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Characterization of pervious concrete with blended natural aggregate and


recycled concrete aggregates

Article  in  Journal of Cleaner Production · February 2018


DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.01.205

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Journal of Cleaner Production 181 (2018) 155e165

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Cleaner Production


journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Characterization of pervious concrete with blended natural aggregate


and recycled concrete aggregates
Soon Poh Yap a, *, Paul Zhao Chiat Chen a, Yingxin Goh b, c, Hussein Adebayo Ibrahim a,
Kim Hung Mo a, Choon Wah Yuen a
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
c
Institute of Research Management & Monitoring, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The utilization of recycled coarse aggregates (RCA) from construction and demolition wastes to produce
Available online 3 February 2018 green concrete serves as a sustainable solution with manifold environmental benefits. This study aims to
widen the potential uses of RCA to fabricate pervious concrete for non-structural applications. The
Keywords: mechanical and surface properties, permeability, and greenhouse gases assessment of pervious concrete
Abrasion made with blended normal granite aggregates and RCA were investigated in this work. RCA replacement
Concrete waste
levels of 20%, 40%, 60%, 80% and 100% were used. Experimental results show that the RCA mixes have
Greenhouse gases
lower mechanical properties. Microscopic analyses show that the lower strength of RCA mixes was
Mechanical properties
Permeability
attributed to the failure path of RCA specimens which occurred at the weaker adhered mortar on RCA.
Skid resistance Despite the drop in strength, all RCA-mixes attained the minimum BS EN 1338 requirements in terms of
skid and abrasion resistance. In the mix with 100% RCA, the waste content in the pervious concrete mix
was 87% by weight and 73% by volume. The greenhouse gases assessment also shows that the CO2
emission of this 100% RCA mix is 24% lower than the control mix.
© 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction 2016). In addition, the recycling of coarse aggregate lowers the


consumption of raw coarse aggregates, which then leads to
With the continuous urbanization in major cities of developing reduction in costs, energy and pollution associated with the granite
countries, the massive amount of construction and demolition extraction and transport (Barnhouse and Srubar, 2016). Hence, the
wastes have placed construction industry as one of the greatest use of RCA in concrete is considered as an economical and envi-
environment offenders. The construction and demolition wastes ronmental friendly measure towards sustainability of the con-
are generally non-degradable, thus raising concerns on waste struction industry (Carsana et al., 2013; Su et al., 2015). However,
management and the associated pollution (Rodríguez et al., 2016; reports on the structural applications of RCA concrete are limited
Zhang et al., 2017). In European Union, the annual production of and inconsistent. Sadati et al. (2016) reported the use of RCA in the
construction wastes is about 900 million tonnes and this contrib- fabrication of structural beams and the shear performance of the
utes to 25e30% of all wastes produced (Bravo et al., 2015; Malia RCA beams are comparable to the beams with normal aggregates
et al., 2013; Sadati et al., 2016). Therefore, special measures have (NA). Conversely, other studies show that RCA concrete is often
to be taken to deal with the construction wastes. associated with loss of physical and mechanical properties
The recycling and reuse of the non-degradable construction (Barbudo et al., 2013; Rodríguez et al., 2016; Tam et al., 2016). Thus,
wastes as recycled coarse aggregate (RCA) is trending due to its research is more focused on non-structural applications of RCA over
outstanding potential to reduce landfill volume and pollution the past decade. In terms of environmental benefits, most of the
(Ibrahim and Abdul Razak, 2016; Rodríguez et al., 2016; Tam et al., environmental impact indicator studies including life cycle
assessment stated that the RCA-based concrete has better envi-
ronmental behaviours compared to the traditional concrete (Lo  pez
Gayarre et al., 2016; Salesa et al., 2017; Serres et al., 2016). The use
* Corresponding author. of RCA in the manufacturing of both structural and non-structural
E-mail address: spyap@um.edu.my (S.P. Yap).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.01.205
0959-6526/© 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
156 S.P. Yap et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 181 (2018) 155e165

