‚heating up‘ component will 12
heat transfer is not an exact science and there may be decrease as the product temperature rises, and the
13
many unknown variables, it is possible to utilise previous differential temperature between the heating coil and the
experimental data from similar applications. The results product reduces. However, the heat loss component will 14
acquired using this method are usually accurate enough increase as the product temperature rises and more heat is 15
for most purposes. lost to the environment from the vessel or pipework. 16
The total heat demand at any time is the sum of these two
• Measurement - Steam consumption may be determined components.
17
by direct measurement, using flow metering equipment. 18
This will provide relatively accurate data on the steam The equation used to establish the amount of heat required 19
consumption for an existing plant. However, for a plant to raise the temperature of a substance (Equation 2.1.4),
20
which is still at the design stage, or is not up and running, can be developed to apply to a range of heat transfer
this method is of little use. processes. 21
22
• Thermal rating - The thermal rating (or design rating) is 23
often displayed on the name-plate of an individual item of Q = m * cp * ΔT
24
plant, as provided by the manufacturers. These ratings
usually express the anticipated heat output in kW, but the
Equation 2.1.4 25
steam consumption required in kg/h will depend on the Where: 26
recommended steam pressure. Q = Quantity of energy (kJ)
27
m = Mass of the substance (kg)
A change in any parameter which may alter the anticipated cp = Specific heat capacity of the substance (kJ/kg K)
28
heat output, means that the thermal (design) rating and the ΔT = Temperature rise of the substance (K) 29
connected load (actual steam consumption) will not be the 30
same. The manufacturer‘s rating is an indication of the In its original form this equation can be used to determine a
31
ideal capacity of an item and does not necessarily equate total amount of heat energy over the whole process.
to the connected load. However, in its current form, it does not take into account 32
the rate of heat transfer. To establish the rates of heat 33
transfer, the various types of heat exchange application 34
can be divided into two broad categories:
35
• Non-flow type applications - where the product being 36
heated is a fixed mass and a single batch within the 37
confines of a vessel.
38
• Flow type applications - where a heated fluid constantly
flows over the heat transfer surface. 39
63
1 33.1 Non-flow type applications with a viscous oil requiring heat before it can be pumped.
2 Some processes are concerned with heating solids; typical
In non-flow type applications the process fluid is held as a examples are tyre presses, laundry ironers, vulcanisers
3 single batch within the confines of a vessel. A steam coil and autoclaves.
4 situated in the vessel, or a steam jacket around the vessel, In some non-flow type applications, the process heat up
5 may constitute the heating surface. Typical examples include time is unimportant and ignored. However, in others, like
hot water storage calorifiers as shown in Figure 2.6.1 and tanks and vulcanisers, it may not only be important but
6
oil storage tanks where a large circular steel tank is filled crucial to the overall process
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27 Fig. 2.6.1: Hot water storage - a non-flow application
28
29
30 Consider two non-flow heating processes requiring the Where:
same amount of heat energy but different lengths of time to Q̇ = Mean heat transfer rate kW (kW = kJ/s)
31
heat up. The heat transfer rates would differ while the m = Mass of the fluid (kg)
32 amounts of total heat transferred would be the same. cp = Specific heat capacity of the fluid (kJ/kg °C)
33 ΔT = Increase in fluid temperature (°C)
34 The mean rate of heat transfer for such applications can be t = Time for the heating process (seconds)
obtained by modifying Equation 2.1.4 to Equation 2.6.1:
35 Example 2.6.1
36 Calculating the mean heat transfer rate in a non-flow
37 application.
m * cp * ΔT A quantity of oil is heated from a temperature of 35°C to
38
•
Q=
t 120°C over a period of 10 minutes (600 seconds). The
39 Equation 2.6.1 volume of the oil is 35 litres, its specific gravity is 0.9 and
64
its specific heat capacity is 1.9 kJ/kg °C over that tempera- If it is assumed at this stage that the heat transfer is 100% 1
ture range. efficient, then the heat provided by the steam must be
2
equal to the heat requirement of the fluid to be heated. This
Determine the rate of heat transfer required: can then be used to construct a heat balance, in which the
3
heat energy supplied and required are equated: 4
As the density of water at Standard Temperature and
•
5
Pressure (STP) is 1 000 kg/m³ Primary side = Q = Secondary side
6
The density of the oil p0 = 0.9 x 1000
p0 = 900 kg/m3 7
As 1000 litres = 1m3, p0 = 900 kg/1000 litres
ms * hfg = Q =
• m * cp * ΔT 8
t
p0 = 0.9 kg/l 9
Therfore the mass of the oil = 0.9 x 35 Equation 2.6.4
Q ̇ = 31.5 kg Where:
10
1.9 kJ ms = Mean steam consumption rate (kg/s) 11
31.5 kg * (120 - 35)°C
• kg°C * hfg = Mean steam consumption rate (kg/s) 12
Q= •
600 seconds Q = Mean heat transfer rate kW (kW = kJ/s))
13
•
Q = 8.48 kJ/s (8.48 kW) m = Mass of the secondary fluid (kg)
cp = Specific heat capacity of the secondary fluid (kJ/kg °C) 14
ΔT = Temperature rise of the secondary fluid (°C) 15
Equation 2.6.1 can be applied whether the substance being t = Time for the heating process 16
heated is a solid, a liquid or a gas. However, it does not
take into account the transfer of heat involved when there Example 2.6.2
17
is a change of phase. A tank containing 400 kg of kerosene is to be heated from 18
10°C to 40°C in 20 minutes (1200 seconds), using 4 bar g 19
The quantity of heat provided by the condensing of steam steam. The kerosene has a specific heat capacity of 2.0 kJ/
20
can be determined by Equation 2.6.2: kg °C over that temperature range. hfg at 4.0 bar g is
2108.1 kJ/kg. The tank is well insulated and heat 21
losses are negligible. 22
Q = m s * hfg 23
Determine the steam flowrate
24
Equation 2.6.2
400 kg * 2.0 kJ * (40 - 10) °C
25
kg °C
26
•
Where: Q=
1200 seconds
Q = Quantity of heat (kJ)
27
ms = Mass of steam (kg) kJ
hfg = Specific enthalpy of evaporation of steam (kJ/kg)
Q=
s 28
29
It therefore follows that the steam consumption can be kJ
20s
30
determined from the heat transfer rate and vice-versa, from Therfore m• s =
2108,1 kg
kJ 31
Equation 2.6.3:
32
m• s = 0.0095 (kg/s) 33
• • 34
Q=m s * hfg ms = 34.2(kg/h)
•
35
Equation 2.6.3
In some non-flow type applications, the length of time of 36
Where:
•
the batch process may not be critical, and a longer heat up 37
Q = Mean heat transfer rate (kW or kJ/s) time may be acceptable. This will reduce the instantaneous
38
m• s = Mean steam consumption (kg/s) steam consumption and the size of the required plant
hfg = Specific enthalpy of evaporation of steam (kJ/kg) equipment. 39
65
1 33.2 Flow type applications

