Chapter 2 Introduction to Modern Power Electronics – Andrzej M.

Trzynadlowski

Semiconductor Power Switches

2.1. General Properties of Semiconductor Power Switches:
 Control properties of the switches:
o Uncontrolled: lack the control electrode.
o Semicontrolled: lack the controlled turn-off capability.
o Fully controlled.
 Speed of response to control signals is limited.
o Maximum allowable switching frequencies of practical power switches vary from about
1 𝑘𝐻𝑧 for large SCRs and GTOs to more than 1 𝑀𝐻𝑧 for low-power MOSFETs.
 Dissipate certain amount of energy when conducting and switching:
o Conduction power loss:

1 𝑇
𝑃𝐶 = ∫ 𝑝 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0

Where 𝑇 denotes the conduction period and 𝑝 is the instantaneous power loss ->
product of the voltage drop across the switch and the current conducted.

o Switching power loss:

𝑡𝑂𝑁 𝑡𝑂𝐹𝐹
𝑃𝑆𝑊 = (∫ 𝑝 𝑑𝑡 + ∫ 𝑝 𝑑𝑡) ∙ 𝑓𝑆𝑊
0 0

Where 𝑓𝑆𝑊 denotes the switching frequency, 𝑡𝑂𝑁 and 𝑡𝑂𝐹𝐹 are the turn-on and
turn-off times.

 An intrinsic semiconductor is defined as a material whose resistivity is too low for an insulator and
too high for a conductor.
 Silicon -> Group IV of the periodic table of elements -> four electrons in its outer orbit.
 oDoped with a small amount of a group V element: phosphorus, arsenic, or antimony ->
each atom of the dopant forms a covalent bond within the silicon lattice, leaving a loose
electron -> 𝑛 − 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 semiconductor -> for “negative” charge carriers.
o Doped with a small amount of a group III element: boron, gallium, or indium -> a hole is
introduced into the silicon lattice and it can be filled by an adjacent electron -> 𝑝 − 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒
semiconductor -> for “positive” charge carriers.
 The doping involves a single atom of the added impurity in over a million silicon atoms.

2.2. Power Diodes

 Uncontrolled semiconductor power switches.
 A high current in a diode can only flow from anode (A) to cathode (C).

 Different scales are used for positive and negative half-axes:

o The maximum reverse leakage current 𝑰𝑹𝑴 is lower by many orders of magnitude than
the current that can safely be conducted in the forward direction 𝐼𝐹 .
o The reverse breakdown voltage 𝑽𝑹𝑩 which causes a dangerous avalanche breakdown is
much higher than the maximum forward voltage drop 𝑽𝑭𝑴 across the diode.
 Typically, 𝑉𝐹𝑀 , specified for a given forward current, 𝑰𝑭𝑴 , is on the order of 1 to 2 V and can be
neglected.
o Voltage drop across a diode must be taken into account in calculations of converter losses
and the design of a cooling system.
 Turns on when forward biased: positive anode-cathode voltage.
 Turn off when a forward current reverses its polarity.
 Main parameters of power diodes:
 o 1 to 5 can be called restrictive parameters -> values may not be exceeded without
endangering the diode’s integrity.
o 6 and 7 as well as the maximum leakage current 𝐼𝑅𝑀 and maximum forward voltage drop
𝑉𝐹𝑀 are descriptive parameters -> properties of the device.
 Reverse recovery time 𝑡𝑟𝑟 -> descriptive parameter.
 When a conducting diode is abruptly reverse-biased, the device does not regain its reverse
blocking capability instantly -> for a short time the diode passes a high current in the reverse
direction -> Figure 2.4 -. Reverse voltage 𝑉𝑅 is applied to a conducting diode at 𝑡 = 0.