members gained significant advantages in reduction of the natural the negative environmental impact. In addition, no admixture was
resources usage and minimization in the environmental impact. used in this study although previous reports showed that the
Despite that, the recycling rate of RCA remains low due to a) lack of strength and durability of pervious concrete can be alleviated with
highly specialised recycling plants; b) low demand for recycled incorporation of different admixtures (Barnhouse and Srubar, 2016;
materials; c) abundance of natural resources; d) lack of control of Kim et al., 2016; Lund et al., 2017; Shu et al., 2011). This is because
unauthorised landfills; and e) lack of governmental policies the mix design can become economical unviable when they involve
(Rodríguez et al., 2015). expensive admixtures, high cement content and necessity of spe-
This study aims to promote the recycling of construction wastes cial compaction method (Zhang et al., 2017). Furthermore, studies
by widening the application of RCA to the expanse of pervious conducted by Barbudo et al. (2013) shown that plasticizer is not
concrete fabrication. Pervious concrete is a special category of necessary in pervious concrete design. A typical normal concrete
sustainable concrete material. It is mainly composed of rationally compaction method with a shorter compaction time is adopted in
graded coarse aggregates, without or with minimum amount of this work, while other studies on pervious concrete utilized roller
fine aggregates, and designed with cement content just enough to compaction which consumed more energy. The performances of
provide an optimal coating around the aggregates (Chandrappa and the developed RCA pervious concrete including mechanical prop-
Biligiri, 2016b). Pervious concrete offers multiple environmental erties, permeability, skid and abrasion resistance will be investi-
benefits, including controlling storm water runoff, restoring gated. The greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions between the
groundwater supplies, improving water quality, as well as reducing pervious concrete with normal aggregate and RCA were also
water and soil pollution (Bhutta et al., 2012; Li et al., 2013; Rehder compared. It was reported that incorporation of RCA in pervious
et al., 2014; Yahia and Kabagire, 2014; Zhang and Guo, 2015). concrete resulted in reduced performance but there is lack of
Moreover, pervious concrete is also advantageous in acoustic ab- literature on its failure mechanisms. Previous studies only
sorption, heat and humidity regulation, dynamic insulation tech- mentioned that the adhered mortar is the cause of failure of the
nologies, and reactive barrier for removal of heavy metals such as RCA concrete (Poon and Chan, 2006; Guneyisi et al., 2016). Thus,
Al, Fe, Mn, Co and Ni from acid mine drainage. (Deo and Neithalath, microstructural analyses will be conducted using field emission
2010; Qin, 2015; Rehder et al., 2014; Shu et al., 2011; Yang and Jiang, scanning electron microscope (FESEM) and energy dispersive X-ray
2003; Carsana et al., 2013; Shabalala et al., 2017). However, due to spectroscopy (EDX) to correlate the failure mechanism with the
the high void content, the compressive strength of pervious con- microstructure of the RCA pervious concrete.
crete can be as low as 10e13 MPa. Thus, pervious concrete can only
be applied to footpaths, parking lots, stone protection, drainage
pavement, precast porous concrete products, plant bedding and
permeable rainwater retention facilities (Ibrahim and Abdul Razak,
2016; Bhutta et al., 2012). 2. Experimental programme
From available reports, the compressive strength and perme-
ability coefficient of RCA pervious concrete fell within the range of 2.1. Materials
5e24 MPa and 0.14e1.22 cm/s, respectively (Guneyisi et al., 2016;
Zhang et al., 2017). Guneyisi et al. (2016) reported that 100% There are three main materials in the fabrication of pervious
replacement of RCA pervious concrete experienced reduced concrete: cement, coarse aggregates and water.
compressive strength from 17.4 to 12.8 MPa, as well as increased Ordinary Portland cement with a specific gravity and specific
permeability and abrasion loss of 54.2% and 27.1%, respectively. surface area of 3.13 and 3450 cm2/g, respectively, was used for this
Studies conducted by Guneyisi et al. (2016) and Lund et al. (2017) investigation. The 28-day compressive for the cement used is
on pervious concrete (including RCA pervious concrete) show 48 MPa and this follows the requirement of MS522, part-1:2003.
that smaller aggregate size and lower water to cement ratio will Potable water with a pH value of 6 was used for both the mixing
result in higher strength. Also, both studies revealed that the and curing processes. No plasticizer was used in this study.
permeability of pervious concrete is predominantly affected by the In this study, two types of coarse aggregate were blended to
aggregate and cement volume, and aggregate gradation (Guneyisi produce pervious concrete: natural aggregate and recycled coarse
et al., 2016; Lund et al., 2017). These studies suggested that the aggregate, as shown in Fig. 1. The raw recycled coarse aggregate
properties of RCA pervious concrete can be affected by many factors (RCA) was collected from a demolition site in Pusat Bandar Dam-
such as gradation of aggregate, cement content, water to cement ansara, Kuala Lumpur. The raw RCA was initially large in size and it
ratio, aggregate to cement ratio, as well as type and degree of was crushed using a crusher machine. The crushed RCA was then
compaction. sieved to obtain the RCA in the range of 4.5e9.5 mm as shown in
In this study, the main priority is to prepare RCA-based pervious Fig. 1a. Meanwhile, granite aggregates between 4.5 and 9.5 mm
concrete with minimized costs (cement and virgin aggregate con- (Fig. 1b) were used as natural aggregates (NA). The aggregate size
tent, aggregate treatment, and compaction method) and maxi- between 4.5 and 9.5 mm was chosen as it was reported that a
mised environmental benefits. In pervious concrete, the main relatively smaller amount of cement paste is sufficient to coat the
component is coarse aggregate while the amount of cement paste is aggregates within this range (Chandrappa and Biligiri, 2016a).
minimal (359 kg/m3 cement and w/c ratio 0.35). Hence, in this Handheld microscope images showed that a huge amount of
research, the coarse aggregates were replaced by up to 100% RCA in cement mortar was adhered to the RCA (Fig. 1c) compared to the NA
order to maximize the waste recycling in the mixture proportions (Fig. 1d). However, no treatment was done on the RCA to remove
of pervious concrete. Different treatment methods on RCA were the adhered mortar in order to minimize the production cost of
reported previously including acid, thermal, water treatment, pervious concrete. Further, the physical properties of both aggre-
polymer emulsion, carbon conditioning and adhered mortar gates are reported in Table 1. The aggregate impact value (AIV) and
strengthening (de Juan and Gutie rrez, 2009; Katkhuda and aggregate crushing value (ACV) of RCA are 5.28% and 24.5%
Shatarat, 2017; Shi et al., 2016; Tam et al., 2016) but these treat- respectively compared to that of 1.67% and 15.4% for NA. This in-
ment processes result in additional energy consumption. Thus, no dicates that RCA has a lower impact and crushing resistance due the
RCA treatment was utilized in this work in order to further reduce higher tendency of adhered mortar loss under abrasion and impact
loadings.
S.P. Yap et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 181 (2018) 155e165 157

