CIEM 5380 BRIDGE ENGINEERING

Lecture 01 – Construction Engineering 14 September 2012

CIEM 5380

BRIDGE ENGINEERING

LECTURE 01 – CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

Contents Page

1.0 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 1

1.1 General ............................................................................................................... 1

2.0 INSITU CONSTRUCTION ON SCAFFOLDING OR FALSEWORK ............................. 2

2.1 General ............................................................................................................... 2
2.2 Classical Scaffolding ........................................................................................... 2
2.3 Stationary Falsework ........................................................................................... 2
2.4 Construction Stages ............................................................................................ 3

3.0 LAUNCHING SYSTEMS .............................................................................................. 4

3.1 General ............................................................................................................... 4
3.2 Launching Gantries ............................................................................................. 4

4.0 BALANCED CANTILEVER CONSTRUCTION ............................................................ 5

4.1 General ............................................................................................................... 5
4.2 Cast-in-situ Balanced Cantilever Construction..................................................... 6
4.3 Precast Segmental Balanced Cantilever Construction ......................................... 7

5.0 SPAN BY SPAN .......................................................................................................... 9

6.0 INCREMENTAL LAUNCHING ................................................................................... 10

7.0 PRECAST BEAMS .................................................................................................... 11

8.0 COMPARISON OF THE METHODS .......................................................................... 12

9.0 INFLUENCE OF THE METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION ON DESIGN ........................ 13

9.1 Construction on Scaffolding or Stationary Falsework ......................................... 13
9.2 Balanced Cantilevers ........................................................................................ 13
9.3 Incremental Launching ...................................................................................... 15

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Lecture 01 – Construction Engineering 14 September 2012

FIGURES

Figure 1 – Use of scaffolding in Cable Stayed Bridge Construction (left) & typical module of scaffolding
in box girder bridge (right)
Figure 2 – Example of falsework arrangement in bridge construction.
Figure 3 – Launching Gantries for balanced cantilever construction scheme
Figure 4 – Launching Gantries for span by span construction scheme
Figure 5 – Form traveller used in Gateway Bridge
Figure 6 – Lifting Frame used in Southern Island Line
Figure 7 – Balanced Cantilever Construction at Ngong Shuen Chau Viaduct
Figure 8 – Span by Span erection of precast segments for Route 3 viaduct (Hong Kong)
Figure 9 – Incremental launching of bridge with constant curvature
Figure 10 – Erection of precast beam in WKH (Hong Kong).
Figure 11 – Comparison of the construction methods – erection speed vs span range.

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Lecture 01 – Construction Engineering 14 September 2012

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 General

1.1.1 There is a close link between the designer‟s choice of bridge deck type and the most
appropriate method of construction. In general, solid and voided slabs and twin rib
decks are appropriate for the cast-in-situ construction of complete spans on falsework,
while box sections are most easily cast in-situ in short sections, or precast. One
reasonable rule of thumb is that if a deck is to be cast in-situ on falsework it should be
possible to pour a complete span in one continuous operation. There is also a close
link between the method of construction of a concrete deck and the detailed design of
the prestress. For instance, self weights are introduced in the cantilevers with no
moment at mid-span during construction by balanced cantilever method. However, the
final distribution of moments is changed due to the installation of prestressing tendons
and at the same time altering by creep deformation.

1.1.2 Therefore, it is very important for a bridge engineer to learn the erection/construction
method because many erection methods, or construction techniques, directly influence
the design.

1.1.3 The two principle components in the cost of building a bridge deck (apart from the
material content of the deck) are labour and plant. They are closely interdependent as
the cost of labour may be reduced by investing in plant to automate the construction
process. The balance between the investment in plant and the reliance on labour
depends principally on the scale of the project.

1.1.4 Ignorance of construction stage design will lead to collapse during erection regardless
how good you design the permanent structure.

1.1.5 This is why the design of a bridge cannot be developed without detail consideration of
the construction method, which is really part of the design.

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Lecture 01 – Construction Engineering 14 September 2012

2.0 INSITU CONSTRUCTION ON SCAFFOLDING OR FALSEWORK

2.1 General

2.1.1 It is the most basic bridge construction method. The use of scaffolding or falsework to
support formwork for insitu concrete construction provides the designer with the
greatest degree of flexibility with regard to the shape and form of a structure.

2.1.2 It is suitable particularly for bridges built over land provided that the ground can provide
a suitable foundation and that the structures are neither too high nor too long.

