A Comparison of Rapid Visco Analyzer Starch

Pasting Curves and Test Baking for Under-

and Overdosed Dry Baked Mixes
Natsuki Fujiwara, 1 Clifford Hall III, 2 and Rachel Carlson 3

cosity. As the temperature decreases, in-

ABSTRACT termolecular distances shorten, causing
The rapid visco analyzer (RVA) is an analytical tool that measures the viscosity of food matri- the mixture to form a gel and viscosity to
ces, primarily starch-based products. In this study, RVA profiles for cake and cookie dry mixes increase once again, referred to as “set-
that had been deliberately over- and underdosed with functional ingredients were evaluated. The back.” During a typical pasting test pro-
pasting performance curves for the mixes demonstrated distinct characteristics for each sample gram, the sample viscosity plateaus at a
type. Nonfat dry milk, cocoa, and vanilla treatments had minimal influence on pasting proper- “final viscosity” at the conclusion of the
ties, whereas egg, baking soda, and sugar treatments significantly impacted pasting properties. test (2).
The peak viscosity of the cake mix overdosed with egg was significantly greater than that of the High protein levels tend to increase ini-
mix underdosed with egg. The cake mix underdosed with sugar had a higher peak viscosity than
tial viscosity, while a combination of starch
the mix overdosed with sugar. The same trends were observed for the cookie mixes. A second
experiment was conducted using only flour and a series of single ingredients. Sugar had the most
pasting, protein denaturation, and starch–
significant impact on pasting, and peak viscosity was significantly lower than that of flour alone. lipid–protein interactions contributes to
RVA results for under- and overdosed mixes were significantly different from the control mixes. the viscosity increase observed during
In contrast, test baking showed significantly different results only for the egg treatments compared heating (18,19). A high protein content
with the control mixes. results in greater cake volume and more
uniform cell structure because high vis-
cosity provides favorable conditions for
Premade bake mixes have become a the baking process causes starch gelati- carbon dioxide gas production and reten-
significant part of the bakery and food nization and pasting, allowing complex tion (18). The degree of starch gelatiniza-
service industries as these industries have physical and chemical interactions to oc- tion and pasting is affected by competi-
become more convenience oriented. Pre- cur in the system (10). One key to provid- tion for water among the ingredients and
made mixes can provide consistency in ing a consistent, high-quality product is changes in the osmolarity of the surround-
both manufacturing and product quality. understanding how starch performance is ing solution. Derby et al. (6) reported that
However, these complex systems make it affected by other ingredients present in a the availability of water had a significant
difficult to distinguish problems caused system. effect on the retention of starch granule
by ingredient quality or omission or over- Test baking in a laboratory is the most structure during cooking. Minimal changes
dosing of functional ingredients during common method used to assess bake mix in starch structure and gelatinization oc-
blending. Cake and cookie mixes are even quality. It is a time-consuming process, cur upon baking in systems where water
more complex due to the diverse ingredi- however, and there is the potential for hu- is limited (e.g., cookies). Conversely, cake
ents used in individual proprietary blends. man error in preparation and measure- batter systems undergo extensive gelatini-
A cake can be formulated with only flour, ment. The rapid visco analyzer (RVA) of- zation due to relatively high amounts of
sugar, egg, leavening agents, and fat. Dry fers greater speed and sensitivity and, over available water (6).
premixes require several more ingredi- the years, has been utilized in various re- Both sugar concentration and type in-
ents, such as emulsifiers, shelf-life extend- search and quality control laboratories to fluence pasting behavior (5,6,14,15). The
ers, and modified starches, to provide study food ingredient performance in delay in starch gelatinization observed in
freshness and convenience for end users complex systems. The sensitivity of RVA cookies is due to lowered water activity,
(10). The quality of the final cake or cookie pasting curves can be used to detect ir- increased solvent volume, an antiplasti-
depends on both the formulation and the regularities in premade mixes caused by cizing effect, and stabilization of granule
complex interactions between protein, lip- subtle changes in the makeup of ingredi- structure due to starch–sugar interaction
id, and starch. For example, heat during ent blends. (15). Bean and Yamazaki (4) suggested
The RVA measures starch performance that the increased energy required for
by reproducibly heating and cooling a swelling in the presence of high sugar
1 Food scientist, Northern Crops Institute, NDSU Dept. 7400, starch mixture under reproducible shear concentrations accounted for extended
PO Box 6050, Fargo, ND 58108-6050. E-mail: Natsuki.Fujiwara@ stress. Starch absorbs water and swells granule swelling and increased viscosity.
ndsu.edu; Tel: +1.701.231.6412.
upon heating and shear stress, resulting Eggs provide foaming, emulsifying,
in a significant increase in viscosity above
2 Professor, North Dakota State University, NDSU Dept. 7670,

