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b y growing
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FAO Diversification booklet 7
Diversification booklet number 7
Make money
b y growing
mushrooms
© FAO 2009
Table of contents
Preface v
Acknowledgements vii
Introduction 1
Contribution to livelihoods 1
Purpose of booklet 2
Table of contents
Preface
v
each booklet identifies additional sources of information, technical support and
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vi
Acknowledgements
vii
Introduction
1
material, and mushrooms can be increasing food and income security
produced in temporary clean shelters. through incorporating mushroom
They can be cultivated on a part-time into livelihoods strategies. Case
basis, and require little maintenance. studies of successful outcomes
Indirectly, mushroom cultivation from growing mushrooms as a
also provides opportunities for livelihood demonstrate the benefits
improving the sustainability of arising from mushroom production
small farming systems through the in terms of income, food security
recycling of organic matter, which and consumption of healthy food.
can be used as a growing substrate, Sources of additional information
and then returned to the land as and technical support for any follow-
fertilizer. up are identified at the end of the
Through the provision of income booklet.
and improved nutrition, successful The booklet recognises the
cultivation and trade in mushrooms valuable contribution that wild edible
can strengthen livelihood assets, fungi make to the livelihoods of rural
which can not only reduce people in both tropical and temperate
vulnerability to shocks, but enhance zones. However, this booklet does not
an individual’s and a community’s focus on wild harvest production, but
capacity to act upon other economic it does recognize that the subsequent
opportunities. processing, packaging and marketing
of mushrooms is similar for both
Purpose of booklet cultivated and wild harvest types.
This booklet highlights the many
opportunities to, and benefits of,
2
Mushrooms
and sustainable livelihoods
Mushroom cultivation can directly food in their own right: they are
improve livelihoods through often considered to provide a fair
economic, nutritional and medicinal substitute for meat, with at least
contributions. However, it is essential a comparable nutritional value to
to note that some mushrooms are many vegetables. The consumption
poisonous and may even be lethal, of mushrooms can make a valuable
50
Nutritional index
40
30
Mushrooms: between 6 and 31
20
10
0
Type of food
en
ef
rk
ilk
ge
rs
ze
Po ps
es
ts
an
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oe
ea
ac
ro
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be
M
ai
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in
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at
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ar
M
ta
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ab
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un
C
So
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To
uc
C
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C
G
Source: FAO. 2004. Wild edible fungi, a global overview of their use and importance to people,
by E. Boa, Non-Wood Forest Products, No.17, Rome.
3
Mushrooms are a good source of Medicinal value
vitamin B, C and D, including niacin, Recently, there has been a spectacular
riboflavin, thiamine, and folate, growth in, and commercial activity
and various minerals including associated with, dietary supplements,
potassium, phosphorus, calcium, functional foods and other products
magnesium, iron and copper. They that are ‘more than just food’.
provide carbohydrates, but are low in Medicinal fungi have routinely been
fat and fibre, and contain no starch. used in traditional Chinese medicine.
Furthermore, edible mushrooms are Today, an estimated six percent of
an excellent source of high quality edible mushrooms are known to
protein (reportedly between 19 have medicinal properties and can
percent and 35 percent), and white be found in health tonics, tinctures,
button mushrooms contain more teas, soups and herbal formulas.
protein than kidney beans. In addition Lentinula edodes (shiitake) and
to all the essential amino acids, some Volvariella volvacea (Chinese or
mushrooms have medicinal benefits straw mushroom) are edible fungi
of certain polysaccharides, which are with medicinal properties widely
known to boost the immune system. diffused and cultivated.
4
The medicinal properties of effects. Mushrooms represent a vast
mushrooms depend on several source of yet undiscovered potent
bioactive compounds and their pharmaceutical products and their
bioactivity depends on how biochemistry would merit further
mushrooms are prepared and eaten. investigation.
Shiitake are said to have anti-
tumour and antiviral properties and Income benefits
remove serum cholesterol from the Mushroom cultivation activities can
blood stream. Other species, such play an important role in supporting
as Pleurotus (oyster), Auricularia the local economy by contributing to
(mu-er), Flammulina (enokitake), subsistence food security, nutrition,
Termella (yin-er) and Grifola and medicine; generating additional
The Kilimanjaro highlands were once a thriving banana and coffee growing region, but
with falling world market prices for coffee and unreliable rain in the lowlands, farmers have
struggled to earn an income and produce enough food. Households have become poorer
and malnutrition amongst children has increased. However, Hai farmers became gradually
convinced of the value of cultivating and consuming oyster mushrooms after attending training
and a series of cooking demonstrations held by Horti-Tengeru during 2005. The production
cycle takes about 6 to 12 weeks, and the crop can be cultivated year-round.
The benefits of growing and selling mushrooms have enabled farmers to buy livestock (chickens
and goats), pay school fees and household goods, and a number of farmers have invested
in expanding their mushroom production. The benefits to the household have also included
improved nutrition. (Consumption of animal protein is low in most households, even those
with livestock.) Oyster mushrooms are rich in protein and provide an affordable alternative.