Fig. 1. (a) Recycled coarse aggregates, (b) natural granite aggregates, (c) magnified surface of recycled coarse aggregate and (d) magnified surface of natural granite aggregate.

Table 1 with cement. After the dry mix has mixed well, water was then
Material properties of recycled coarse aggregate and natural aggregate. added slowly within a 3 min mixing. Then the mixer was switched
Properties Recycled Coarse Aggregate Natural Aggregate off for the ball-in-hand consistency test (ASTM C860-15). As
(RCA) (NA) pervious concrete does not produce significant slump, the ball-in-
Bulk density (kg/m3) 1243.1 1433.1 hand consistency test is conducted to ensure the fresh mixes
24 h water absorption (%) 8.05 3.50 attained sufficient wetness to form the aggregate-paste bonding. A
Specific gravity 2.32 2.65
dry mix will produce zero strength. Once the consistency test was
Aggregate Impact Value, AIV 5.28 1.67
(%) done, the mixing was continued for another 2 min. Finally the fresh
Aggregate Crushing Value, 24.5 15.4 concrete was poured, vibrated and finished in the specimen
ACV (%) moulds. The fresh mixes were poured into the mould in two parts,
where the first part was placed to about half of the mould height
followed by a short vibration (about 1 s). The same procedure was
2.2. Mixture proportions and procedures repeated for the second part. Finally the fresh concrete was finished
using a concrete trowel. Unlike other pervious concrete which
A total of 6 mixture proportions were designed for the blended cannot be compacted and requires special tampering, the pervious
aggregates pervious concrete, as shown in Table 2. NA mix was the concretes in this research were designed in a way that enables
control pervious concrete made of 100% natural aggregates while compacting like normal concrete. All compacted specimens were
the other 5 mixes (RCA mixes) consist of different degree of then covered with plastic bags to prevent water evaporation and
replacement by RCA (20, 40, 60 and 80%). In all mixes, the amount demoulded after 24 h. The demoulded specimens were cured in
of the water and cement were kept constant. The proportioning for water until the age of testing.
aggregate was based on the volume of paste required to bind the
aggregates together while maintaining a 20% void ratio. The actual
porosity for each mix was measured after the demoulding process 2.3. Testing
on three specimens and the achieved porosity was reported in
Table 2. The achieved porosity for all mixes are 20 ± 2.5%. The compressive strengths were tested at the age of 1, 7, and 28
For the mixing processes, the coarse aggregates were dry mixed days, while other properties were tested at the age of 28 days. The
in a rotary drum mixer for 3 min then followed by 5 min dry mixing concrete properties were taken as the average values of three
specimens.