2.1.3 The use of classical scaffolding is not suitable for bridges over water or other obstacle
due to high construction cost for foundation over water.

2.2 Classical Scaffolding

2.2.1 Scaffolding consists of cross-braced posts or towers which are designed to transfer
loads from the formwork to the ground. The most widely used form of scaffolding is the
metal tower, comprising standardised, re-useable cross-braced modules.

Figure 1 – Use of scaffolding in Cable Stayed Bridge Construction (left) & typical module of
scaffolding in box girder bridge (right)

2.2.2 The most important considerations relating to the stability of scaffolding are:

(1) A suitable number of posts or towers should be provided, such that each transfers
a moderate load only to the ground. It is also essential that small settlements
only should occur.
(2) Posts or towers should not be located in areas of doubtful stability, such as on
slopes or near the tops of steep slopes.
(3) The scaffolding must be adequately braced in order to maintain its rigidity and to
resist the effects of wind and other horizontal forces. Particular care should be
given to its erection in order to avoid eccentricity of loading.

2.3 Stationary Falsework

2.3.1 Stationary falsework differs from classical scaffolding in that loads are transmitted to the
ground by means of a limited number of structural frames, rather than a multitude of
relative small posts or towers. A typical system may support the framework by means
of a grillage of steel girders which, in turn, would span between steel supports.

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Lecture 01 – Construction Engineering 14 September 2012

Figure 2 – Example of falsework arrangement in bridge construction.

2.4 Construction Stages

2.4.1 In the case of short bridges, the entire structure is supported on stationary falsework
and the whole bridge is concreted in a single stage. The prestressing cables may be
tensioned when the concrete has achieved sufficient strength, after which the falsework
may be removed.

2.4.2 For longer bridges, method described in the above section will not be effective because
(1) provision of falsework along the entire bridge structure will be very expensive, and (2)
it will cause problems associated with placing large volumes of concrete in a single pour.
It is therefore more often to build such bridges in a series of stages such that falsework
can be re-use and demand of concrete amount to be placed at any one time can be
minimized to a practical range.

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Lecture 01 – Construction Engineering 14 September 2012

3.0 LAUNCHING SYSTEMS

3.1 General

3.1.1 The use of launching girder (or launching gantry) is particularly design for precast
segmental erection. The method requires the use of a special movable girder which is
supported from the previously completed parts of the permanent structure.

3.1.2 This erection method can be considered for spans in the range of 30m to 60m.

3.1.3 This method enables long bridges to be built in a short time and, if there is a sufficient
degree of repetition of the construction stages, can increase considerably the efficiency
of the working teams.

3.2 Launching Gantries

3.2.1 Gantries consist of a supporting beam located above the deck. This main beam
supports several transverse members which, in turn, support the formwork and the
working platform.

3.2.2 It is common for the length of the beam to be approximately twice the length of the span,
and for it to be fitted with a lunching nose to facilitate its movement to the next span.

Figure 3 – Launching Gantries for balanced cantilever construction scheme

Figure 4 – Launching Gantries for span by span construction scheme

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Lecture 01 – Construction Engineering 14 September 2012

4.0 BALANCED CANTILEVER CONSTRUCTION

4.1 General

4.1.1 This method of construction offers many advantages, and has therefore become very
popular.

4.1.2 Bridges built by the balanced cantilever method can be built for spans from about 50
metres (and even less in specific conditions) to 200 metres and even up to 300m.

4.1.3 This method involves assembling the elements, or segments, of the bridge deck by
building outwards from the piers. Each segment is prestressed as soon as it has been
placed, thereby enabling it to support itself by cantilevering from its predecessor. This
reduces the loads which need to be carried by either a lifting mechanism or temporary
support girder.

4.1.4 Two types of balanced cantilever methods are commonly used, they are:

(1) Cast-in-situ balanced cantilever construction

Figure 5 – Form traveller used in Gateway Bridge

(2) Precast segmental balanced cantilever construction

Figure 6 – Lifting Frame used in Southern Island Line

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Lecture 01 – Construction Engineering 14 September 2012

Figure 7 – Balanced Cantilever Construction at Ngong Shuen Chau Viaduct

4.2 Cast-in-situ Balanced Cantilever Construction

4.2.1 Cast-in-situ balanced cantilever construction is ideally suited to box section bridges of
medium or long span, where there is insufficient repetition to justify using precast
segments. The method becomes economical for bridges with a main span of 60 m and
above, and remains viable up to the largest span that may be built, currently about
300m.