 Reverse recovery time 𝒕𝒓𝒓 : duration of the period when a diode recovers its blocking capability.
o A negative current overshoot 𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑀 occurs, followed closely by a voltage overshoot 𝑉𝑅𝑀 .
𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑟
o 𝑉𝑅𝑀 is proportional to the slope 𝑑𝑡
of the current tail -> the decaying portion of the
current waveform.
𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑟
o 𝑑𝑡
is often listed in catalogs.
o Standard diodes: several microseconds to over 20 𝜇𝑠.
o Fast recovery diodes: 𝑡𝑟𝑟 is shorter by one order of magnitude -> produce higher-votage
overshoots.
o Small “ultra fast” recovery diodes have the reverse recovery times, on the order of
hundreds of nanoseconds only.
o Generally, for a given class of diodes, the length of reverse recovery time depends mostly
on the size of the device.
  Descriptive parameters -> dependent on operating conditions -> anode current and junction
temperature are particularly influential.
 Voltage and current ratings extend to 6.5 𝑘𝑉 and 10 𝑘𝐴 -> the highest-voltage diodes are not the
highest-current diodes and vice versa.
o Disk or “hockey puck” case -> flat cylinder to be sandwiched between two heat sinks
(radiators) allows for higher ratings.
 Fast recovery diodes maximum voltage and current ratings are 6 𝑘𝑉 and 2 𝑘𝐴.
 Shottky diodes: less powerful uncontrolled semiconductor switches based on a metal-
semiconductor junction -> use in switching DC power supplies.
o Fast switching and very low forward voltage drop (less than 0.5 𝑉) and capable of
conducting currents of up to 0.5 𝑘𝐴.
o Low breakdown voltages that do not exceed 200 𝑉.

2.3. Semicontrolled Switches:

 Can be turned on by an appropriate gate signal, but they turn off by themselves similar to a diode,
that is, when the current conducted changes its polarity to negative.

2.3.1. SCRs:
 Controlled diode that when off blocks currents of either polarity. When forward biased and turned
on (“fired”), an SCR operates as an ordinary diode as long as the current conducted remains above
the holding current, 𝑰𝑯 , level.
 An SCR is turned on by:
o A gate current 𝑖𝐺 supplied by an external source connected between the gate (G) and the
cathode.
o A high forward voltage between the anode and cathode.
𝑑𝑣
o A rapid change 𝑑𝑡 of voltage between the anode and cathode.

 Voltage-current characteristic:
o The forward and reverse leakage currents are exaggerated.
 With no gate current, when a forward voltage applied to the SCR exceeds the forward breakover
voltage 𝑽𝑩𝑭 the forward leakage current increases to a latching current 𝑰𝑳 , level and the SCR
starts conducting.
 Injecting a current through the gate into the central p-type layer reduces the forward breakover
voltage to a value less that the voltage actually applied.
 For parameters, different symbols than diode are generally used.
o For the on-state, a subscript “T” is used instead of an “F”.
o Maximum forward voltage drop 𝑽𝑻𝑴
o Quantities pertaining to the forward blocking state carry subscripts beginning with a “D”.
o 𝑽𝑫𝑹𝑴 : maximum allowable forward repetitive peak voltage across the blocking SCR that
will not cause turn-on without a firing signal. Typically, 𝑉𝐷𝑅𝑀 = 𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑀 .
o 𝑰𝑮𝑻 : DC gate current.
o 𝑽𝑮𝑻 : DC gate voltage -> gate-cathode voltage.
 The gate current in an SCR to be fired is produced by employing a single pulse of the gate voltage
𝑣𝐺 or a multipulse.
o Multipulse is obtained by rectifying and clipping a high-frequency sinusoidal voltage.
 Several 𝑘𝐻𝑧.
 Can be as long as a quarter of the 60 Hz cycle.
 Multipulse firing is employed in situations when it is not certain that a single pulse
would accomplish the required turn-on.
 A typical gate current for large SCRs is on the order of 0.1 to 0.3 A, resulting in current gains (ratio
of the anode current to the gate current) of several thousands.
𝒅𝒗
 Critical : expresses the minimum rate of change of anode voltage that causes turn-on without
𝒅𝒕
a gate current.
𝒅𝒊
 Maximum allowable repetitive : required to allow the conduction area to spread over the entire
𝒅𝒕
cross section of the SCR before the current reaches a high level. Otherwise, an excessive current
density in the small initial area of conduction would cause spot overheating and permanent
damage to semiconductor material.
 Turn-on time 𝒕𝑶𝑵 : counted from the instant of application of the gate signal to the instant when
the anode voltage drops to 10% of its initial, full value. Two subperiods:
o Delay time: from the firing instant to the instant when the anode voltage has decreased
by the first 10% (from 100% to 90% of the initial value).
o Voltage fall time: from 90% to 10%.
o Alternatively, the turn-on time can be defined in terms of the anode current, with the
delay time counted from the firing instant to the instant when the current has risen to
10% of its final value, and the current rise time, during which the current increases to 90%
of the final value.
o Typical: order of few microseconds. -> Firing pulses should be one order of magnitude
longer.
 Turn-off time 𝒕𝑶𝑭𝑭:
 o Forced commutation is realized by applying a reverse-biasing voltage across a conducting
SCR to reverse the anode current and extinguish the SCR. Even when the reverse recovery
process has been finished, a negative anode voltage must be maintained for some time,
so that the SCR recovers its forward blocking capability.
o 𝑡𝑂𝐹𝐹 > 𝑡𝑟𝑟 and typical turn-off times lie within the range 10 to 100 𝜇𝑠.
 SCRs are classified as either phase control or inverted grade:
o Inverter-grade are faster than phase-control.