Table 2
Mix proportions.

Mix design Cement (kg/m3) Water (kg/m3) Coarse aggregates (kg/ Porosity (%)
m3)

NA RCA Designed Achieved

NA 359 125 1300 0 20 18.75e20.86


RCA20 359 125 1040 296 20 18.41e22.08
RCA40 359 125 780 593 20 17.71e21.60
RCA60 359 125 520 890 20 17.99e21.65
RCA80 359 125 260 1187 20 17.58e22.20
RCA100 359 125 0 1484 20 17.86e22.51
158 S.P. Yap et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 181 (2018) 155e165

2.3.1. Mechanical properties 2.3.3. Surface properties


For the mechanical properties testing of each mix proportion, For the durability properties of pervious concrete mixes, two
100 mm cubes, 100f  200 mm cylinders, 100  100  500 mm tests were conducted to evaluate the surface properties for all
prisms and 150f  300 mm cylinders were prepared for compres- mixes: skid resistance (ASTM E303-93) and abrasion resistance
sive strength (BS EN 12390:2009), splitting tensile strength (BS EN (ASTM C1747/C1747M-13). Both tests are important to evaluate the
12390-6:2009), flexural strength (BS EN 12390-5:2009) and safety and durability aspects of pervious concrete for pavement
modulus of elasticity (BS EN 12390-13:2013), respectively. purposes.
The skid resistance for all the pervious concrete mixes were
tested on wet surfaces of 100  100  500 mm prism specimens in
2.3.2. Permeability accordance to ASTM E303-93. The purpose of the test is to measure
One of the key properties of pervious concrete is its perme- the surface frictional properties of pervious concrete using the
ability. The aim of this study is to compare the effect of recycled British Pendulum Skid Resistance Tester. Meanwhile for the abra-
coarse aggregates in the permeability of blended aggregate sion resistance of pervious concrete, Cantabro test was conducted
pervious concretes with a constant void ratio of 20%. The on three cylinders of size 150f  300 mm in a Los Angeles abrasion
commonly used method to investigate the permeability property of machine according to ASTM C1747/C1747M-13. This test aims to
pervious concrete is falling head permeability method. In this determine the potential resistance to degradation of pervious
study, a simplified, non-standardized falling head permeability test concrete by measuring the mass loss of specimens subjected to
modified by Neithalath et al. (2010) and Ibrahim and Abdul Razak combined action of impact and abrasion.
(2016) was used (Fig. 2). The specimens used were
100f  150 mm cylinders, at which 25 mm think layers were sliced
3. Results and discussion
off from top and bottom of the 100f  200 mm cylinders. The
specimen was wrapped with impermeable membrane sheet
3.1. Mechanical properties
around its outer perimeter surface to ensure a uniaxial water
infiltration in vertical direction. During the testing, the time taken
3.1.1. Compressive strength
for a water head of 200 mm to fully flow through the specimens
Fig. 3 shows the compressive strength development for all
were recorded as time, t. For each mix, at least three specimens
mixes up to the age of 28-day. The highest compressive of 11.4 MPa
were used to compute the permeability coefficient. After that, the
were reported in NA mix. Meanwhile for the RCA mixes, RCA 20
permeability coefficient of pervious concrete was computed by
with 20% RCA replacement showed very close compressive
using Eq. (1).
strength to that NA mix, but for RCA replacement >20%, the
QL compressive strengths of RCA mixes reduced with increasing RCA
Permeability coefficient; ðcm=sÞ ¼ (1) content. The lowest compressive of about 5.5 MPa was observed in
HAt
both RCA80 and RCA100 mixes. The compressive strengths of mixes
where Q ¼ quantity of water (mm3); L ¼ length of pervious con- containing low RCA content (20e40% replacement) and high RCA
crete specimen (150 mm); H ¼ water head (200 mm); A ¼ cross content (60e100% replacement) showed strength reduction of
sectional area of specimens (7855 mm2); t ¼ time taken for the about 1e13% and 20e40%, respectively. These observations are in
water head to flow through the specimen (s). agreement with the findings of Rizvi et al. (2010), at which a 50%
strength reduction was expected in a pervious concrete with full
RCA replacement. Previous studies explained that the strength
reduction was due to the paste volume (Barnhouse and Srubar,
2016; Yahia and Kabagire, 2014) and bonding between aggregate
and cement paste (Deo and Neithalath, 2010; Poon and Chan,
2006). In this research, the strength reduction can be explained
further as poor aggregate-cement paste bonding in RCA mixes, by
referring to Fig. 4. The magnified images of aggregate-paste
bonding taken using handheld microscope showed that the high-
est amount of aggregate-paste bonding was visible in NA specimen
(Fig. 4b), and the amount of bonding decreases as RCA replacement