A number of households have now adopted a recommended preparation of mushroom stew,
which is eaten with rice or a stiff porridge.
5
CASE STUDY 1 A community mushrooming business in Tanzania
(continued)
Mushroom growing involves all members of the community. Younger group members help
the older people by preparing the substrates (chopping and pasteurisation) and mixing the
spawn collectively. Individuals are then given the spawned bags to take home. Farmer groups
also share use of equipment, such as pasteurisation drums, drying trays or solar driers.
Poverty amongst some group members is also still a constraint as many lack space for
the mushroom growing structures. However, farmers are encouraged to rent rooms and a
revolving fund has been set up to allow them to buy their planting material. The majority paid
back at least half the loan within the first production cycle.
By mid 2006, one year after the introduction of the crop, growers were selling their mushrooms
to local informal markets and also to hotels and supermarkets in Arusha and Moshi, including
a major supermarket.
Demand for oyster mushrooms in Hai and neighbouring districts currently exceeds supply,
indicating potential for further growth. To maintain demand, mushroom quality, good packaging
and consistent production will have to be sustained. Farmer groups have demonstrated their
innovativeness in finding a variety of ways to improve their products. One group, for example,
has discovered a method for processing quality dry mushroom without using a solar drier,
while an individual farmer processes his mushrooms by pickling.
Farmers are now training others in mushroom production. Recipes including mushroom
stew, soup and samosas have been devised and are prepared during field days, and the
technologies for processing the mushrooms for sale are also demonstrated. The Hai district
council provides support by funding transport for extension staff to disseminate the mushroom
technologies to farmers not yet involved in the project. For established farmers the next step
is to produce mushrooms on a larger scale and market collectively. With support from Horti-
Tengeru, the farmers groups are gradually being transformed into business units through the
formation and registration of mushroom savings and credit societies, which will be responsible
for the effective marketing of mushroom products for the benefit of members.
• a safety net during critical times, preventing people falling into greater
poverty;
• a gap-filling activity which can help spread income and generally make
poverty more bearable through improved nutrition and higher income; or
• a stepping stone activity to help make people less poor, or even
permanently lift them out of poverty.
6
Livelihood opportunities as filling substrates in containers
Trade in cultivated mushrooms and harvesting, are ideally suited
can provide a readily available and for women’s participation. Several
important source of cash income - for programmes have enhanced women’s
men and women and the old, infirm empowerement through mushroom
and disabled alike (see Case Study 2). production by giving them the
The role played by women in opportunity to gain farming skills,
rural mushroom production can be financial independence and self-
very significant. Certain parts of the respect.
mushroom cultivation process, such
One of the best examples of opportunities in mushroom growing for the disabled can
be seen in the recent pioneering programme undertaken by the FAO Regional Office
for Asia and the Pacific in the poor Northeastern part of Thailand. The main aim of the
project was to enhance opportunities for rural people with disabilities to become self-
reliant and to show their capabilities, allowing them to re-integrate their community and
be active members of society.
Several positive outcomes were achieved through training people with disabilities:
7
Essentials of
mushroom cultivation
9
FIGURE 3 Life cycle of a mushroom
4
Hyphae connect with a tree root to form a
relationship that benefits both partners, the fungus
and tree. The fungus provides phosphorus, minerals
and water, the tree provides carbohydrates for the 1
fungus’ growth and in some cases reproduce.
FRUITBODY
Spores are carried away from the
underside of the fruitbody by the
wind. If they land in a favourable
site, they germinate to produce
an underground branched web
called a mycelium.
3 2
YOUNG FRUITBODY
SPORES
Emerges above ground.
If conditions remain
humid and the fruitbodies
avoid insect attack, they In the right conditions, a
grow to full size within a sexual process occurs,
fortnight. fruiting structures are
produced, then fruitbodies
develop.
MYCELIA
Two mycelia of opposite mating types fuse.
10
from a wider catchment and Essentially, mushroom species can be
delivers nutrients from the soil cultivated in two ways:
that the tree cannot access and
the tree provides the fungus Composted substrates: wheat and rice
with essential carbohydrates. straw, corn cobs, hay, water hyacinth,
(Detailed and globally composted manure, and various other
comprehensive recommendations agricultural by-products including
on the sustainable collection and coffee husks and banana leaves (see
management of wild fungi are Case Study 3);
provided in FAO, 2004.) Woody substrates: logs or sawdust.
Several groups of rural women are using water hyacinth as the substrate for growing oyster
mushroom (Pleurotus sajor-caju). They do not require much land and use simple growing
methods. There is an abundant supply of the substrate because the weed regenerates
rapidly. Since most of the materials needed for mushroom growing are obtained locally the
cultivation process is economically viable.
There are plans to grow other types of mushrooms such as Ganoderma lucidum and Agaricus
bisporus. Since the domestic production of mushrooms in Malawi (6.5 metric tonnes/year)
is significantly lower than that of the annual demand (80 metric tonnes/year), the future for
mushroom cultivation for trade, as a livelihood activity, looks promising.