4.2.2 Early cantilever built bridges were pinned at mid-span. However, these bridges have in
several instances exhibited unexpectedly large creep deflections at mid-span.
Furthermore, the presence of an expansion joint at mid-span affects the ride of the
bridge, and is a maintenance liability. Most modern cantilever built decks are made
continuous by casting a mid-span stitch.

Design Consideration

4.2.3 The method of construction leads to a self-weight moment diagram that is

predominantly hogging, and it is clearly economical to provide a greater structural depth
over the supports and to minimise the weight of the deck towards mid-span.
Furthermore, the construction of the deck in short lengths on a weekly cycle makes it
relatively easy to change the geometry of the shutter for each cast. Consequently, most
bridges built by this method have variable depth.

4.2.4 For span less than 100m: the feasible proportion of the depth of the deck to span
length is approximately span/14. At this depth, the prestress is economical, the webs do
not usually need to be thickened to carry shear, and the bottom slab can also stay at its
mid-span thickness. However, clearance between deck soffit to road level or sea level
will be an issue that need to be considered. The support depth may be reduced to
span/20, with the consequent greater consumption of prestress, and the greater
complication of the construction as the webs and bottom slab will need to be thickened
at the supports.

4.2.5 Large bridges: support depth is about span/20 to overcome the disadvantages of the
great structural depths otherwise attained.

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Lecture 01 – Construction Engineering 14 September 2012

4.2.6 Mid-span depth: The economical mid-span depth depends principally on the loading
code used. With the British code, where the dominant load is a 180 ton vehicle, for
bridges up to about 80m span the mid-span depth should not be less than about
span/35. If the deck is more slender, the amount of prestress in the mid-span section
becomes excessive, with difficulties in housing and anchoring the tendons. With most
other loading codes it is economical to adopt depths of span/45 or less. As the span
becomes longer and the live load less significant, the mid-span section may be thinner.
The thinner the mid-span, the more moment is shed towards the supports, which
improves the economy of the deck.

4.2.7 Constant depth cantilever built bridges: This kind of bridge rarely exceed a span of 80m,
due to the inherent lack of economy. Generally such bridges have span/depth ratio not
shallower than 1/18.

4.2.8 End span: The length of the side spans of cantilever built bridges are usually little more
than half the main span. When the side span is this short, it must be checked that the
abutment bearings are not decompressed by factored live loads in the main span. A
counter-weight consisting of mass concrete in the last metres of the box may be used to
increase the bearing reaction. Alternatively, the deck may be held down by ties which
permit the length changes of the deck, but this constitutes an additional maintenance
and durability liability. If the deck continues beyond the balanced cantilever spans, the
reaction of the adjacent span may be used to hold down the end of the cantilevered
span. However, in bridges with very long main spans it may be cost effective to limit the
overall length of the deck by curtailing the side spans, which will then need to be
anchored down with very substantial forces.

Deck construction

4.2.9 Form traveller is normally used for cast-in-situ balanced cantilever construction.

4.2.10 The travellers used to build cantilever bridges are usually simple steel trusses that
suspend a platform on which is placed the shutter. They are counterbalanced so that
they are stable under their own self weight, and are tied down to the deck to resist the
weight of concrete. The main design criterion for the truss is to limit its deflection as the
concrete is cast. The bottom slab which is cast first may be cracked by this deflection at
its junction with the previous segment as the main weight of concrete is poured.

4.2.11 Typically, a hammerhead at least 6 m long is cast off falsework on each pier. A traveller
is then fabricated onto the hammerhead and builds a first deck segment. This traveller
is then launched forwards. As each pair of segments is completed, prestressing cables
are threaded and stressed.

4.2.12 When the balanced cantilevers are complete, a mid-span stitch, usually 2–3 m long, is
cast, using one of the travellers as falsework. Continuity cables are then threaded
through the stitch and stressed.

4.3 Precast Segmental Balanced Cantilever Construction

4.3.1 The most widely used method of erection of precast segmental bridges is balanced
cantilever. This method can cater for spans from 25 m up to about 150 m, and can cope
with virtually any succession of span lengths and deck alignments. The upper limit on
span is generally imposed by the weight of the deeper segments and the cost of the
casting cells, although if there is enough repetition, longer spans are viable. A typical
deck consists of pier segments, and a number of span segments that are usually
symmetrically placed about each pier, in balanced cantilever. The span is closed by a
mid-span stitch, cast in-situ. The joints are usually glued (by epoxy), although this is
only essential when internal tendons are adopted.