2
Typical examples include shell and tube heat exchangers, heating systems or industrial processes. Another example
3 see Figure 2.6.2 (also referred to as non-storage calori- would be an air heater battery where steam gives up its
4 fiers) and plate heat exchangers, providing hot water to heat to the air that is constantly passing through.
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19 Fig 2.6.2: Non-storage calorifier
20
21
22
23 Figure 2.6.3 provides a typical temperature profile in a heat cp = Specific heat capacity of the fluid (kJ/kg °C
24 exchanger with a constant secondary fluid flowrate. The For a fixed secondary flowrate, the required heat load ( ) is
proportional to the product temperature rise (ΔT). Using
25 condensing temperature (T s) remains constant throughout
the heat exchanger. The fluid is heated from T 1 at the inlet
26 valve to T 2 at the outlet of the heat exchanger.
27 • m * cp * ΔT
Q Equation
= 2.6.1:
t
28 Equation 2.6.1
29
30 m
31 t = Product flowrate=constant
cp = Specific heat = constant
32
33
•
Therfore: Q ~ ΔT
34
As flow rate is mass flow per unit time, the secondary flow
35 rate is depicted in equation 2.6.1 as:
36
m
37 t
38
This can be represented by ṁ, where ṁ is the secondary
39 Fig. 2.6.3: Typical temperature profile in a heat exchanger fluid flow rate in kg/s, and is shown in equation 2.6.5.
66
• Q
•
1
•
Q = m * cp * ΔT m• s =
hfg 2
Equation 2.6.5 Equation 2.6.8
3
4
Where:
•
5
Q = Mean heat transfer rate kW (kW = kJ/s) But as the mean heat transfer is, itself, calculated from the
6
ṁ = Mean secondary fluid flowrate (kg/s) mass flow, the specific heat, and the temperature rise, it is
cp = Specific heat capacity of the secondary fluid easier to use Equation 2.6.7. 7
(kJ/kg K) or (kJ/kg°C) 8
ΔT = Temperature rise of the secondary fluid (K or °C) Example 2.6.3 9
Dry saturated steam at 3 bar g is used to heat water
A heat balance equation can be constructed for flow type flowing at a constant rate of 1.5 l/s from 10°C to 60°C.
10
applications where there is a continuous flow of fluid: 11
•
hfg at 3 bar g is 2 133.4 kJ/kg, and the specific heat of 12
Primary side = Q = Secondary side water is 4.19 kJ/kg °C
13
Determine the steam flowrate: 14
•
m• s * hfg = Q = m
•
* cp * ΔT As 1 litre of water has a mass of 1 kg, 15
Equation 2.6.6 the mass flowrate = 1.5 kg/s 16
17
Where: 18
m• * cp * ΔT
ṁs = Mean steam consumption rate (kg/s) m• s =
hfg
19
hfg = Specific enthalpy of evaporation of steam (kJ/kg)
• Equation 2.6.7 20
Q = Mean heat transfer rate kW (kW = kJ/s)
ṁs = Mass flowrate of the secondary fluid (kg/s) 21
cp =Specific heat capacity of the secondary fluid 22
1.5 * 4.19 * (60 – 10)
(kJ/kg °C) m• s =
2133,4
23
ΔT = Temperature rise of the secondary fluid (°C)
• 24
m s = 0.1473 (kg/s)
Mean steam consumption 25
The mean steam consumption of a flow type application like •
ms = 530 (kg/h) 26
a process heat exchanger or heating calorifier can be
27
determined from Equation 2.6.6, as shown in Equation 2.6.7. At start-up, the inlet temperature, T 1 may be lower than
the inlet temperature expected at the full running load,
28
causing a higher heat demand. If the warm-up time is 29
m• * cp * ΔT
m• s =
hfg
important to the process, the heat exchanger needs to be 30
sized to provide this increased heat demand. However,
Equation 2.6.7 31
warm-up loads are usually ignored in flow type design
Where: calculations, as start-ups are usually infrequent, and the 32
ṁs = Mean steam consumption rate (kg/s) time it takes to reach design conditions is not too important. 33
ṁ = Mass flowrate of the secondary fluid (kg/s) The heat exchanger heating surface is therefore usually 34
cp = Specific heat capacity of the secondary fluid sized on the running load conditions.
(kJ/kg °C)
35
ΔT = Temperature rise of the secondary fluid (°C) In flow type applications, heat losses from the system tend 36
hfg = Specific enthalpy of evaporation of steam (kJ/kg) to be considerably less than the heating requirement, and 37
are usually ignored. However, if heat losses are large, the
38
Equally, the mean steam consumption can be determined mean heat loss (mainly from distribution pipe work) should
from Equation 2.6.6 as shown in Equation 2.6.8. be included when calculating the heating surface area. 39
67
1 33.3 Warm-up and heat loss components warm-up component, it is possible that not enough heat will
2 be available for the process to reach its expected tempera-
In any heating process, the warm-up component will ture. The heating element, when sized on the sum of the
3 decrease as the product temperature rises, and the mean values of both these components, should normally be
4 differential temperature across the heating coil reduces. able to satisfy the overall heat demand of the application.
5 However, the heat loss component will increase as the Sometimes, with very large bulk oil storage tanks for
product and vessel temperatures rise, and more heat is lost example, it can make sense to maintain the holding
6
to the environment from the vessel or pipe work. The total temperature lower than the required pumping temperature,
7 heat demand at any time is the sum of these two com- as this will reduce the heat losses from the tank surface
8 ponents. area. Another method of heating can be employed, such as
9 If the heating surface is sized only with consideration of the an outflow heater, as shown in Figure 2.6.4.
10
11
12
Steam
13
14
Oil out
15
Oil
16
17
18
19
20
21
22 Condensate
23
24
25
26
Condensate
27
Fig. 2.6.4
28
29
30
31
33.4 An outflow heater regarded as a heat loss component which will increase
32 thermal demand. These materials will act as a heat sink
33 Heating elements are encased in a metal shroud protruding when immersed, and they need to be considered when
34 into the tank and designed such that only the oil in the sizing the heating surface area.
immediate vicinity is drawn in and heated to the pumping
35 temperature. Heat is therefore only demanded when oil is Whatever the application, when the heat transfer surface
36 drawn off, and since the tank temperature is lowered, needs calculating, it is first necessary to evaluate the total
37 lagging can often be dispensed with. The size of outflow mean heat transfer rate. From this, the heat demand and
heater will depend on the temperature of the bulk oil, the steam load may be determined for full load and start-up.
38
pumping temperature and the pumping rate. This will allow the size of the control valve to be based on
39 Adding materials to open topped process tanks can also be either of these two conditions, subject to choice.
68
34 Steam consumption of plant items 1