Fig. 2. Falling head apparatus for permeability test. Fig. 3. Compressive strength development for all mixes.
S.P. Yap et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 181 (2018) 155e165 159

Fig. 4. Comparison between the physical appearances and aggregate-cement paste bonding for cubes specimens from NA, RCA60 and RCA100 mixes.

was increased to 60% (Fig. 4c) and 100% (Fig. 4d). This poor phases with different morphology (labelled (3) and (4)). EDX
aggregate-paste bonding had been reported as the reason of poor spectrum of area (3) (Fig. 6e) is very similar to EDX spectrums of NA
concrete properties concrete from RCA (Deo and Neithalath, 2010; specimens (Fig. 6b and c) and contains high level of silicate, sug-
Sumanasooriya and Neithalath, 2011). This phenomenon is attrib- gesting that this is the granite/RCA phase. On the other hand, EDX
uted to the adhered mortar on RCA as shown in Fig. 1c. The pres- spectrum of area (4) (Fig. 6f) consists of high level of calcium which
ence of adhered mortar on RCA will absorb mixing water and it is typically seen in hydration products, suggesting that this is the
reduces the amount of cement paste (Bravo et al., 2015; Poon and adhered mortar phase. These microstructural and composition
Lam, 2008). This eventually results in poor bonding between analyses results suggested the failure of RCA pervious concrete
cement paste and coarse aggregate and compressive strength was takes place at the interface of RCA and adhered mortar. In com-
reduced. Microstructural analyses have been conducted to examine parison, there was no observation failure that happens at the
further on the preferred path for the crack propagation. Field interface between NA and mortar (Fig. 6a). In summary, the weak
Emission Scanning Electron Microscope (FESEM) and Energy aggregate-paste bonding in RCA mixes is attributed to the shorter
Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDX) had been conducted on the and less diverted crack path in RCA pervious concrete, as the cracks
fractured specimens to study the failure mechanisms in both NA are easier to penetrate through the weaker adhered mortar on the
and RCA mixes. Fig. 5 showed the crack propagations while Fig. 6 RCA.
showed the EDX analyses of the failure plane in both NA and A design compressive strength in the range of 10e13 MPa is
RCA100 specimens. Referring to Fig. 5, both RCA and NA showed preferred for parking lots, stone protection, drainage pavement,
different crack propagation paths. In RCA100 specimen (Fig. 5b), it and precast porous concrete products (Poon and Chan, 2006).
was observed that the crack displays less branching, while failure However, lower strength is acceptable for pedestrian trials and
plane of NA specimen showed more crack branching and direction walkways since the pervious concrete will not be subjected to
diversion (Fig. 5a). This observation is in agreement with the vehicular loads (Ibrahim and Abdul Razak, 2016). Therefore the RCA
studies conducted by Yap et al. (2015a & 2015b), where a branched mixes developed in this research were appropriate for the pedes-
crack propagation often results in higher compressive strength as trian trials and walkways.
more energy is required to cause failure in the concrete. Besides, From Fig. 3, the ratios of 1-day to 28-day compressive strength
the lower strength in RCA pervious concrete can be explained by are 58%, 61%, 65%, 82%, 74%, 85% for the mixes NA, RCA20, RCA40,
the failure plane of RCA specimen. As seen from Fig. 6d, the failure RCA60, RCA80 and RCA100, respectively. While the respective ra-
plane of RCA pervious concrete occurred at the interface of two tios 7-day to 28-day compressive strength are 78%, 76%, 76%, 95%,

Fig. 5. Crack propagations of (a) NA and (b) RCA100 fractured specimens.


160 S.P. Yap et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 181 (2018) 155e165

Fig. 6. Failure planes and localised EDX results for (a)e(c) NA and (d)e(f) RCA100 fractured specimens.