2.3.2. Triacs:
 Electrically equivalent to two SCRs connected antiparallel.
 Capability of bidirectional current conduction.
 The power electrodes are simply called main terminal 1 (T1) and main terminal 2 (T2).
 The gate signal is applied between the gate and terminal 1.
 Can be turned on by a positive or negative gate current, and the direction of the current that
conducts depends on the polarity of the supply voltage.

𝑑𝑣
 A triac has a longer turn-off time, lower critical 𝑑𝑡 , and lower current gain.
 Compact construction.
 The voltage and current ratings available are limited to 1.4 𝑘𝑉 and 0.1 𝑘𝐴.
 Bidirectionally controlled thyristors (BCTs):
o Functionally similar to triacs.
o Two integrated antiparallel SCR-like devices on one silicon wafer.
o The constituent thyristors are triggered individually.
o Much larger devices than triacs with ratings of up to 6.5 𝑘𝑉 and 5.5 𝑘𝐴.
2.4. Fully Controlled Switches:
2.4.1. GTOs:
 Gate turn-off thyristor.
 Similarly to an SCR -> turned on by a low positive gate current.
 Can also be turned off using a large negative pulse of the gate current, on the order of up to 30%
of the anode current.
 Turn-off current gain is poor but turn-off gate pulse is only on the order of 50 𝜇𝑠 -> associated
energy of the gate signal is low.
𝑑𝑖𝐺
 Current gain depends on the rate of change of the reverse gate current:
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖𝐺
o With 𝑑𝑡
high, the turn-off time is short, but the current gain approaches unity.
o A slowly applied reverse gate current can result in a turn-off gain of over 20, but the turn-
off time and associated switching losses are high.
 First fully controlled truly high-power semiconductor switches.

 They are slow and their switching and conduction losses are high.
 Require snubbers, which suppress (“snub”) voltage transients during turn-off.
 Ratings of GTOs are comparable with those of SCRs, reaching 6 𝑘𝑉 and 6 𝑘𝐴.

2.4.2. IGCTs:
 Integrated gate commutated thyristor (IGCT):
  Similar to the GTO.
 The gate turn-off current is actually greater than the anode current, which results in short turn-
off times.
 The gate driver -> the circuitry generating the gate current -> is integrated into the package of the
device and surrounds the IGCT.
 Boxy shape.
 Impedance of the connection between the driver and the device is low, thanks to the large contact
area and short length of the connection.
 Snubbers are not required.

 Can switch much faster than GTOs.