2
3
34.1 Heating calorifiers 4
5
6
7
8
9
Flow 10
Steam
11
12
Heating
Controller 13
14
15
Condensate 16
Return
17
18
Condensate
19
Fig. 2.14.2 20
21
22
23
24
Typical heating calorifier installation head on the discharge side affects the throughput of the 25
As with air heaters, most heating calorifier manufacturers pump, and this may or may not be constant. 26
will usually provide a rating for their equipment, and the
27
steam consumption may be determined by dividing the kW Example 2.14.2
rating by the enthalpy of steam at the operating pressure to 4 l/s of low temperature hot water (flow/return = 82/71°C) is 28
produce a result in kg/s (see Equation 2.8.1). However, pumped around a heating system. 29
calorifiers are frequently too large for the systems they 30
serve because: Determine the heat output:
31
• The initial heat load calculations on the building they Heat output = Water flowrate x specific heat of water x
serve will have included numerous and over-cautious temperature change 32
safety factors. Heat output = 4 l/s x 4.19 kJ/kg°C x (82 - 71) °C 33
• The calorifier itself will have been selected from a Heat output = 184 kW 34
standard range, so the first size up from the calculated
load will have been selected. An alternative method of estimating the load on a heating
35
• The calorifier manufacturer will have included his own calorifier is to consider the building being heated. The 36
safety factor on the equipment. calculations of heat load can be complicated by factors 37
An estimate of the actual load at any point in time may be including:
38
obtained if the flow and return temperatures and the • Air changes.
pumping rate are known. Note however that the pressure • Heat transfer rates through walls, windows and roofs. 39
69
1 However, a reasonable estimate may be obtained by taking If the outside temperature falls to -1°C, and the inside
2 the volume of the building and allowing a heating capacity temperature is 19°C, determine the approximate steam
of 30 W/m³. This will give the running load for an inside flowrate. This can be calculated by proportionality.
3 temperature of about 20°C when the outside temperature is
4 about -1°C. Temperature difference
5 at initial condition = 18 - 7 = 11°C
Typical flow and return temperatures for:
6 Temperature difference
• Low temperature hot water (LTHW) systems are 82°C and
7 71°C (ΔT = 11°C).
at second condition = 19 - (-1) = 20°C
8 • Medium temperature hot water (MTHW) systems are Approximate steam flowrate = 20/11 * 227
9 94°C and 72°C (ΔT = 22°C).
Approximate steam flowrate = 413 kg/h
10 Figures for high temperature hot water (HTHW) systems
11 vary considerably, and must be checked for each individual
12 application.
13 34.2 Hot water storage calorifiers

Example 2.14.3
14 The steam flow to a heating calorifier has been measured Hot water storage calorifiers are designed to raise the tempe-
15 as 227 kg/h when the outside temperature is 7°C and the rature of their entire contents from cold to storage temperature
16 inside temperature is 18°C. within a specified time period.
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39 Fig. 2.14.3: Typical hot water storage calorifier installation
70
Typical temperature values are: Determine the steam flow rate: 1

2 2
Volume of vessel = π * D * height = π * 1.5 * 2 = 3.53 m3
2
Cold water temperature = 10°C
Hot water temperature = 60°C
4 4 3
Heat up time = 1 hour kg 4
Mass of water = 3.53 m3 * 1000 = 3530 kg
(also referred to as ‚recovery time‘) m3 5
Temperature rise = 60 - 10 = 50°C 6
The mass of water to be heated may be determined from
the volume of the vessel. kJ 7
3530 kg * 4.19 50 °C
kg°C * kJ 8
Energy required = = 739535
1 hour h
(For water, density = 1 000 kg/m³, 9
and specific heat (cp) = 4.19 kJ/kg°C).
Enthalpy of evaporation of steam at 7 bar g = 2048 KJ/kg 10
(from steam tables)
Example 2.14.4 11
kJ
A storage calorifier comprises of a cylindrical vessel, 1.5 m 739535
h
12
diameter and 2 m high. The contents of the vessel are to Steam consumption rate =
2048
kJ 13
be heated to 60°C in 1 hour. kg
The incoming water temperature is 10°C, and the steam 14
pressure is 7 bar g. Steam consumption rate = 361 kg/h 15
16
17
34.3 Drying cylinders 18
19
Drying cylinders vary significantly in layout and application blow-through system in the case of high speed paper
20
and, consequently, in steam consumption. machines. Conversely, film dryers and slow speed paper
machines may use individual steam traps on each cylinder. 21
Apart from wide variations in size, steam pressure, and Demand will vary from small standing losses from a 22
running speed, cylinders may be drained through the frame cylinder drying sized cotton thread, to the heavy loads at 23
of the machines, as in textile can dryers, or by means of a the wet end of a paper machine or in a film dryer.
24
25
Fig. 2.14.4 26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
71
1 Drying cylinders should be allowed in sizing steam traps. It must also be