98%, 88%. This shows that for replacement level up to 40%, the mentioned in Section 3.1.1. This indicates high brittleness is ex-
strength development of blended aggregate pervious concretes is pected in pervious concrete. In this study, the brittleness is
similar to that of the control NA mix. When the replacement level is measured by brittleness ratios (Fig. 8). Brittleness ratios were
more than 40%, the mixes achieved high early strength (>74% at 1 expressed as compressive to flexural strengths ratios (Sun and Xu,
day and >88% at 7-day relative to their 28-day strengths). The 2009; Yap et al., 2015b). The typical ranges of brittleness ratios for
observation was similar to the work done by Carsana et al. (2013) normal concrete and lightweight concrete are 4e8 (Neville, 2012;
where the pervious concrete mixes with almost similar water to Sun and Xu, 2009) and 8e11 (Yap et al., 2015a), respectively. Ac-
cement ratio, already reached the 80e90% of the highest cording to Neville (2012), the relationship between compressive
compressive strength observed after 7 days of curing (Carsana et al., and flexural strengths depends on the type of aggregate, at which
2013). The premature high early strength can be attributed to smooth aggregate surface will lower both the compressive strength
insufficient cement paste to form aggregate-paste bonding. RCA has and brittleness. However, in this study, results from Fig. 8 show that
higher surface area due to adhered mortar, hence it requires higher the specimens containing high amount of RCA (60e100%) experi-
amount of cement paste to form aggregate-paste bonding enced significant reduction of compressive strength (49e53%) but
(Etxeberria et al., 2007). Consequently, at higher levels of RCA only 30e32% reduction in flexural strength. Lower tensile strength
replacement, the aggregate-paste bonding problem will be more reduction indicates lower brittleness. This shows the positive
significant due to the constant cement paste volume for all mixes. impact of mixes containing high RCA content with lower brittleness
Increasing the cement paste volume can solve this issue but it is not because the weakest component of pervious concrete is its tensile
economical. The cement paste volume will be kept constant in this strength.
work since the high early strength in high RCA content pervious
concrete is beneficial in terms of reducing the curing time and
lower production cost.
3.1.3. Modulus of elasticity (MOE)
Different observations were reported for modulus of elasticity
3.1.2. Tensile strengths and brittleness (MOE) of pervious concrete: (i) the MOE is independent on aggre-
The effects of RCA replacement on splitting tensile and flexural gate and lower amount of cement paste results in lower MOE values
strengths are shown in Fig. 7. From Fig. 7, it is showed that the trend (Zhang et al., 2017); and (ii) the MOE is influenced by the aggregate
of splitting tensile and flexural strengths is similar to that and concrete porosity (Tam et al., 2016). In this work, it is suggested
compressive strength (Section 3.1.1), where an increase in RCA that the significance of cement paste preceded the aggregate. Fig. 9
content lowers the strength of RCA mixes. The tensile strengths in revealed that the MOE of pervious concrete increases with higher
this study is in good agreement with the study conducted by RCA content. However, this result may not be convincing because
Guneyisi et al. (2016), including the splitting tensile to flexural when RCA content increases, lesser aggregate-cement paste
strengths ratios. bonding was found in RCA mixes compared to the NA mixes
Another important parameter in tensile strength is concrete (Fig. 4bed). The prematured failure of RCA mixes under compres-
brittleness. A highly brittle concrete will result in a complete and sion loading was caused by the preferred failure path along the
instantaneous loss of load carrying capacity and it is extremely adhered mortar as discussed in Section 3.1.1 and eventually pro-
unsafe (Yap et al., 2015a, 2015b). The strength of pervious concrete duced higher MOE value (as lower strain happened at the same
depends on the cement paste bonding between aggregates as load).
S.P. Yap et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 181 (2018) 155e165 161

3.00 100%
Splitting tensile strength (Left axis)
Flexural strength (Left axis)
2.50 Splitting tensile to flexural strengths ratio (Right axis)

66%
Tensile strength, MPa

2.00 58%
62%
53% 57%
57%
1.50 50%

1.00

0.50

0.00 0%
0 20 40 60 80 100

RCA content, %
Fig. 7. Tensile strengths against RCA content.

5.0

4.0

3.0
Brittleness ratio

2.0

1.0

0.0
NA RCA20 RCA40 RCA60 RCA80 RCA100

Mix

Fig. 8. Brittleness ratios for all mixes.