OXFAM, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the Ministry of Commerce
and Industry funded ‘The Enterprise Development and Training Agency’ in Malawi, which
provide training to farmers on mushroom growing as an alternative livelihood strategy.
Source: Mkoka, C. 2003. Malawi turns world’s worst waterweed into a lucrative business.
(http://www.islamonline.net/english/science/2003/09/article03.shtml)
11
saprobic species. Some mushrooms mycorrhizae that then infect the roots,
- matsutakes and chanterelles - can as with truffles; however this is not
also be cultivated by inoculation covered by this booklet (see Hall et
of tree roots with species that form al, 1998).
Source: Beetz, A. & Kustudia, M. 2004. Mushroom cultivation and marketing. Horticulture Production
Guide. ATTRA Publication IP 087.
12
Key steps in the substrate it can fight off the
mushroom production competition);
The basic concept in cultivation
is to start with some mushroom 4
spores, which grow into mycelium seeding the beds with spawn (spores
and expand into a mass sufficient from mature mushrooms grown on
in volume and stored up energy sterile media);
to support the final phase of the
mushroom reproductive cycle, which 5
is the formation of fruiting bodies or maintaining optimal temperature,
mushrooms. moisture, hygiene and other
The key generic steps in conditions for mycelium growth
13
FIGURE 4 Incubation of mushroom spawn under hygienic conditions
(Photo by N. G. Nair)
14
Spawn is produced by inoculating a pasteurised substrate under hygienic
pasteurised medium, usually grain, conditions, in an enclosed space, and
with the sterile culture (grown from mixed thoroughly to ensure that the
spores) of a particular mushroom mushroom mycelium grows evenly
species. throughout the substrate.
The cheapest cultivation system Farmers with limited resources
using composted substrate is one can overcome the need to purchase
where mushrooms are grown in spawn each time a new crop is put
plastic bags (which can be sterilized down by removing a portion of the
and re-used with new substrate) substrate colonized by the mushroom
containing substrate or compost, in a spawn from the new crop and using
simple building to provide controlled it for spawning the following crop.
15
by hanging wet rags at several points Handling such a perishable crop
around the walls, or watering the should be kept to a minimum to
floor. Temperature can be regulated reduce the risk of damage.
by a fire, (electric if available) and
cooling could be assisted by using Marketing mushrooms
a table fan blowing over a container Harvested mushrooms need to be
of water, and air circulating between carefully handled and should be
the sacks should help assist with kept in a container that allows for air
temperature regulation. circulation, such as a basket, and care
It is essential to maintain hygienic needs to be taken to prevent bruising.
conditions over the general cropping The baskets containing mushrooms
area, in order to protect the crop from should be covered to keep flies out
contamination. and protected from sunlight, high
temperatures and draughts. High
Harvesting cultivated mushrooms quality mushrooms that are healthy
The transition from fully-grown and clean fetch the best market
mycelium to produce mushroom price. Harvested mushrooms should
fruiting bodies normally requires be taken to market without delay in
a change in the environmental order to maintain their freshness and
conditions, such as temperature quality, or stored in a refrigerated
decrease and ventilation and environment or processed.
humidity increase. Mushrooms fruit Getting fresh specimens to market
in breaks or flushes, and the type and is considerably difficult, both for wild
size of mushrooms harvested depend fungi and cultivated mushrooms.
on the type of mushrooms grown and The physical appearance of fruiting
market demand. bodies is obviously important and
Mushrooms should be harvested customer preferences must be
according to market demand; observed. Some species discolour
for example, there may be a if the gills or cap are damaged and
price premium for small button they must be handled with care.
mushrooms. Generally mushrooms Depending on the soil where the
are harvested by hand using fungi grow, some preliminary
sterilized knives to cut the ones that cleaning of gills and gaps may be
are ready. Pickers should be trained needed to remove particles. Picking
to recognise the appropriate stage fruiting bodies at the correct stage of
for harvesting and be consistent in development is important. As they
when the mushrooms are cropped. mature, some species become woody
16
and much less desirable, while others accordance with the directions given
rot away. on the label. Further information
on Integrated Pest Management
Pest and disease management is available from the National
The basic principle in protecting Sustainable Agriculture Information
the mushroom crop from pests Service (ATTRA) and FAO.
and diseases is prevention, largely
achieved through good hygiene. As Scale of production
mushrooms are grown mostly in an Growing systems should be selected
enclosed environment, the risk of that are best suited to local conditions
pests and diseases spreading rapidly and based on the assets available (see
within the crop is high, so it is Box 2). Many species of mushrooms
17
laboratory facilities to produce not suitable for tropical regions.
spores. Suitable tropical strains are harder to
obtain, but some commercial strains
Species selection can be ordered which fruit at higher
Although there has been a great temperatures and local laboratories
amount of research into mushrooms which manufacture spore will be
and their cultivation in temperate best placed to advise on appropriate
climates, there has unfortunately varieties and in providing advice on
been comparatively little on varieties best planting practices.
suitable for tropical climates. Many The key factors to consider when
commercial mushrooms only fruit selecting a species to cultivate are
at around 20 °C and are therefore summarized in Box 3.