2 Because of this, accurate figures can only be obtained by remembered that air can cause particular difficulties, such
measurement. However, certain trusted formulae are in as prolonged warming up times and uneven surface tempe-
3 use, which enable steam consumption to be estimated rature. Special provision must therefore be made for
4 within reasonable limits. venting air from the cylinders.
5
In the case of textile cylinder drying machines, counting the
6
number of cylinders and measuring the circumference and 34.4 Presses
7 width of each will lead to the total heating surface area.
8 The two ends of each cylinder should be included and 0.75 Presses, like drying cylinders, come in all shapes, sizes
9 m² per cylinder should be added to cover doll heads and and working pressures, and are used for many purposes,
frames except where individual trapping is used. The such as moulding plastic powders, preparing laminates,
10 radiation loss from the machine, while standing, measured producing car tyres (see Figure 2.14.4), and manufacturing
11 in kg of steam per hour, can be estimated by multiplying plywood. They sometimes also incorporate a cooling cycle.
12 the total area by a factor of 2.44. The running load in kg per Clearly, it would be difficult to calculate steam loads with
hour will be obtained by using a factor of 8.3. (In imperial any accuracy and the only way of getting credible results is
13
units the area will be measured in square feet and the by measurement.
14 corresponding factors will be 0.5 and 1.7 respectively). This This type of equipment may be ‚open‘, allowing a radiation
15 is based on a machine drying piece goods at a rate of 64 to loss to atmosphere, or ‚closed‘, when the two heating
16 73 metres per minute, (70 to 80 yards per minute), but by surfaces are in effect insulated from each other by the
making allowances, it can be used for machines working product. Although some heat is absorbed by the product,
17
under different conditions. the net result is that the steam consumption is much the
18 same whether the plant is working or standing idle,
19 Where the amount of moisture to be removed is known, although fluctuations will occur during opening and closing.
steam consumption can be calculated using the empirical
20
Equation 2.14.1, assuming that the wet and dry weights of Fig. 2.14.5: Tyre press
21 the material being handled are known.
22
1.5 * ([ Ww-Wd ] * 2550 + 1.26 * Wd * [ T2 - T1 ])
23 m• s =
hfg
24 Equation 2.14.1
25
26 Where:
27 m• s = Mass flowrate of steam (kg/h)
Ww = Throughput of wet material (kg/h
28 Wd = Throughput of dry material (kg/h)
29 T2 = Temperature of material leaving the machine (°C)
30 T1 = Temperature of material entering the machine (°C)
hfg = Enthalpy of evaporation of steam in cylinders (kJ/kg)
31
32 The factors in the equation above are empirically derived
33 constants:
1.5 = Factor applied to cylinder dryers.
34
2550 = Average water enthalpy + enthalpy of evaporation
35 required to evaporate moisture.
36 1.26 = Average specific heat of material.
37
Drying cylinders tend to have a heavy start-up load due to
38
the huge volume of the steam space and the mass of metal
39 to be heated, and a factor of three times the running load
72
Steam consumption can sometimes be estimated using the The U values shown in Figure 2.9.1 may sometimes be 1
basic heat transfer Equation 2.5.3: used. They can give reasonable results in the case of large
2
platen presses but are less accurate when small numbers
of intricately shaped moulds are considered, mainly due to
3
the difficulty of estimating the surface area. 4
Ȯ = U *A * ΔT
5
Equation 2.53 A feature of this type of plant is the small steam space, and
6
a relatively high steam load when warming up from cold. To
account for this and the load fluctuations, steam traps 7
Where: should be sized with a factor of 2 times the running load. 8
Q̇ = Heat transferred per unit time (W) Temperature control can be very accurate using pilot 9
U = Overall heat transfer coefficient (W/m² K or W/m² °C) operated direct acting reducing valves, giving a constant
A = Heat transfer area (m²) and consistent steam pressure corresponding to the
10
ΔT = Temperature difference between the steam and the required surface temperature. These are sized simply on 11
product (K or °C) the designed steam load. 12
13
14
15
16
35 Safety valves – Installation 17
18
19
35.1 Seat tightness 20
Seat tightness is an important consideration when selecting small difference between the system pressure acting on the 21
and installing a safety valve, as not only can it lead to a disc and the spring force opposing it. 22
continuous loss of system fluid, but leakage can also cause 23
deterioration of the sealing faces, which can lead to Resilient or elastomer seals incorporated into the valve
24
premature lifting of the valve. discs are often used to improve shut-off, where system
conditions permit. It should be noted, however, that a soft 25
The seat tightness is affected by three main factors; firstly seal is often more susceptible to damage than a metal seat. 26
by the characteristics of the safety valve, secondly by the
27
installation of the safety valve and thirdly, by the operation
of the safety valve. 35.2 Safety valve installation 28
29
Characteristics of the safety valve Seat damage can often occur when a valve is first lifted as 30
For a metal-seated valve to provide an acceptable shut-off, part of the general plant commissioning procedure,
31
the sealing surfaces need to have a high degree of flatness because very often, dirt and debris are present in the
with a very good surface finish. The disc must articulate on system. To ensure that foreign matter does not pass 32
the stem and the stem guide must not cause any undue through the valve, the system should be flushed out before 33
frictional effects. Typical figures required for an acceptable the safety valve is installed and the valve must be mounted 34
shut-off for a metal seated valve are 0.5 mm for surface where dirt, scale and debris cannot collect.
finish and two optical light bands for flatness. In addition,
35
for a reasonable service life, the mating and sealing It is also important on steam applications to reduce the 36
surfaces must have a high wear resistance. propensity for leakage by installing the valve so that 37
condensate cannot collect on the upstream side of the disc.
38
Unlike ordinary isolation valves, the net closing force acting This can be achieved by installing the safety valve above
on the disc is relatively small, due to there being only a the steam pipe as shown in Figure 9.5.1. 39
73
1
2
3 Vent upwards
4
5
6
7 When a safety valve
8 is installed correctly,
above the steam pipe,
the safety valve inlet
9 pipework is self-draining
Low point
10 small bore
drain
11 Safety valve inlet pipe
12
13 Steam pipe Steam pipe
14
15 Fig. 9.5.1: Correct position of a safety valve on a steam system Fig. 9.5.3: Correct installation of a safety valve on a steam system
16
17
18 Where safety valves are installed below the pipe, steam 35.3 Installation
19 will condense, fill the pipe and wet the upstream side of the
safety valve seat. This type of installation is not recommen- Safety valves are precision items of safety equipment; they
20
ded but is shown in Figure 9.5.2 for reference purposes. are set to close tolerances and have accurately machined
21 internal parts. They are susceptible to misalignment and
22 damage if mishandled or incorrectly installed.
23
Valves should be transported upright if possible and they
24
Steam pipe should never be carried or lifted by the easing lever. In
25 addition, the protective plugs and flange protectors should
26 not be removed until actual installation. Care should also
When a safety valve
27 be taken during movement of the valve to avoid subjecting
is installed below the
steam pipe, steam can it to excessive shock as this can result in considerable
28 condensate and collect internal damage or misalignment.
on the upstream side
29 of the valve seat
30 Inlet pipework
When designing the inlet pipe work, one of the main
31
considerations is to ensure that the pressure drop in this
32 pipe work is minimised. EN ISO 4126 recommends that the
33 Fig. 9.5.2: Incorrect position of a safety valve on a steam system pressure drop be kept below 3% of the set pressure when
34 discharging. Where safety valves are connected using
short 'stub' connections, inlet pipe work must be at least
35 the same size as the safety valve inlet connection. For
36 larger lines or any line incorporating bends or elbows, the
37 Also, it is essential at all times to ensure that the down- branch connection should be at least two pipe sizes larger
stream pipe work is well drained so that downstream than the safety valve inlet connection, at which point it is
38
flooding (which can also encourage corrosion and leakage) reduced in size to the safety valve inlet size (see Figure
39 cannot occur, as shown in Figure 9.5.3. 9.5.5a). Excessive pressure loss can lead to 'chatter',
74
which may result in reduced capacity and damage to the stream from any converging or diverging 'Y' fitting, or any 1
seating faces and other parts of the valve. In order to bend (see Figure 9.5.5 (c)).
2
reduce the pressure loss in the inlet, the following methods •N ever install the safety valve branch directly opposite a
can be adopted: branch on the lower side of the steam line.
3
• Increase the diameter of the pipe. (see Figure 9.5.5 (a)). • Avoid take-off branches (such as for other processes) in 4
•E nsure that any corners are suitably rounded. The EN the inlet piping, as this will increase the pressure drop. 5
ISO 4126 standard recommends that corners should have
6
a radius of not less than one quarter of the bore (see
Figure 9.5.5 (b)). Safety valves should always be installed with the bonnet 7
•R educe the inlet pipe length. vertically upwards. Installing the valve in any other orienta- 8
• Install the valve at least 8 to 10 pipe diameters down- tion can affect the performance characteristics. 9
10
Fig. 9.5.5: Correct installations of safety valves
11
12
13
(a) (b) (c)
14
15
16
17
18
Branch pipe (ii)
(i) at least two pipe sizes 19
larger than the safety 8 - 10 pipe diameters
valve inlet connection (i) downstream of converging 20
Radius not less 'Y' fittings or bends
than one quarter 21
of the bore
22
(ii)
23
24
25
26
The API Recommended Practice 520 guidelines also state Horizontal pipe work should have a downward gradient of
27
that the safety valve should not be installed at the end of a at least 1 in 100 away from the valve; this gradient ensures
long horizontal pipe that does not normally have flow through that the discharge pipe is self-draining. However, any 28
it. This can lead to the accumulation of foreign material or vertical rises will still require separate drainage. Note that 29
condensate in the pipe, which may cause unnecessary any drainage systems form part of the overall discharge 30
damage to the valve, or interfere with its operation. system and are therefore subject to the same precautions
31
that apply to the discharge systems, notably that they must
Outlet pipe work not affect the valve performance, and any fluid must be 32
There are two possible types of discharge system - open discharged to a safe location. 33
and closed systems. Open system discharge directly into 34
the atmosphere whereas closed systems discharge into a It is essential to ensure that fluid cannot collect on the
manifold along with other safety valves. downstream side of a safety valve, as this will impair the
35
performance of the valve and cause corrosion of the spring 36
It is recommended that discharge pipe work for steam and and internal parts. Many safety valves are provided with a 37
gas systems should rise, whereas for liquids, it should fall. body drain connection, if this is not used or not provided,
38
However, it is important to drain any rising discharge pipe then a small bore drain should be fitted in close proximity to
work. the valve outlet (see Figure 9.5.3). 39
75
1 One of the main concerns in closed systems is the pressu- Manifolds (not recommended!)
2 re drop or built-up backpressure in the discharge system. Manifolds must be sized so that in the worst case (i.e.
As mentioned before, this can drastically affect the perfor- when all the manifold valves are discharging), the pipe
3 mance of a safety valve. The EN ISO 4126 standard states work is large enough to cope without generating unaccep-
4 that the pressure drop should be maintained below 10% of table levels of backpressure. The volume of the manifold
5 the set pressure. In order to achieve this, the discharge should ideally be increased as each valve outlet enters it,
pipe can be sized using Equation 9.5.1. and these connections should enter the manifold at an
6
angle of no greater than 45° to the direction of flow (see
7 Figure 9.5.6). The manifold must also be properly secured
8 5
Le * ṁ2 vg +2
*
and drained where necessary.
2
d=
9 0.008 * p
For steam applications, it is generally not recommended to
10 Equation 9.5.1
use manifolds, but they can be utilized if proper considera-
11 tion is given to all aspects of the design and installation.
12 Where:
d = Pipe diameter (mm)
13
Le = Equivalent length of pipe (m)
14 ṁ = Discharge capacity (kg/h)
15 P = Safety valve set pressure (bar g) x Required
16 percentage pressure drop
vg = Specific volume of saturated steam at the pressure
17 < 45°
(P) (m / kg)
18
19 The pressure (P) should be taken as the maximum
allowable pressure drop according to the relevant standard.
20 Fig. 9.5.6 :A typical manifold discharge system
In the case of EN ISO 4126, this would be 10% of the set
21 pressure and it is at this pressure vg is taken.
22 35.4 Reaction forces when discharging
23 Notes:
A) There´re special programs for calculation of discharge In open systems, careful consideration must be given to
24
pipe dimensions – please contact your safety valve the effects of the reaction forces generated in the discharge
25 supplier for details and inform him about necessary system when the valve lifts. In these systems, there will be
26 pipe length and amount of elbows or other piping significant resultant force acting in the opposite direction to
elements! that of discharge. It is important to prevent excessive loads
27
B) Rule of thumb” for saturated steam safety valves (up to being imposed on the valve or the inlet connection by these
28 round < 15 m of pipe and < 3 elbows): reaction forces, as they can cause damage to the inlet pipe
29 Size the discharge pipe 2 dimensions bigger then outlet work. The magnitude of the reaction forces can be calcula-
30 dimension flange of safety valve (example: safety valve ted using the formula in Equation 9.5.2:
with DN 40 outlet flange results in pipe dimension DN 65)
31
.
32 Safety valves that are installed outside of a building for k*T
33 discharge directly into the atmosphere should be covered F = 129 * m *
(k + 1) * M
+ 0.1 * A * P
34 using a hood. The hood allows the discharge of the fluid,