PO Box 6050, Fargo, ND 58108-6050. E-mail: Clifford.Hall@

ndsu.edu; Tel: +1.701.231.6359.
3 Food technologist, Northern Crops Institute, NDSU Dept. 7400,
PO Box 6050, Fargo, ND 58108-6050. E-mail: Rachel.L.Carlson@
ndsu.edu; Tel: +1.701.231.8215.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/CFW-61-1-0029
©2016 AACC International, Inc.
the pasting temperature and eventually
reaching a peak viscosity (2). With con-
tinued heating, starch granules rupture
and allow amylose and amylopectin to
leak into the surrounding solution. This
causes a reduction, or breakdown, in vis-
and structure-forming attributes in cake
systems (3). At the early heating stage, the
rapid increase in viscosity, compared with
pure starch, likely results from protein
denaturation, and the denatured protein
provides volume and texture to the cake
(11). Eggs also contribute to cookie struc-

CEREAL FOODS WORLD / 29


ture, but the effect is less extensive be-
cause fat and sugar provide the bulk of
the structure (16). Fat and sugar sus-
pended in flour and starch–protein in-
teraction both influence the structure of
cookies (15).
Numerous studies have reported the
effects of ingredient variations on the
quality of cakes and cookies (7,9,10,14,
18). The majority of studies use lengthy
test baking methods, and thus, the need
exists for more rapid testing procedures.
The current study assessed whether the
RVA could be used as a tool to monitor
the impact of formulation change on
end-product quality and potentially re-
duce the need for lengthy test baking pro-
tocols.
In this study, cakes and cookies (i.e.,
batters and doughs, respectively) were
used as model systems to investigate the
effects of ingredients on RVA pasting
curves and baked product quality. The
objectives of the study were to assess the
effectiveness of RVA to differentiate the
effects of specific ingredients on pasting
curves in cake and cookie premixes and
to determine whether the RVA could be
used to predict baking quality and detect
formulation errors.
30 / JANUARY–FEBRUARY 2016, VOL. 61, NO. 1
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Experiment I: Variation of Ingredient
Levels in Complete Mixes
Ingredients. Commercial cake and
pastry flours were purchased from The
Mennel Milling Company. Mono- and
diglycerides (BFP 65K)were provided by
Corbion. Dry egg white, dry egg yolk, and
dried whole egg powder were purchased
from Michael Foods Inc. Vanilla flavor
was provided by Gold Coast Ingredients.
Shortening and nonfat dry milk (NFDM)
were purchased from a local food service
establishment. Granulated sugar, sodium
bicarbonate, soybean oil, and salt were
purchased from a local grocery store. For
cakes, red cocoa and sodium aluminum
phosphate were provided by Dakota Blend-
ers LLC. For cookies, modified food starch
(Instant Pure-Flo F) was provided by In-
gredion, and emulsifier (Myvatex Texture
Lite K) was provided by the Kerry Group.
Formulations and Treatments. Formu-
lations provided by Dakota Blenders were
modified and used to make chocolate cake
and cookie dry mixes. Each product sam-
ple set contained a control formulation,
a double-dosing formulation (15% over-
dosing of major ingredients) labeled as
Fig. 1. Cake diameter and volume measure-
ment diagram.
“high,” and an ingredient omission formu-
lation (15% underdosing of major ingredi-
ents) labeled as “low.” This resulted in a
total of 15 treatments for each product.
Treatments included variations in baking
soda, salt, powdered egg (egg yolk and
white for cakes and whole egg for cookies),
NFDM, sugar, and flour for both cookies
and cakes, in addition to variations in co-
coa and vanilla for cakes and cookies, re-
spectively. As an example, the baking soda
treatments are shown in Table I. Similar
formulation modifications were made
with the other ingredients using the cri-
teria described above. Each sample was
tested in duplicate, in addition to testing
two replicates of each treatment.
Dry Mix Preparation and Baking Pro-
cedure. Dry mixes were prepared using a
mixer (Professional, KitchenAid); the mix-
er was used in the preparation of cake bat-
ter and cookie dough as well. Cake mixes
were prepared by blending shortening,
sugar, and oil in the mixer for 1.5 min at
mixer speed setting 2 before the remain-
ing ingredients were added and mixed
for an additional 4.5 min at speed 2. Cake
batter was prepared by mixing 100 g of
water and 500 g of cake mix in the mixer
with a whisk attachment. After 1 min of
mixing at speed 2, an additional 60 g of
water was added, and the batter was mixed
further for 3 min at speed 6. Another 60 g
of water was then added, and the sample
was mixed for an additional 3 min. Cake
batter (300 g) was weighed into a lined
cake pan with a 15.3 cm diameter, baked
at 185°C in a convection oven (OV 300E,
Baxter) for 25 min, and cooled on a bak-
ing rack. Cakes were baked in duplicate,
and two replicates of each treatment were
tested. Samples were stored in sealed plas-
tic bags at room temperature and analyzed
the next day.
Cookie mixes were prepared by blend-
ing all ingredients, except shortening, for
1.5 min at speed 2. Shortening was then
added, and additional mixing was per-
formed at speed 2 for 5 min. Cookie
dough was prepared by mixing 70 g of Fig. 2. RVA pasting curves for control (full formulation) cake and cookie mixes.
water and 500 g of cookie mix in the mix-
er with a flat metal beater attachment for were baked at 182°C in a convection oven Proximate Analysis. Both pastry and
3 min at speed 1. The dough was divided for 7 min and cooled on a baking rack. cake flours were analyzed for moisture,
into six balls, and each ball was rolled to a Cookies were stored in sealed plastic ash, and protein (LECO Corp.) and for
thickness of 0.75 cm and then cut with a bags at room temperature, and quality solvent retention capacity (SRC) using
60 mm round cookie mold. The cookies analysis was conducted the next day. AACC International Approved Methods