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Lecture 01 – Construction Engineering 14 September 2012

4.3.2 One significant difference from cast-in-situ construction is that the concrete age are
several weeks old or even longer when they are erected, reducing the changes in
bending moment due to creep. Except for very long spans, the effects of creep on the
erection geometry are reduced to virtual insignificance by the speed of erection for
precast decks. Typically, erection of six segments (3 pairs) in a day can easily be
achieved.

4.3.3 A considerable proportion of the shrinkage of the concrete will also have been
completed before erection. As a result of the reduced shortening of the deck, expansion
joints may be further apart, and longer lengths of deck may be pinned to, or built into
the columns. Also, early thermal stresses are virtually eliminated by the single-phase
precasting, giving rise to crack-free units.

4.3.4 Balanced cantilever bridges may be erected by crane, by launching gantry or lifting
frame. The choice of method depends on the scale of the bridge, on the weight of the
segments, and the site constraints.

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Lecture 01 – Construction Engineering 14 September 2012

5.0 SPAN BY SPAN

5.1.1 Span by span erection can either be cast-in-situ or precast segmental.

5.1.2 Span-by-span construction is applicable to decks with spans that lie generally between
20m and 45m. Due to the difficulties of casting boxes in-situ, decks are most commonly
solid or voided slab or twin rib, and are usually continuous.

5.1.3 The decks may be statically determinate or continuous. The segment joints may be
glued with internal prestress or dry with external tendons.

5.1.4 In precast segmental erection, the spans are erected on under-slung falsework
consisting of relatively simple girders placed beneath the side cantilevers of the box
section deck, such as in the East Rail Viaduct in Hong Kong. This minimises the
projection of the girders beneath the bridge soffit. If the bridge deck rests on cross-
heads or portals that would impede the underslung girders, if there are deck bifurcations
or if highway clearance diagrams make it impossible for falsework to protrude beneath
the deck soffit, overhead gantries may be used that suspend the segments during their
assembly, such as west rail concrete viaduct in Hong Kong.

Figure 8 – Span by Span erection of precast segments for Route 3 viaduct (Hong Kong)

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Lecture 01 – Construction Engineering 14 September 2012

6.0 INCREMENTAL LAUNCHING

6.1.1 The method of building bridges by incremental launching was first used by Leonhardt
(He is a German, one of the most influential bridge engineer in the world). The deck is
built in segments behind one of the abutments and pushed or pulled forwards out of the
mould by hydraulic jacks. As successive segments are cast the lengthening bridge deck
slides over the piers, cantilevering from one to the other.

Figure 9 – Incremental launching of bridge with constant curvature

6.1.2 Usually, the deck is equipped with a steel launching nose to control the cantilever
bending moments. It is used almost exclusively to build box girders and is best adapted
to that deck form. It is normally used for bridges with spans between 30 m and 55 m.
Longer spans may be launched, but they require intermediate falsework towers to cut
down the launching span.

6.1.3 Rates of construction are typically one 15–25 m segment per week. However, there are
large variations in the methods and rate of construction.

6.1.4 The major falsework required for the construction of a launched bridge deck consists
only of the casting area and the launching nose. Also required are the launching jacks,
the launch bearings and the jacking arrangements at the head of each pier.

6.1.5 Conventional launched bridge decks require typically up to 20 per cent more
prestressing steel than bridges built by other methods, due to the relative inefficiency of
the first stage central prestress.

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Lecture 01 – Construction Engineering 14 September 2012

7.0 PRECAST BEAMS

7.1.1 Decks made of precast beams are widely used. Precasting gives the benefit of good
control of the quality of construction, while the deck construction is simple and repetitive.
Such decks are usually statically determinate, although techniques are available to
render them partially or totally continuous. Statically determinate beams are frequently
economically competitive with continuous beams, due to the lack of secondary sources
of bending moment and locked-in stresses. Modern techniques which allow several
spans to be linked to minimise the number of roadway expansion joints have eliminated
one of the main obstacles to the use of statically determinate spans.

7.1.2 There are many forms of precast beams, including boxes, troughs and various forms of
„I‟ beam. One may divide precast beams for bridge decks into two categories, standard
precast beams (Australia) and custom-designed precast beams.

Figure 10 – Erection of precast beam in WKH (Hong Kong).

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Lecture 01 – Construction Engineering 14 September 2012

8.0 COMPARISON OF THE METHODS

8.1.1 Span length is one of the most important considerations to decide which construction
method is to be adopted, as methods which use scaffolding, launching girders or
gantries, precast beams or incremental launching without intermediate piers are not
suitable for spans in excess of 60m. For spans in excess of 150m, the only suitable
methods are in-situ cantilever construction or the use of heavy lifting equipment.