3.2. Permeability pervious concrete can be suggested for the mentioned applications.
In comparison between the mixes (Table 3), both RCA20 and RCA40
The ability to allow water pass through its pore structure en- mixes showed close permeability coefficients compared to that of
ables the pervious concrete to stand out among other concrete control NA mix. When RCA content exceeds 40%, the rate of
types. Thus, water permeability is a major property for evaluating permeability increases drastically by 31e65% relative to the control
the performances of pervious concrete (Chandrappa and Biligiri, mix. Again, the permeability of the pervious concrete can be
2016b). Fig. 4a shows that all the pervious concrete mixes ach- explained by the poor aggregate-paste bonding as discussed in
ieved good physical appearance with good interconnected pore Section 3.1. This is attributed to the dependence of permeability on
structures. The permeability coefficients for all the mixes studied in the porous network, pore size, aggregates and mix proportions
this work is presented in Table 3. The range of permeability coef- (Ibrahim and Abdul Razak, 2016; Zhang et al., 2017). Fig. 4bed
ficient for all mixes is 1.42e2.64 cm/s. Pervious concrete with shows that when RCA content increases, the cement paste con-
permeability values between 0.1 and 3.3 cm/s are adequate to be nected between the aggregates gets lesser due to the consumption
used as drainage layer for pavement or concrete blocks (Bhutta of cement paste to form aggregate-cement paste bonding. With less
et al., 2012; Chandrappa and Biligiri, 2016b). Hence, the RCA cement paste connecting between the aggregates, a larger porous
162 S.P. Yap et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 181 (2018) 155e165

16

14
y = 14.5x-0.088
12 R² = 0.995

Modulus of elasticity, GPa


10

0
100 80 60 40 20 0
RCA content, %

Fig. 9. Moduli of elasticity for mixes with different content of RCA.

Table 3
Permeability and surfaces properties of all mixes.

Mix Permeability property Surface properties

Permeability coefficient Increment/decrement relative Skid Resistance Increment/decrement relative Abrasion Increment/decrement relative
(cm/s) to NA mix (BPN) to NA mix resistance (%) to NA mix

NA 1.60 e 86 e 40.42 e
RCA20 1.42 11% 79 7% 35.43 12%
RCA40 1.71 þ7% 90 þ5% 54.48 þ35%
RCA60 2.11 þ31% 89 þ4% 50.09 þ24%
RCA80 2.64 þ65% 81 5% 52.40 þ30%
RCA100 2.38 þ49% 93 þ8% 52.33 þ29%

network is available for the water to infiltrate through the pervious that the permeability increases with decreasing compressive
concrete (Chandrappa and Biligiri, 2016a; Sumanasooriya and strength. Good regression between the permeability coefficient and
Neithalath, 2011). compressive strength supplemented the previous discussions on
Fig. 10 shows the relationship between the permeability coef- the aggregate-paste bonding effect, where insufficient bonding in
ficient and compressive strength. The linear relationship shows RCA mixes resulted in higher pore networks and lower strength.

3.0
Permeability coefficient, k (mm/s)

2.5

y = -0.192x + 3.605
2.0 R² = 0.93

1.5

1.0
5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0
Compressive strength, fcu (MPa)
Fig. 10. Graph of permeability coefficients against compressive strengths.
S.P. Yap et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 181 (2018) 155e165 163