 High switching losses limit the sustained switching frequencies to less than 1 𝑘𝐻𝑧.
 The voltage and current ratings reach 6.5 𝑘𝑉 and 6𝑘𝐴.

2.4.3. Power BJTs:

 NPN bipolar junction Transistor:

 The collector (C) to emitter (E) path serves as the switch, conducting or interrupting the main
current, while the base (B) is the control electrode.
 The collector current 𝑰𝑪 can be controlled continuously by the base current 𝑰𝑩 :
 Voltage-current characteristics of the BJT:

 The conduction power loss 𝑃𝐶 is given by:

 Rated current of a BJT -> 𝑰𝑪 : maximum allowable DC collector current.

 Rated voltage of a BJT -> 𝑽𝑪𝑬𝑶 : maximum collector-emitter voltage that the transistor can safely
block with a zero base current.
 BJTs cannot block negative collector-emitter voltages -> must be protected from reverse
breakdown with a diode connected in series with the collector.
 Susceptible to:
o First, reverse or avalanche breakdown: caused by excessive voltage across a blocking
device.
o Second breakdown: both the collector-emitter voltage and collector current are high ->
during turn-on or turn-off -> crystal faults or doping fluctuations and high power loss,
local hot spots appear in the semiconductor.
 The positive temperature coefficient of the collector current causes a positive
feedback effect, manifested in an increased current density in the hot-spot region
-> thermal runaway can cause irreparable damage.
 Solution: Limiting the power dissipation.
 To counterbalance the negative temperature coefficient -> [𝑇 ↑ → 𝑅𝐶𝐸 ↓] -> emitter ballast
resistance can be incorporated in the transistor structure -> increases the on-state voltage drop.
 To accelerate the turn-off process -> recommended that the base current be changed temporarily
from positive to negative.
 Base current and collector current waveforms for turn-on and turn-off:

 Turn-off time can be reduced further by avoiding full saturation in the on-state -> instead,
reducing the on-state base current -> the operating point of the transistor is shifted to the quasi-
saturation zone.
 In power electronic converters -> Darlington connection of two or three transistors.
o The current gain of a two-transistor Darlington connection is on the order of 100, and
three-transistor connection of 1000.

 Switching frequencies on the order of 10 𝑘𝐻𝑧.

 Maximum available voltage and current ratings reach 1.5 𝑘𝑉 and 1.2 𝑘𝐴.
2.4.4. Power MOSFETs:
 Metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor.

 Semiconductor power switch characterized by the highest switching speed.

 Three electrodes of the MOSFET: the drain (D), source (S), and gate (G), correspond to the
collector, emitter and base of a BJT.
 Voltage controlled -> the DC impedance of the gate-source path is practically infinite (109 to
1011 Ω).
 During fast turn-on and turn-off, the gate circuit does carry a short current pulse associated with
the respective charging and discharging of the gate-source capacitance.
 Voltage-current characteristics:

 𝑰𝑫 : Drain current
 𝑽𝑫𝑺 : drain-source voltage.
 𝑽𝑮𝑺 : gate-source voltage.
  There is no saturation line -> Each characteristic has a constant-resistance portion in the area of
low 𝑉𝐷𝑆 values, and the control voltage 𝑉𝐺𝑆 should be made sufficiently high for the on-state
operating point to lie on that portion.
 Rated voltage and current -> maximum allowable values -> 𝑽𝑫𝑺𝑺 and 𝑰𝑫𝑴 -> drain-source voltage
and drain current.
 May not be exposed to negative drain-source voltages unless protected by a diode connected in
series with a transistor.
 Little power is required to control them, and the control circuitry is simpler than that for BJTs.
 Typical turn-on gate-source voltage is 20 𝑉, while zero voltage is used to turn the device off.
 Have positive temperature coefficient on the drain current -> [𝑇 ↑ → 𝑅𝐷𝑆 ↑] -> facilitates
paralleling several transistors for increased current-handling capability.
o If the temperature of one of the component MOSFETs increases, the current conducted
drops, restoring the thermal balance among the devices connected.
o This characteristic also makes for uniform current density within the MOSFET, preventing
second breakdown from occurring.
 Switching losses are low, even with high switching frequencies -> short turn-on and turn-off times
-> less than 100 𝑛𝑠 -> 𝑡𝑂𝑁 and 𝑡𝑂𝐹𝐹 defined similar to that for BJTs.
 Dashed-line diode in parallel with the MOSFET -> body diode -> serves as a freewheeling diode,
but being relatively slow it should be bypassed in fast-switching converters with an external fast
recovery diode.
 Switching frequencies can be as high as hundreds of 𝑘𝐻𝑧 in medium power converters and on the
order of 1 𝑀𝐻𝑧 in low power switching power supplies.
 Available with voltage and current ratings of up to 1.5 𝑘𝑉 and 1.8 𝑘𝐴.