Equation 9.5.2
but prevents the build up of dirt and other debris in the
35 discharge pipe work, which could affect the backpressure. Where:
36 The hood should also be designed so that it too does not F = Reaction force at the point of discharge to
37 affect the backpressure. atmosphere (newtons) (see Figure 9.5.4)
ṁ = Discharge mass flowrate (kg/s)
38
k = Isentropic coefficient of the fluid
39 T = Fluid temperature (K)
76
M = Molar mass of the fluid (kg / kmol) Regardless of the magnitude of the reaction forces, the 1
A = Area of the outlet at the point of discharge (mm²) (see safety valve itself should never be relied upon to support
2
Figure 9.5.7) the discharge pipe work itself and a support should be
P = Static pressure at the outlet at the point of discharge provided to resist the weight of the discharge pipe work.
3
(bar g) This support should be located as close as possible to the 4
centre line of the vent pipe (see Figure 9.5.7). 5
6
Figures 9.5.8 and 9.5.9 show typical safety valve installa-
tions for both open and closed systems. 7
F ( Reaction force at the point of
discharge to atmosphere) 8
A (area of the outlet
at the point of
9
discharge (mm2))
10
11
Vent pipe
12
Note: A weather cap may be required
13
Pressure relief valve Long radius elbow
Non-recoverable losses along 14
the discharge pipe not more
Support to list weight