Availability of waste materials to use as a growth medium. Not all mushrooms can
be grown in the same substrate.
Available expertise. Some mushrooms are more difficult to grow than others and, if
there is little available expertise locally, farmers should start with easy species like oyster
(Pleurotus species) which grow on many substrates and are easy for beginners; shiitake
(Lentinus edodes) and maitake (Grifola frondosa) are other possibilities.
Source: Adapted from Beetz, A. & Kustudia, M .2004.Mushroom cultivation and marketing,
Horticultural Production Guide, ATTRA Publication IP 087.
18
cultivated in higher technology optimal fruiting conditions for the
systems, requiring a low temperature mushroom and for best results in
of between 14 to 18 oC to provide cultivation. (See Box 4).
The most commonly cultivated mushroom is the button mushroom, but as a temperate
species it does not do well in hot climates. In addition, all fungi like moist environments, so
humidity needs to be controlled in drier climates. Button mushrooms could be cultivated in
coastal regions of hot countries and, in Namibia, some have been cultivated in old mine shafts
(avoiding water contaminated by heavy metals or other toxins), where temperatures are low
and humidity is high.
Countries with hot climates lend themselves better to the production of tropical mushrooms,
19
FIGURE 8 Pleurotus ostreatus
(Photo by N. G. Nair)
20
Make money by growing mushrooms
FIGURE 9 Lentinus edodes
(Photo by N. G. Nair)
21
and, as the spawn develops and the temperature and humidity are right
mycelium grow throughout the log, for fruiting, the mycelium will initiate
it must be kept shaded, moist, and tiny ‘pinheads’ on the surface of the
out of the wind. When the mycelium log, which will grow into mushrooms
has fully occupied the logs and the within a few days (see Case Study 4).
Source: Youn,Y. C. 2004. The production of oak mushrooms ( Lentinula elodes) as a source of farmers’
income in the Republic of Korea: the case of Cheongyang-Gun, In K. Custers & B. Belcher,eds. Forest
products, livelihoods and conservation: case studies of non-timber forest products systems, Vol.1 Asia,
Centre for International Forestry Research, Indonesia.
(http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/Books/NTFPAsia/Chapter6-Chapter11.pdf)
22
Make money by growing mushrooms
FIGURE 10 Volvariella volvacea
(Photo by N. G. Nair)
23
Assets required for
mushroom cultivation
25
CASE STUDY 5 Marketing strategy, Biovillage Programme, India
The Biovillage Programme, connected with mushroom growing in India, was initiated by the
M.S.Swaminathan Research Foundation. Its mission is to improve the livelihoods of villagers
in several localities in India. It offers new enterprises to bring new incomes, encourages the
need for cooperation among enterprises and training workshops to expand the knowledge
of the villagers in farming systems. Under this programme, a mushroom training and
demonstration centre is run by the local youth and this centre produces mushroom spawn
for the benefit of the farmers. The villagers have benefited not only in terms of increased
incomes, but also through healthier diets as a result of consuming mushrooms.
The programme helps farmers in marketing their produce. Embedded in this marketing
strategy is the crucial concept that livelihood is not about money, but about empowerment.
The rural women in this programme have been given authority to create cooperative
societies. Through such empowerment, the women have been able to achieve things that
as individuals they would not have been able to. The programme has assisted villagers in
establishing market linkages with local markets or market in larger cities. This is a significant
part of mushroom growing for livelihood, because an enterprise cannot increase villagers’
livelihoods unless they are able to transform their produce into financial returns. The formation
of cooperative societies brought about significant advances in the villagers’ personal worth
and skills to manage small enterprises.
They are able to get credits and loans where an individual would have been denied.
When labour shortages occur, the villagers are willing to share the workload.
They are able to make well informed decisions on the basis of shared knowledge.
Under this programme mushroom growing has continued to be a popular enterprise as the
number of villagers has seen the possible increases in income that mushroom production
can bring. These successes enabled the programme to spread from one village to another.
26
A sterilized composted substrate may enable cultivators to establish
once inoculated with spawn, can local production, processing, or
be used for three harvests and then packaging facilities to increase
recycled by incorporating it as an harvest output or product shelf-
organic mulch or fertilizer in other life i.e. a drying facility (See Case
horticultural or agricultural systems, Study 5).
which can improve soil structure, or Mushroom cultivation represents
it can be used as a nutritious fodder a very suitable and empowering
for poultry. income generating option for women
in particular, because it can be
Social assets combined with traditional domestic
People draw upon formal and duties and can be undertaken at
27
and can be easily learned. Mushroom buildings for shelter and storage. The
cultivation can also be a feasible more developed the infrastructure,
livelihood activity for chronically the easier it is to establish and
ill or weak people, who may benefit undertake mushroom cultivation.