2.4.5. IGBTs:
 Insulated gate bipolar transistors.
 Combines the advantages of MOSFETs and BJTs.
 Voltage controlled but have lower conduction losses and higher voltage and current ratings.

 Control electrode is called a gate (G), while the main current is conducted or interrupted in the
collector (C) to emitter (E) path.
 Voltage-current characteristics:
 𝑰𝑪 : collector current.
 𝑽𝑪𝑬 : collector-emitter voltage.
 𝑽𝑮𝑬 : gate-emitter voltage.
 Majority of the IGBTs are of the asymmetrical (punch-through) type -> do not have reverse-
voltage blocking capability.
 Low conduction losses -> use in DC input converters such as choppers and inverters.
 Usually integrated with an antiparallel freewheeling diode.
 Symmetrical (non-punch-through) IGBTs can block reverse voltages as high as the rated forward-
blocked voltage -> conduction losses are higher than those of asymmetrical IGBTs -> used
primarily in AC input PWM converters, such as rectifiers and AC voltage controllers.
 On-state voltage drop -> comparable to BJTs but superior to power MOSFETs.
 Turned on by a gate-emitter voltage on the order of 20 𝑉 and turned off by zero voltage.
 Can be switched with “supersonic” (exceeding 20 𝑘𝐻𝑧) frequencies.
 Maximum available voltage and current ratings are 6.5 𝑘𝑉 and 2.4 𝑘𝐴. -> wider ranges of voltage
and current ratings than those of power BJTs -> most popular semiconductor power switches.
2.5. Comparison of Semiconductor Power Switches:
 A hypothetical perfect switch used as a reference would have the following characteristics:

 Desirable -> large safe operating areas (SOAs) on both forward and reverse bias.
 Typical SOA for a power MOSFET:
o Logarithmic scale to replace hyperbolic borderlines with linear ones.
o The sloped line on the left-hand side results from the on-state resistance of the MOSFET,
which determines the voltage drop across the device for a given drain current.
o Three sloped lines on the right-hand -> for current pulses of durations indicated.
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑖
o Similar to high 𝑑𝑡
and 𝑑𝑡 ratings, a robust SOA reduces the need for external protection
circuits.

 Most powerful semiconductor switches are also the slowest and High frequency switches have
much lower power handling capabilities.
o From slow high-power SCRs and GTOs through IGCTs, BJTs, and IGBT, to fast but relatively
low-power MOSFETs.
 o The best balance between voltage-current ratings and high-frequency switching ability
seems to be achieved by the IGBT.

2.6. Power Modules:

 A power module is a set of semiconductor power switches interconnected into a specific topology
and enclosed in a single case.
 May also contain several switches of the same type connected in series, parallel, or series-parallel,
to increase the overall voltage and-or current ratings.
 Darlington connection: each switch is equipped with a parallel freewheeling diode, while the
resistor-diode circuits connected between the emitter and the base of each component
Darlington transistor help to reduce the leakage current and speed up the turn-off.
 There are also Control circuits -> intelligent power modules (IPMs) -> include protection circuits
and gate drivers.