than 12% of the set pressure
15
Low point small
bore drain
and reaction forces Low point small bore drain 16
Pressure
17
relief valve
Long radius elbow 18
Body drain Support to resist weight and reaction forces 19
Non-recove-
rable losses
Nominal pipe diamter no less than 20
not more than valve inlet size
Fig. 9.5.7: Determination of the reaction forces 3% of the set 21
generated in an open system pressure
22
23
Fig. 9.5.8: A typical safety valve installation with open discharge system 24
The reaction forces are typically small for safety valves with
a nominal diameter of less than 75 mm, but safety valves 25
larger than this usually have mounting flanges for a 26
reaction bar on the body to allow the valve to be secured.
27
These reaction forces are typically negligible in closed
systems, and they can therefore be ignored. 28
Bonnet vent piping for bellows type
29
30
pressure relief valves, if required
31
Flanges spool piece, 32
if required to elevate PRV Non-recoverable losses
not more than 3%
of the set pressure
33
34
35
36
37
38
Fig. 9.5.9: A typical safety valve installation with closed discharge system 39
77
1
2
36 Required formulas and conversion tables
3
4 36.1 Conversion of pressure units (quick use – rounded):
5
6 Einheit
Unité mmWS mWS Torr
7 Unit Pa kPa MPa at mmCE mCE mmHg psi
bar mbar N/m2 kN/m2 MN/m2 kp/cm2 atm 1000 kp/m 2
1000 kp/m 2
mmQS lbf/in2 kgf/cm2
8
1 bar 1 1000 1 * 105 100 0,1 1,02 0,987 1.02 * 104 10,2 750 14,5 1,02
9
10 1 mbar 0,001 1 100 0,1 1 * 10-4 1.02 * 10-3 0.987 * 10-5 10,2 0,010 0,75 0,015 1.02 * 10-3
11 1 Pa 1 * 10-5 0,01 1 0,001 1 * 10-6 1.02 * 10-5 0.987 * 10-5 0,102 1.02 * 10-4 0,0075 1.45 * 10-4 1.02 * 10-5
12 1 N/m2
13 1 kPa
1 kN/m2
0,01 10 1000 1 0,001 0,010 9.87 * 10-3 102 0,102 7,5 0,145 0,010
14
1 MPa 10 1 * 104 1 * 105 1000 1 10,2 9,87 1.02 * 105 102 7500 145 10,2
15 1 MN/m2
16 1 at 0,981 981 0.981 * 105 98,1 0,098 1 0,968 1 * 104 10 736 14,22 1
1 kp/cm2
17
1 atm
18 1,013 1013 1.013 * 105 101,3 0,101 1,033 1 1.033 * 104 10,332 760 14,696 1,033
19 1 mmWS 0.981 * 10-4 0,098 9,807 9.81 * 103 9.81 * 10-6 1 * 10-4 9.68 * 10-5 1 0,001 0,074 1.422 * 10-3 1 * 10-4
1 mmCE
20
1 mWS
21 1 mCE
0,098 98,07 9807 9,81 9.81 * 10-3 0,1 0,097 1000 1 73,6 1,422 0,1
22 1 Torr 1.333 * 10-3 1,333 133,322 0,133 0.133 * 10-3 1.36 * 10-3 1.316*10-3 13,595 1.359 * 10-2 1 1.934 * 10-2 1.36 * 10-3
1 mmHg
23
1 psi
24 1 lbf/in2
6.895 * 10-2 68,95 6895 6,895 6.895 * 10-3 7.031 * 10-2 0,068 703,1 0,703 51,7 1 7.031*10-2
25
1 kgf/cm2 0,981 981 0.981 * 105 98,1 0,098 1 0,968 1 * 104 10 736 14,22 1
26
27
28
29 36.2 Conversion of anglo-american units to SI units
30
31 Length
32 Name of unit Symbol Definition Relation to SI units
33 foot (International) ft = 1/3 yd = 0.3048 m = 12 inches = 0.3048 m