from working in a cooler, shaded Mushrooms are best cultivated
environment with minimal physical indoors in a dark, cool and sterilized
exertion, in contrast to the more and enclosed building. This
arduous work input often associated enables the growing conditions to
with other horticultural products. be maintained most suitable for
Many societies have considerable mushrooms, in terms of temperature,
traditional knowledge and skills humidity, uniform ventilation
relating to farming activities and the and substrate moisture levels.
management of natural resources, Unwanted contaminants, moulds
but the cultivation of mushrooms is and sunlight can also be kept away
a relatively new activity throughout from the crop. Any small room with
much of the rural developing world. ventilation and a cement floor can
Qualities identified as being useful be used, and it should be possible
for mushroom cultivators include to close off the room to the outside
the ability to carry out operations by shutting ventilation and doors.
on time, be attentive to detail, be The interior should be arranged so
vigilant about pest invasions, and for that it is easy to clean at the end of
marketing, excellent skills in public each cropping cycle. The mushroom
relations. house should be well insulated
(by using, for example, fibre glass
Physical assets wool or expanded polystyrene) to
Mushroom production for local maintain a steady temperature, and
consumption and trade needs concrete or clay tiles are preferable
a different level of equipment over corrugated metal for roofing.
and infrastructure than a small Small rooms can be made from
commercial enterprise. Many of wooden poles with stretched sacking
the physical assets required to covering the frame, and covering the
undertake mushroom cultivation are sacking with a wet cement and sand
not exclusive items, but rather assets mixture to produce a hard protective
which help meet livelihood needs skin.
in general, including the transport As growing mushrooms can
and communication infrastructure, attract flies, there are advantages of
clean water, a source of energy, and locating the cultivation area some
28
Make money by growing mushrooms
FIGURE 11 Mushroom houses with walls built from oil palm leaves
(Photo by N. G. Nair)
distance away from living spaces, Additional equipment and tools used
either at the other end of the house can include:
or in a different building several
metres away. Nets placed over doors • a large metal drum or pot for
and ventilation gaps allow air in but sterilizing the substrate in;
keep the flies out. Ideally, double • bags for growing;
entry doors reduce contamination • brushes or soft cloths for cleaning
and escaping spores. mushrooms;
Rural small-scale mushroom • tables to place growing bags on;
growing enterprises do not need • nets to screen rooms and
expensive equipment and some buildings in order to keep flies
equipment may be shared between off the mushrooms;
growers. • cartons for harvested mushrooms.
29
It is likely that spores are purchased four months, which is very helpful
from a nearby town or city, so for small-scale producers.
appropriate access and transport
facilities are important. Transport Summary
infrastructure is also of importance Mushroom cultivation can make a
when selling mushrooms because valuable contribution to sustainable
of their perishable qualities. livelihoods for both rural and
Consequently, in areas where the urban poor, because they are highly
infrastructure is weak it may be compatible with other livelihood
beneficial for producers to process activities, requiring minimal physical
the product (by pickling, drying, and financial inputs and resources,
etc.) to overcome these constraints. to be undertaken successfully.
Furthermore, it represents an ideal
Financial assets activity for older people, those in
Mushroom cultivation is attractive poor health, and also people with
for the resource-poor for two physical and mental disabilities.
reasons. Firstly, because mushroom Mushrooms can be cultivated on both
cultivation can be done on any a small and large scale to allow for
scale, the initial financial outlay to personal consumption, provision of
establish a basic cultivation system a supplemental or principal income
need not be very great, and substrate source, or the start of a commercial
materials are often free. An example enterprise. Indeed, the basic
from Thailand illustrates the point: requirements centre on an identified
a mushroom house large enough to source for purchasing spores, access
hold 1 000 mushroom bags can be to suitable substrate and the means
built for less than US$15, utilising the to sterilize it, some bags and a clean,
materials available locally. Secondly, dark room to cultivate in. For people
compared to many agricultural interested in experimenting, the
and horticultural crops, mushroom range in types of mushrooms and
production systems have a short cultivation techniques can prove
turn around; a harvestable crop can challenging and gratifying.
be produced and sold within two to
30
Strategies for successful
and sustainable mushroom trade
31
volume and prices. Successful marketing strategies
• Exploring various marketing differ according to region, transport
options for fresh mushrooms infrastructure, market accessibility
– depending on transport and consumer preferences. They
infrastructure - selling directly are different for fresh and dried
to local customers, local traders, mushrooms, and are influenced
markets, intermediaries, regional by the species (see Case Study 6).
wholesalers, local restaurants, For example, locally-grown oyster
shops or farmer cooperatives. mushrooms have an advantage
• Adding value and increasing over imported ones because of their
the shelf-life of the mushrooms very limited shelf-life and their
by creating processed products, fragility, making it difficult to ship
including dried or pickled them easily. Similarly, mushrooms
mushrooms, sauces, teas, extracts, for fresh use tend to be grown near
etc. urban consumers, while farmers
• Becoming organized and situated some distance away from
teaming-up with other producers, their consumer base, market their
to bulk up on volume and the product after processing.