8.1.2 In case a bridge is long in terms of total length (not clear span length), say over several
kilometres, the construction speed becomes a major factor. Even though the contract
period for such structures may be 4 or even 4 years, it will almost certainly be
necessary to make use of precast elements in order to achieve the required
construction speed.

8.1.3 The use of launching girders or gantries, precast beams or incremental launching are
better suited to decks with only a limited variation of depth, whilst the methods based on
formwork supported by scaffolding offer more flexibility and facilitate the construction of
variable sections. The method based on the use of precast sections may be suitable
when it is necessary to accommodate a moderate variation of section (particularly
depth), provided that a significant number of elements are required.

Span Range [m] Construction Speed [metres/week]

0 100 200 0 50 100 150 200

(1) Classical scaffolding and stationary falsework

(2) Launching Girder/Gantry

- In situ concrete construction

- Precast elements

(3) Precast beam

(4) Cantilever

- In situ concrete construction

- Precast elements

(5) Incremental launching

- without temporary support

- with temporary support

(7) Heavy lifting

Figure 11 – Comparison of the construction methods – erection speed vs span range.

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Lecture 01 – Construction Engineering 14 September 2012

9.0 INFLUENCE OF THE METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION ON DESIGN

9.1 Construction on Scaffolding or Stationary Falsework

9.1.1 It offers the designer the greatest scope for the shape of the structure. This method is
suitable for most modest as well as the largest and most complex structures.

9.1.2 Economically use of scaffolding

(1) Structure is to be constructed over land and when the ground conditions are good.
(2) Structure is relatively close to the ground,
(3) Structure is of modest length,
(4) Settlement of soil due to superimposed dead load is very little,
(5) No major obstacles to be crossed by falsework

Prestressing System

9.1.3 As soon as the concrete in the span under construction has attained adequate
compressive strength, sufficient prestress is applied to enable the structure to support
its self weight and to allow the falsework to be removed. The falsework is then moved
forward for the construction of next span and this process will repeat until the structure
is completed.

9.1.4 In order to limit the effects of dead load, it will be beneficial if the resulting bending
moments at the end of construction are as close as possible to those which would have
existed if the entire structure had been supported on falsework and then stressed in one
operation.

9.2 Balanced Cantilevers

9.2.1 It is the most important types of bridge construction method. Bridges constructed by
this method are usually constructed from the piers, adding cantilevered segments,
prestressed to their predecessors, which may be either precast or cast insitu on form
traveller.

9.2.2 The length of the cantilevers will be approximately half the span length on either side of
the pier.

Conditions of Use

9.2.3 Cost economy span range: 30m to 60m.

9.2.4 The initial setup cost is expensive, and it is necessary to consider depreciation,
transport, assembly, dismantling and storage when assessing their economic viability.
They are in general being used for long bridge with many spans (preferably of equal
length).

9.2.5 Their cost should be redeemed on the bridges for which they have been designed for
use, and it should not be assumed that they may be of use on another project without
need of very expensive modifications.

9.2.6 Once the crew overcame the learning curve, 3 pairs per day nominal production rate in
Hong Kong construction site can be achieved (10 hours shift).

Span lengths

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Lecture 01 – Construction Engineering 14 September 2012

9.2.7 The final length of structure which is cantilevered from each pier is equal to the sum of
the half spans on either side.

9.2.8 It would obviously simplify the construction if the end span were to be half the length of
the adjacent span, however this arrangement would result in uplift of the bearings at the
end of the bridge due to the action of traffic live load. One way to avoid this is to
increase the length of the end span by means of increasing the length of end span,
those addition length (against the balanced cantilever length shall be erected the
precast on falsework.

9.2.9 If the deck has a variable depth (assume parabolic profile), then the end span should be
0.6 x the adjacent span to avoid uplift.

9.2.10 If the deck has constant depth, the end span should be min. 0.7 x the adjacent span.

9.2.11 What happen if the end span cannot be longer than the figure mentioned in 9.2.9 &
9.2.10 (due to site constraint, aesthetic or economical consideration)?

Cross sections type and span ranges

9.2.12 Usually box girders

9.2.13 For constant depth, it can be spaning up to 60m or in some case 75m.

9.2.14 It is possible to design for longer span. Variable depth decks are economical in such
case, it can go up to 300m long (gateway bridge in Australia is 250m long). The variable
depth allows sections to be proportioned with regard to the hogging bending moments
which result from this method of construction.