inch (International) in = 1/36 yd = 1/12 ft = 0.0254 m
34
= Distance light travels in 1 / 299792458 of a second
35 metre (SI base unit) m in vacuum.[8]≈ 1 / 10000000 of the distance =1m
from equator to pole.
36
mile (international) mi = 80 chains = 5280 ft = 1760 yd = 1609.344 m
37 nanometer nm = 1 × 10−9 m = 1 × 10−9m
38 nautical mile (international) NM; nmi = 1852 m = 1852 m
39 yard (International) yd = 0.9144 m = 3 ft = 36 in = 0.9144 m
78
Aerea 1
Name of unit Symbol Definition Relation to SI units 2
acre (international) ac = 1 ch × 10 ch = 4840 sq yd
2
= 4 046.856 4224 m2
3
hectare ha = 10 000 m =10 000 m2
shed = 10 −52
m 2
= 10−52 m2
4
square foot sq ft = 1 ft × 1 ft = 9.290 304 × 10−2 m2 5
square inch sq in = 1 in × 1 in = 6.4516 × 10−4 m2 6
square kilometre km2 = 1 km × 1 km = 106 m2
square metre (SI unit) m 2
=1m × 1m = 1 m2
7
square mile sq mi = 1 mi × 1 mi = 2.589 988 110 336 × 106 m2 8
9
Volume 10
Name of unit Symbol Definition Relation to SI units 11
barrel (petroleum) bl; bbl = 42 gal (US) = 0.158 987 294 928 m3 12
bucket (Imperial) bkt = 4 gal (Imp) = 0.018 184 36 m3
cubic foot cu ft = 1 ft × 1 ft × 1 ft = 0.028 316 846 592 m3
13
cubic inch cu in = 1 in × 1 in × 1 in = 16.387 064 × 10−6 m3 14
cubic metre (SI unit) m3 =1m × 1m × 1m = 1 m3 15
cubic mile cu mi = 1 mi × 1 mi × 1 mi = 4 168 181 825.440 579 584 m3
16
cubic yard cu yd = 27 cu ft = 0.764 554 857 984 m3
gallon (Imperial) gal (Imp) = 4.546 09 L = 4.546 09 × 10−3 m3 17
litre L = 1 dm 3
= 0.001 m3 18
ounce (fluid Imperial) fl oz (Imp) = 1/160 gal (Imp) = 28.413 0625 × 10−6 m3
19
pint (Imperial) pt (Imp) = ⅛ gal (Imp) = 568.261 25 × 10−6 m3
quart (Imperial) qt (Imp) = ¼ gal (Imp) = 1.136 5225 × 10−3 m3 20
ton (freight) = 40 cu ft = 1.132 673 863 68 m3 21
ton (water) = 28 bu (Imp) = 1.018 324 16 m3
22
23
Flow (volume) 24
Name of unit Symbol Definition Relation to SI units
25
cubic foot per minute CFM = 1 ft3/min = 4.719474432 × 10−4 m3/s
cubic foot per second 3
ft /s 3
= 1 ft /s = 0.028316846592 m3/s 26
cubic inch per minute in3/min = 1 in3/min = 2.7311773 × 10−7 m3/s 27
3 3
cubic inch per second in /s = 1 in /s = 1.6387064 × 10−5 m3/s
3 3
28
cubic metre per second (SI unit) m /s = 1 m /s = 1 m3/s
gallon (U.S. fluid) per day GPD = 1 gal/d = 4.381263638 × 10−8 m3/s 29
gallon (U.S. fluid) per hour GPH = 1 gal/h = 1.051503273 × 10−6 m3/s 30
gallon (U.S. fluid) per minute GPM = 1 gal/min = 6.30901964 × 10−5 m3/s
31
litre per minute LPM = 1 L/min = 1.6 × 10−5 m3/s
32
33
Force 34
Name of unit Symbol Definition Relation to SI units
35
kilogram-force; kilopond; grave-force kgf; kp; Gf = g × 1 kg = 9.806 65 N
A force capable of giving a mass of one kg an 36
newton (SI unit) N = 1 N = 1 kg·m/s2
acceleration of one metre per second
37
pound lb = slug·ft/s2 = 4.448 230 531 N
pound-force lbf = g × 1 lb = 4.448 221 615 2605 N 38
ton-force tnf = g × 1 sh tn = 8.896 443 230 521 × 103 N 39
79
1 Energy, work or amount of heat
3
3
British thermal unit (ISO) BTUISO = 1.0545 × 10 J = 1.0545 × 103 J
British thermal unit (International Table) BTUIT = 1.055 055 852 62 × 103 J
4
British thermal unit (39 °F) BTU39 °F ≈ 1.059 67 × 103 J
5
British thermal unit (59 °F) BTU59 °F = 1.054 804 × 103 J = 1.054 804 × 103 J
6 British thermal unit (60 °F) BTU60 °F ≈ 1.054 68 × 103 J
7 British thermal unit (63 °F) BTU63 °F ≈ 1.0546 × 103 J
8 calorie (International Table) calIT = 4.1868 J = 4.1868 J
9 calorie (mean) calmean

1/100 of the energy required to warm one gram of
air-free water from 0 °C to 100 °C @ 1 atm
≈ 4.190 02 J
10 foot-pound force ft lbf = g × 1 lb × 1 ft = 1.355 817 948 331 4004 J

11 foot-poundal ft pdl = 1 lb·ft2/s2 = 4.214 011 009 380 48 × 10−2 J
12 horsepower-hour hp·h = 1 hp × 1 h = 2.684 519 537 696 172 792 × 106 J
13 inch-pound force in lbf = g × 1 lb × 1 in = 0.112 984 829 027 6167 J

The work done when a force of one newton moves
14 joule (SI unit) J the point of its application a distance of one metre
= 1 J = 1 m·N = 1 kg·m2/s2 = 1 C·V
= 1 W·s
in the direction of the force.[24]
15 therm (E.C.) = 100 000 BTUIT = 105.505 585 262 × 106 J
16
17 Power or heat flow rate
19 BTU (International Table) per hour BTUIT/h = 1 BTUIT/h ≈ 0.293 071 W

BTU (International Table) per minute BTUIT/min = 1 BTUIT/min ≈ 17.584 264 W
20
BTU (International Table) per second BTUIT/s = 1 BTUIT/s = 1.055 055 852 62 × 103 W
21 horsepower (boiler) bhp ≈ 34.5 lb/h × 970.3 BTUIT/lb ≈ 9.810 657 × 103 W (= 9,81 kW)
22 horsepower (European electrical) hp = 75 kp·m/s = 736 W
23 watt (SI unit) W
The power which in one second of time gives rise to
= 1 W = 1 J/s = 1 N·m/s = 1 kg·m2/s3
one joule of energy
24
25
Conversion of water hardnes units
26
Total hardness (CaCO3 – Calciumcarbonate)
27
Symbol °dH °e °fH ppm mval / l mmol / l
28 German hardness °dH 1 1,253 1,78 17,8 0,357 0,1783
29 English hardness °E 0,798 1 1,43 14,3 0,285 0,142
30 French hardness °fH 0,560 0,702 1 10 0,2 0,1
31 ppm CaCO3 (USA) ppm 0,056 0,07 0,1 1 0,02 0,01
32 mval/l earthalcali-Ions mval/l 2,8 3,51 5 50 1 0,50

mmol/l earthalcali-Ions mmol/l 5,6 7,02 10,00 100,0 2,00 1
33
34
General hardness level
35
(°dH / mmol/l calciumcabonate)
36
°dH mmol/l
37 Soft < 8,4 < 1,5
38 Medium 8,4 - 14 1,5 – 2,5
39 Hard > 14 > 2,5
80
36.3 Software Conversions see 1