variety of mushrooms, and attract Establishing a good relationship
traders regularly to enable reliable with a buyer by delivering a reliable
sales of the perishable produce. quality and quantity of product is
• Sharing knowledge and fundamental. It is important to start
experiences with other producers modestly and secure a buyer or small
and, if a problem or constraint network of buyers to whom one can
is consistent and widespread, deliver a reliable supply.
collectively source external The method of storage and
advice. presentation of mushrooms at the
• Reducing initial capital point of sale should be carefully
investment by recycling pieces managed and labelling produce –
of equipment and sourcing ‘fresh’ and ‘grown under controlled
locally, and sharing costs through conditions’ – is a helpful marketing
informal or formal groupings. strategy. Unreliable claims printed
• Identifying existing markets and on the cartons relating to the
trading routes, and identifying medicinal value of the mushrooms on
any niches to be filled (for sale should be avoided; such claims
example, organic mushrooms, fair should be restricted to those species
trade or cooperative produce). of mushrooms where substantial
32
CASE STUDY 6 Product quality and market access
The distance from production to market is a crucial factor in trading mushrooms. There are
many roadside markets in Malawi which are close to the forest areas where wild fungi are
harvested and also cultivated.
The roadside sellers are aware that customers will pay more for species that are fresh
and presented in an attractive manner. They clean fruiting bodies and select the best to
be placed at the top of piles on their stalls; some collectors try to hide mushrooms infested
with insects at the bottom of trays, but such tricks rarely go undetected for long.
The most important thing is to get the fungi as quickly as possible from the forest to the
stall. However, because of the perishable nature of mushrooms, sellers are forced either
to sell their unsold fresh produce at the end of the day for a low price, or dry it before it
perishes. As such, preserving mushrooms in brine is an important feature of trade and
Source: FAO. 2004. Wild edible fungi, a global over view of their use and importance to people,
by E. Boa, Non-Wood Forest Products, No.17, Rome.
33
Organization within communities, and social
Good organization helps mushroom networks and organizations can help
cultivators in several ways: manage risks (see Case Study 7).
34
CASE STUDY 7 The magic touch of a local entrepreneur –
farmer organization and empowerment through
mushroom cultivation, Assam, India.
Organizing farmers has proved a tough challenge in Northeast India’s political economy,
but Pranjal Baruah and the NGO Ashoka work through the medium of mushroom
cultivation to organize farmers. Mushroom cultivation systems have been developed to
strengthen farmer control over harvesting and sale, and the establishment of a mushroom
farmers’ network has enabled price and quality to be standardized. Pranjal established
a mushroom lab to provide a continuous supply of quality spawns at low cost, and the
farmer network offers training and a buy-back guarantee as an incentive for farmers, the
landless poor, and the unemployed to get involved.
Farmers in the northeast are relatively new to the market economy. The potential of
Starting in Assam, Pranjal first identified the oyster mushroom as the most suitable variety
and established a spawn laboratory. In order to stimulate consumer demand, he began a
‘mushroom awareness drive’, promoting mushroom eating at fairs, providing free samples,
developing innovative recipes, making pickles, face packs, powders, and more.
There were few farmers growing mushrooms six years ago, but following recruitment
and training, he has reached over 5 000 growers, and resulted in some 300 medium-
sized mushroom farms across Assam that regularly produce an average of 500 kg of
mushrooms in a season. This figure does not include the smaller-scale farmers, home
growers, and others who have been trained, but buy their spawns elsewhere.
Current intentions are to develop advanced training for trainers and larger growers, and
have these entrepreneurs ‘bridge the gap’ between the lab and the small growers. In
addition to individual entrepreneurs, Pranjal is working with ‘mushroom groups’, ranging
from women who grow mushrooms collectively in villages to more unconventional groups
like prisoners in jails.
Pranjal has spent the last eight years learning about the mushroom trade and setting up
systems to address its various facets and challenges. Known as the ‘Mushroom Man of
Assam’, his determination and business acumen has seen his venture grow tenfold in just
eight years. Pranjal knows that sticking to mushrooms and making sure his farmers are in
control may be the best chance for farmers to organize in the northeast.
35
to experiment and take risks, and in generation, as determined by the
particular, attention to detail, are all producer.
useful qualities amongst mushroom The following list summarizes
cultivators. some main factors which contribute
to the sustainability of mushroom
Diversification options trade, and strengthens its contribution
In the case of mushroom cultivation, to livelihood security:
growers could diversify from growing
edible mushrooms to producing A good understanding of the
mushrooms with medicinal values. mushroom cultivation, whether
This is a logical step to take since based on local knowledge or acquired
the basic skills required in growing through external support, allows
medicinal mushrooms are the same as cultivators to provide consistent and
those for growing edible mushrooms, predictable quantities and qualities of
although the specific cultivation mushrooms, thereby attracting buyers
requirements may differ. Another more easily.