3.3. Surface properties stiffness (AIV and ACV) of RCA compared to NA. RCA contains
adhered mortar which is the origin of their inferior properties:
3.3.1. Skid resistance lower density, and higher absorption, Los Angeles abrasion and
The characterization of skid resistance using British Pendulum sulphate content (de Juan and Gutierrez, 2009). However, despite
Number (BPN) is generally used to correlate the skid performance the high abrasion loss, all the mixes achieved the minimum
of a vehicle having patterned tyres, braking with locked wheels, on requirement for class 4 concrete pavements as stipulated in BS EN
a wet road at 50 km/h and it was reported that the accident rate on 1338.
roads is directly proportional to the skid resistance (Lindenmann,
2006). From Table 3, the skid resistance of RCA mixes was found 3.4. Greenhouse gases (GHG) assessment
to be ±8% relative to the NA mix and independent of the RCA
content. This is in conjunction with a recent report by Rodríguez The Greenhouse Gases assessment of all mixes is shown in
et al. (2016) where skid resistance of RCA concretes and normal Fig. 12. CO2 emission factors used in the study is based on the
concretes showed negligible differences. The skid resistance of Australian National Pollutant Inventory Emission Estimation
pervious concrete was found to rely on surface texture and uni- Technique Manual for Mining Version 2.3 (Commonwealth of
formity, aggregate to cement ratio as well as density; whereas there Australia, 2001). CO2 emission factors for cement, NA and RCA are
was no direct relationship between skid resistance and aggregate 0.82, 0.046 and 0.0015 kgCO2e/kg, respectively as provided by
types (Poon and Chan, 2006; Poon and Lam, 2008; Torbruegge and Collins (2010). As seen from Fig. 12, for every 20% increase in RCA
Wies, 2015; Ueckermann et al., 2015). content, the CO2 emission will be reduced by about 5%. A significant
BS EN 1338 stated that a minimum BPN of >60 will have low slip CO2 emission reduction of up to 24% was achieved in the RCA100
potential and can be applied on difficult sites. Results from Table 3 mix with considerably high waste content of 87% by weight and
revealed that all RCA mixes met this minimum requirement and 73% by volume. When RCA are crushed using portable equipment
can be applied on difficult sites subjected to slippage. In general, and re-used in the construction, CO2 emissions resulting from
pervious concrete is capable to produce enhanced skid resistance transportation to/from a recycling plant were minimized. Whereas,
than normal concrete (Guneyisi et al., 2016). The good skid resis- manufacturing and transportation process of NA to the construc-
tance of pervious concrete in this study can be attributed to the tion site is subjected to a more energy consuming process which
uneven surfaces of pervious concrete as shown in Fig. 4a which generates more carbon emission (Collins, 2010). This has shown the
consists of voids and flaky aggregates. positive environmental impact of using RCA as NA replacement in
pervious concrete production.
3.3.2. Abrasion resistance
Table 3 shows the abrasion resistance of the NA and RCA mixes. 4. Conclusion
NA and RCA20 mixes showed lower abrasion loss of about 40%,
while other RCA mixes showed higher abrasion loss within the This study presents the mechanical and surface properties,
range of 50e55%. This result is adequate because generally more permeability and greenhouse gases assessment of green pervious
than half of the pervious concrete specimens will be abraded due to concrete made with recycled coarse aggregate from construction
the low strength of pervious concrete (Dong et al., 2013). The wastes. Based on the experimental results, the following conclu-
abraded specimens for both RCA100 and NA specimens are shown sions are drawn:
in Fig. 11. Fig. 11a shows that the RCA100 specimen contains less
aggregate-paste bonding and larger inter-aggregate pore network a RCA was used to replace normal coarse aggregates (granite) up
compared to the NA specimen (Fig. 11b). Less aggregate-paste to 100% in the production of pervious concrete, where the
bonding indicates that the specimen is more prone to be broken maximum waste recycling is up to 87% by weight or 73% by
into fragments under abrasion. volume. CO2 emission reduction of up to 24% was achieved.
Second observation of the abrasion resistance results of RCA b RCA replacement reduced the compressive, splitting tensile and
pervious concrete is that when RCA increases, the abrasion loss is flexural strengths of pervious concrete. FESEM and EDX analyses
higher. The possible reason for this trend could be the lower showed that the failure path in RCA specimens followed the less

Fig. 11. Comparison of abraded specimens for (a) RCA100 and (b) NA mixes.
164 S.P. Yap et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 181 (2018) 155e165

0.205

0.195

Carbon emission (tCO2e/m3


Cement
0.185
NA
0.175 RCA

0.165

0.155

0.145
NA RCA20 RCA40 RCA60 RCA80 RCA100
Mix
Fig. 12. CO2 emissions for all mixes.

stiff adhered mortar and this caused the poor aggregate-paste concrete: influence on their carbon footprint. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 15,
549e556.
bonding.
Commonwealth of Australia, 2001. Emission Estimation Technique Manual for
c. Despite the increase in modulus of elasticity, pervious concrete Miningdnational Pollutant Inventory Version 2.3. Department of Climate
with higher RCA content showed premature failure at a lower Change, Canberra.
de Juan, M.S., Gutie rrez, P.A., 2009. Study on the influence of attached mortar
strain under the same compression load.
content on the properties of recycled concrete aggregate. Construct. Build.
d. Larger porous network in RCA mixes resulted in higher Mater. 23, 872e877.
permeability coefficients of RCA mixes compared to normal Deo, O., Neithalath, N., 2010. Compressive behavior of pervious concretes and a
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Science and Engineering a-Structural Materials Properties Microstructure and
e The skid resistance of all pervious concrete mixes in this study Processing 528, 402e412.
fulfilled the skid requirement for difficult as stated by BS EN Dong, Q., Wu, H., Huang, B.S., Shu, X., Wang, K.J., 2013. Investigation into laboratory
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Etxeberria, M., Vazquez, E., Marí, A., Barra, M., 2007. Influence of amount of recycled
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range of 40e55% and all mixes achieved the minimum Guneyisi, E., Gesoglu, M., Kareem, Q., Ipek, S., 2016. Effect of different substitution of
natural aggregate by recycled aggregate on performance characteristics of
requirement for class 4 concrete pavements as stipulated in BS
pervious concrete. Mater. Struct. 49, 521e536.
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