(examples - freeware): 2
http://joshmadison.com/convert-for-windows/
3
(easy download possible) 4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
http://www.convertworld.com
17
(Internet based calculations only) 18
19
20
http://online.unitconverterpro.com/conversion-tables/
convert-group/factors.php 21
(Internet based calculations only) 22
23
24
25
26
27
28
37 Literature references 29
30
Hoval data sheets and guidelines, Hoval handbooks
31
Spirax-Sarco steam tutorials (www.spiraxsarco.com)
Gestra handbook (www.gestra.de) 32
Saacke - rules of thumb (www.saacke.de) 33
Wikipedia encyclopedia (www.wikipedia.org) 34
35
36
37
38
39
81
1
2
3 38 System P&I Diagram
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
82
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
83
84
85
Disclaimer
Although Hoval does everything possible to ensure the
accuracy of all data within this document, we cannot be
held responsible for the contained information
86
Hoval heating technology
As an energy neutral supplier with a full range of
products, Hoval helps its customers to select
innovative system solutions for a wide range of energy
sources, such as heat pumps, biomass, solar energy,
gas, oil and district heating. Services range from
private residential units to large-scale industrial projects.
Hoval residential ventilation

Increased comfort and more efficient use of energy from
private housing to industrial halls: our controlled
residential ventilation products provide fresh, clean air
for living and working space. Our innovative system
for a healthy room climate uses heat and moisture
recovery, while at the same time protecting energy
resources and providing a healthier environment.
Hoval indoor climate systems

Supplying fresh air, removing extract air, heating,
cooling, filtering and distributing air, utilising heat gains
or recovering cold energy – no matter what the task,
Hoval indoor climate systems provide tailor-made
solutions with low planning and installation costs.
Responsibility for energy and environment.

The Hoval brand is internationally known as one of the leading
suppliers of indoor climate control solutions. More than 66 years of
experience have given us the necessary capabilities and motivation
to continuously develop exceptional solutions and technically
superior equipment. Maximising energy efficiency and thus
protecting the environment are both our commitment and our
2013 - 4212407
incentive. Hoval has established itself as an expert provider of

intelligent heating and ventilation systems that are exported to over
50 countries worldwide.
Your partner
Hoval Aktiengesellschaft
Austrasse 70, FL- 9490 Vaduz
Principality of Liechtenstein
(Swiss customs territory)
Phone +423 3992 400
Fax +423 3992 618
E-Mail: info@hoval.com
www.hoval.com

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Planner Guide

Industrial Boiler – Steam Systems 1

Small to medium size steam boilers

3 Benefit of Hoval steam boilers 9

4 System P&I Diagram 10

6 Steam boilers control systems 13

7 Saturated steam tables – part 1 15

8 Saturated steam tables – part 2 16

9 Technical details for industrial boilers 17

12 Properties of some supply gases (av. values – physical standard condition) 20

13 Excess of air – calculation 21

14 Boiler load / output – Steam quantity 21

15 Conversion from “ Nm3 ” to “ operating m3 ” (gas, air, smoke gas) 22

16 Conversion from “operation m3 ” to “Nm3 ” (gas, air, smoke gas) 22

17 Feed water tank and feed water conditioning 23

18 Water preparation for steam boiler plants 30

19 Purge pit – part 1 38

20 Purge pit – part 2 39

21 Calculation of temperatures and quantities (Mixture of 2 water streams) 40

23 Pressure loss at straight water pipes 42

24 Determination of pipe size 42

25 Flow speed at pipes (liquid, gaseous) 43

26 Steam pipes – dimensions 44

27 Condensate pipes – dimensions 45

28 Pipe expansion and support 46

29 Pipe dimensions and weights 53

30 Dimensions for gaskets and connections – Part 1 54

31 Dimensions for gaskets and connections – Part 2 55

32 Steam lines and drains 56

33 Steam consumption of plants 63

34 Steam consumption of plant items 69

35 Safety valves – Installation 73

36 Required formulas and conversion tables 78

1 Benefit of steam 1. Planner: Easy to plan (providing fast information in the

3 Benefit of Hoval steam boilers 24

15 0 1 99,6 417 2258 2675 1,694 0,5904

16 0,5 1,5 111,4 467 2226 2693 1,159 0,8628

17 1 2 120,2 505 2201 2706 0,885 1,129

18 6 6 165,0 697 2065 2762 0,2727 3,667

19 10 11 184,1 781 1999 2780 0,1774 5,637

20 13 14 195,0 830 1958 2788 0,1407 7,106

21 16 17 204,3 872 1921 2793 0,1166 8,575

22 20 21 214,9 920 1878 2798 0,0949 10,54

23 25 26 226,0 972 1829 2801 0,0769 13,01

24 30 31 235,7 1017 1785 2802 0,0645 15,51

25 89 90 303,3 1364 1381 2745 0,0205 48,79

6 Steam boilers control systems 1

1 6.6 Condensate return 6.8 Feed water tank

24 The selection of the process depends on the following

8 LCV MJ/m³ 31,8 36,0 93,2 123,8

16 Relative Density d Kg/m³ 0,641 0,606 1,555 2,094

24 Water quantity at smoke gas

28 Nitrogen N2 Vol. 14 3,1 - -

36 Ethan C 2H 6 Vol. 2,8 2,0 - -

37 Propane C 3H 8 Vol. 0,4 1,0 100 -

1 14.3 Exact calculation of fuel consumption at 14.4 Determination of efficiency

22 p = gas pressure in mbar

17.3 Feed tank design 1

1 17.4 Feed tank materials: 17.5 Feedtank capacity

Condensate return down. Make-up (chemically treated) water will therefore 1

1 Figure 3.11.5(b) again shows the formation of steam at 10 Vent

29 Table 3.10.2: Relative costs of water treatment processes

37 V = 200 litres + 200 litres * 1,66 = 533 litres

1 Benefit of steam 1. Planner: Easy to plan (providing fast information in the

3 Benefit of Hoval steam boilers 24

1 14.3 Exact calculation of fuel consumption at 14.4 Determination of efficiency

36.3 Software Conversions see 1