diversification option would be to
use the spent mushroom substrate Effective communication and good
as organic mulch in growing other relationships between suppliers,
horticultural crops, e.g. vegetables. growers and buyers are important to
This would result in not only ensure effective information flows
diversification for securing additional about sources or spores, substrate,
income but also in recycling the other equipment, yields, crop quality
organic waste created from mushroom etc.
cultivation. The recycling process is
also an environmentally friendly way Identification of a reliable level of
of farming. market demand. Most agricultural,
horticultural, and non-wood forest
Sustainable mushroom trade product market chains are demand
A great benefit of mushroom driven, and establishing new chains
cultivation is that it is a combinable can be a challenge. The general
and complementary activity, which level of market development in areas
is only part-time and will form one where mushrooms are promoted is
component of a livelihood strategy. an important factor determining their
As such, it helps reduce risk, and market potential.
creates opportunities for increased
food security and a level of income Ability to innovate, by introducing
36
new techniques and/or varieties is Organization can help producers
important to the sustainability of and processors to be more resilient to
trade. External actors, whether NGOs external shocks, and markets may also
or entrepreneurs, are particularly be made accessible by community
important in supporting innovations organization. A cooperative may be
which can be vital to maintain trade. formed for marketing mushrooms
produced by small villagers as well
Length of marketing chain can as relatively large growers. Through
influence resilience, which may be collective pooling of their resources
greatest for shorter chains. and crop, cultivators are better
able to create a sustainable flow of
High levels of transparency, both mushrooms to supply the market.
37
Supporting services to help promote
mushrooms as a source of livelihood
39
• implementing rural livelihood The most effective way to impart
support policies which cut across skills to the potential mushroom
a traditionally narrow focus on growers is to teach the fundamental
one sector (such as agriculture, aspects of the mushroom farming
or livestock, or forestry), and system and to provide hands-on
instead support rural farmers to training on site. Although requiring
implement diversified livelihood good planning and coordination, a
strategies; very positive and practical way of
• developing specific policies to providing this training is through
help promote trade, branding, Farmer Field Schools (FFSs). These
food standards, etc. in provide an opportunity for learning-
horticultural products and, in by-doing, based on the principles
particular, mushrooms; of non-formal education, with
• developing incentives for lending extension workers or trained farmers
institutions to give credit to small facilitating the learning process by
or community run businesses, and encouraging farmers to discover
make credit provision accessible key agro-ecological concepts and
to the rural poor and small-scale develop management skills through
entrepreneurs. self-discovery activities practised in
the field.
Technical support and training An alternative approach to
in cultivation and processing training includes a study of
A level of technical guidance and market opportunities followed by
support will be beneficial to most community skills assessment and the
mushroom growers, particularly in the provision of training on site, bringing
initial stages of cultivation, as many trainers to the community rather than
of the technical terms and procedures sending villagers to a training centre.
relating to mushroom cultivation may This also allows other members of
be unfamiliar to potential growers. the family or community to benefit,
Growers need to be familiar with learn the relevant skills, and become
fungi life cycles, and the importance involved in the cultivation process.
of hygiene and sterilization in Participation at national and
developing a successful growing international trade fairs can
system. Support may be required provide an opportunity to exchange
to improve cultivation techniques, information about overcoming
access to appropriate varieties of challenges and improving cultivation
spores, and post-harvest care, etc. and processing techniques, etc.
40
Business and scale cultivation systems, sufficient
entrepreneurial skills to provide a nutritious source of
Entrepreneurial skills are required food and reliable source of instant
if growers intend their cultivation cash. Financial resources will
activities to go beyond subsistence however become more important
and local trade, and wish to develop as the size of an enterprise scales-
a small business. These may include up, or if cultivators want to explore
basic bookkeeping skills, planning adding value through processing
and administration, management and consider investment in drying
supplies of materials (sterilization equipment, or secure specialist
equipment, and appropriate and containers to package and transport
timely quantities of substrate products further to more distant
41
shared investment in equipment, • training government and private
helps reduce the vulnerability sector extension personnel in
of individuals. If producers are good agricultural practices;
specifically interested in trading • training farmers and villagers in
mushrooms, organization can also their localities;
help achieve a consistent, better • setting up a pilot demonstration
quality and larger volume of supply, farm in the village;
and collective or shared transport • providing access to spawn and
costs can help overcome the basic equipment required for
challenges of trading a perishable growing mushrooms;
good. • conducting field days on practical
Company-community partnership methods of growing mushrooms
can take various forms including for the benefit of potential
collaboration with companies or mushroom growers in the
organizations which provide credit villages;
and technology. For example, a • providing advice on mushrooms
partnership arrangement may exist marketing and obtaining market
between a mushroom wholesaler links to local and distant markets;
and a number of smaller cultivation • assisting in setting up
units who supply the wholesaler in cooperatives or producer groups
return for technical and financial for the benefit of all the villagers
assistance. in accessing finance, continuing
education to improve farming
Role of advisor skills and obtaining market links
In conclusion, the following steps to local and distant markets.