Support sytem

9.2.15 Pros and Cons of Bearing support system?

9.2.16 Pros and Cons of Monolithic system (integrated superstructure and pier)?

Design considerations of cross section

9.2.17 For balanced cantilever method, single box girder is generally preferred. Recently, a
tendency towards the use of single cell box girder for relatively wide structures, for this
kind of section, shear forces can only be distributed equally between the two webs only
when the bridge is straight.

9.2.18 When designing a wider structures, it is necessary to give careful consideration to the
effects of distortion and transverse bending. The effects of distortion can be reduced by
the use of external continuity prestressing, because of the stiffening effect provided by
the deviator which are required to deflect the tendons. With internal prestressing, the
additional width of web required will offer some resistance to distortion, although it may
also be necessary to provide diaphragms at quarter span points in the case of long
spans.

9.2.19 The consideration of transverse bending is most significant for the top slab of a box
section which has to be designed for the local effects of heavy vehicle. The bottom slab
may also be subjected to transverse bending, it is therefore necessary to ensure that
the slabs are of adequate thickness, or to consider the use of transverse prestressing or
transverse stiffening beams.

Design of Prestressing System

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Lecture 01 – Construction Engineering 14 September 2012

9.2.20 The balanced cantilever method erection requires the use of two sets of prestressing
tendons. They are the cantilever tendons and continuity tendons (or sometime span
tendons are referred). The cantilever tendons are required primarily to resist the effects
arising from the construction stages, which is mainly the hogging moments at the piers.
The continuity tendons are required to ensure adequate compression at the joint
between the tips of the cantilevers, and to provide the necessary resistance to
superimposed dead load and live load. For continuity tendons, it can either be internal
or external, or in Hong Kong, a combination of both.

9.2.21 The contribution from the external tendons will depend on the preference of the
designer. In some cases the decision will be made to include the minimum number of
tendons only within the concrete section, in order that more resistance may be provided
by the external tendons which can usually be stressed in a more controlled manner. In
other cases, the external tendons will be designed to carry live load only.

9.2.22 It is also a good practice to make provision for “reserved” prestressing ducts to be
installed. These would be available to accommodate addition tendons in the event of
future tendon replacement (external tendons).

9.3 Incremental Launching

9.3.1 Incremental launching is suitable for decks with constant depth only as variation of
depth would be virtually impossible to accommodate at the positions of the roller
bearing.

9.3.2 It is also necessary for the alignment of the bridge to be straight or on a constant
circular curve.

9.3.3 During construction, it will be necessary to provide sufficient working space behind the
abutment to facilitate construction of the deck prior to launching. In most case, this
space should be long enough to accommodate between one and two spans, if the
bridge is to be launched from one side.

Feasible deck type

9.3.4 It can be in slabs, ribbed slabs, single or multiple box girders.

9.3.5 However, box girders have been found to be the most suitable sections for resisting the
reversible effects encountered during construction.

Span Arrangement

9.3.6 For bridge launched from one end, this method requires the deck are to be constructed
in successive segments of equal length, at a fixed construction facility located behind an
abutment on the line of the bridge. As soon as the concrete in a new segment has
attained sufficient strength, partial uniform prestress is applied and the entire structure
is launched forward in order to empty the working space for the next casting.

9.3.7 For practical and economic reasons, it is desirable for the spans to be as similar as
possible and it should not be greater than approximately 60m practically.

9.3.8 Unequal span length is possible by making use of temporary supports. However, it may
create technical problem and also cost implication. For example, if they need to have a
significant height, and special design must be given to the issue from the potential
horizontal deflection.

Prestressing Design

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Lecture 01 – Construction Engineering 14 September 2012

9.3.9 Two stages of prestressing are considered: (1) the first stage tendons have a straight
profile and are located in the top and bottom slabs. They apply a uniform prestress
force and are therefore called the launching tendons. (2) the second stage tendons
have a variable profile and are located within the webs (or it can be external tendons).
The second stage tendons are used to resist the service load and therefore called the
continuity tendons.

9.3.10 The use of external continuity prestressing can improve the tendon profile to a more
effective design and it can also reduce the self weight of the superstructure.

Advantages

9.3.11 The setting up of a concreting facility at a fixed location behind the alignment allows the
structure to be built in a factory like conditions. This can improve the construction rate
and quality of the structure.

9.3.12 Better geometry control.

9.3.13 A minimal amount of additional land required to accommodate the concrete facility.

16 FALL 2012