may be considered when planning
a programme of assistance to rural
farmers and villagers in mushroom
growing:
42
Opportunities and challenges
43
risk for small-scale producers, and Some mushrooms have been given
provide access to training and other bad press because of poisonings,
forms of support. which fortunately are generally rare
and have been associated with events,
Challenges including: young children collecting
Establishing larger scale mushroom indiscriminately and eating raw
cultivation systems can be more mushrooms; immigrants arriving
labour and management intensive. in a new country and incorrectly
All production systems, to some identifying a local species that turns
extent, are vulnerable to sporadic out to be poisonous; food shortages
yields, invasions of ‘weed’ fungi, and economic hardship forcing
insect pests, and unreliable market people to hunt for food; and different
prices for traded goods. Moving physiological responses to an ‘edible’
from cultivating mushrooms for fungus. Other health risks can include
subsistence use to commercial allergies to different mushroom
production and marketing can be spores.
quite challenging to local growers. Mushrooms have not often been
One of the most important aspects of actively promoted in the past by
growing mushrooms for commercial agricultural ministries of developing
purposes is the ability to maintain countries. Various reasons have been
a continuous supply for chosen cited for this neglect, including: a lack
market outlets, and if the mushroom of technical capacity in production
enterprise is one of many livelihood techniques with poorly equipped
activities, producers need to become government supported advisory
multi-skilled to manage several services resulting in interested
enterprises successfully. farmers having to seek technology
The initial challenges which on their own; comparatively few
mushroom growers have to face studies on tropical mushrooms; and
include determining the most suitable a lack of technical skills to produce
mushroom to grow and identifying a spawn with suitable strains often hard
spawn supplier, organizing available to find. The market can present an
resources to develop a growing additional constraint in some regions
system, and assessing requirements as the prices of mushrooms are out of
for supplying different marketing the range of most local consumers and
outlets. In spite of these, starting unable to compete with other protein
with home production is an advisable sources like beef, beans or eggs for a
approach. place in the average family diet.
44
In conclusion, many of the mushroom cultivation has enormous
challenges which face mushroom potential to improve food security
cultivation activities are not and income generation, which in turn
uncommon to other challenges still can help boost rural and peri-urban
faced by small-scale rural producers. economic growth.
As a livelihood diversification option,
45
Selected further reading
Brett, A., Cox, D. R. S., Trim, D. S. & Simmons, R..1995. Producing Solar
Dried Fruit and Vegetables for Micro- and Small-Scale Rural Enterprise
Development: A Series of Practical Guides, Natural Resources Institute
(NRI).
47
FAO. 2004. Wild edible fungi, a global overview of their use and importance
to people, by E. Boa, Non-Wood Forest Products No. 17, Rome.
Flegg, P., Spencer, D.M. & Wood, D.A. 1985. (Eds.) The biology and
technology of the cultivated mushroom, John Wiley and Sons.
48
Smith, J.E., Rowan, N.J. & Sullivan, R. 2002. Medicinal Mushrooms:
Their therapeutic properties and current medical usage with special emphasis
on cancer treatments, University of Strathclyde and Cancer Research UK.
49
Susuki, S. & Ohshima, S. 1974. Influence of shiitake Lentinus edodes on
human serum cholesterol, Annual Report of National Institute of Nutrition 25,
89-94.
50
Sources of further information
and support
51
Ghana Export Promotion Council
P O Box M146
Accra
Ghana
The Ghana Export Promotion Council in collaboration with the Food Research
Institute has been driving Ghana to become a major exporter. They set up the
Natural Mushroom Development Project (NMDP) which has established a
pure cultivation bank and involved in the production of pure spawn and runs
training courses for commercial growers.
52
Federal Institute of Industrial Research (FIIRO), Oshodi, Nigeria
P.M.B. 21023, Ikeja, Lagos, Nigeria
Fax: 234 1 4525880, Tel: 234 1 8947094
info@fiiro-ng.org
http://www.fiiro-ng.org/mushroom-production.htm
There are a number of commercial spawn producers around the world, but
sustainable mushroom cultivation relies on the identification of a local reliable
manufacturer of quality spawn. Information regarding these spawn suppliers
can be obtained from the mushroom grower associations in different countries,
but a useful starting point, if no contacts are known, are the following two
53
Notes
THIS BOOKLET HIGHLIGHTS THE MANY OPPORTUNITIES TO, AND
BENEFITS OF, INCREASING FOOD AND INCOME SECURITY THROUGH
INCORPORATING MUSHROOM CULTIVATION INTO LIVELIHOODS
STRATEGIES. Mushrooms are fast yielding, provide for nutritious
food and can provide a source of income. Cultivation does not
require any significant capital investment or access to land, as
mushrooms can be grown on substrate prepared from any clean
agricultural waste material. It can be carried out on a part-time
basis, requires little maintenance and is a viable and attractive
activity for rural, peri-urban and urban dwellers, in particular
women and people with disabilities. Through the provision of
income and improved nutrition, successful cultivation and trade
in mushrooms can strengthen livelihood assets, which not only
reduce vulnerability to shocks, but enhance an individual’s
or a community’s capacity to act upon other economic
opportunities.