CEREAL FOODS WORLD / 31

 44-15.02, 08-01.01, 46-30.01, and 56-11.02,
respectively (1). Testing was conducted on
two replicates of each sample.
Measurement of Dry Mix Pasting
Properties. The pasting properties of
cake and cookie mixes were measured
using an RVA (TecMaster, Perten Instru-
ments of Australia) and test profile devel-
oped by Perten Instruments for use with
cake mixes. Relative to the standard past-
ing profile for flour, this profile provided
a slower rate of heating during the last
stage of temperature increase. The slower
heating ramp is intended to draw out small
differences in the pasting performance of
similar but different cake mixes.
The RVA time, temperature, and speed
profile used is shown in Table II. A con-
sistent dry mix to water ratio of 8 g to 25 g
was used without taking moisture content
into consideration. Batches of dry mix with
individual alterations were prepared in du-
plicate, and two replicates of each sample
were analyzed.
Baked Product Testing. Cake proper-
ties were analyzed by randomly selecting
one cake from each treatment and cutting
it in half to measure its diameter and height.
Diameter measurements were taken at
locations A1 to G1, A2 to G2, and A3 to
G3 (Fig. 1). Cake height measurements
were taken at point B (1 cm from left edge
of cake), point C (4 cm from left edge of
cake), point D (center of cake), point E
(4 cm from right edge of cake), and point F
(1 cm from right edge of cake). The mea-
sured values were used to obtain total cake
volume and shrinkage value.
Percent weight loss due to moisture loss
was calculated by weighing the products
before and after baking. Specific gravity
was obtained by dividing the weight of
100 mL of batter by the weight of 100 mL
of water. Specific volume was calculated as
the inverse of specific gravity (1/specific
gravity). Cake volume was measured using
a profiler (VolScan VSP600, Stable Micro
Systems), and cake texture was measured
using a texture analyzer (TA-XTplus,
Stable Micro Systems). To measure tex-
ture, the center 25.4 mm of the cake was
removed and subjected to a compression
test with a 40% strain, using a 25.4 mm
diameter cylindrical probe at a test speed
of 1.7 mm/sec. This was repeated at three
different locations on each slice of cake.
For cookies, the average diameter and
height of six cookies were calculated,
and moisture loss was calculated based
on weight loss as described above.
Experimental Design. A randomized
Fig. 3. RVA pasting curves for cake mixes at high (A), control (B), and low (C) ingredient levels. complete block design, in which each rep-

32 / JANUARY–FEBRUARY 2016, VOL. 61, NO. 1

lication was randomized in a block and
conducted on two separate days, was used
as the experimental design. All 15 treat-
ments were completed in one day. Each
batch of cake and cookies produced two
cakes and six cookies, respectively, and the
mean of each quality parameter was deter-
mined. The data collected were subjected
to analysis of variance (ANOVA), and
significant difference of the mean values
were determined using F-protected least
significant difference (LSD). A P value of
0.05 (P < 0.05) was used to establish sig-
nificance.

Experiment II: Measuring Performance

Effects of Single Ingredients on Flour
To better understand the functionality
of each ingredient, a mixture containing
only flour and a key ingredient was tested
in the RVA, as per the conditions used in
Experiment I. Formulations were prepared
based on the ratio of each control cake and
cookie formula (Tables III and IV, respec-
tively). No baking evaluations were per-
formed in experiment II because only the
flour and specific ingredients of interest
were used in the RVA protocol.

RESULTS

Experiment I: Variation of Ingredient

Levels in Complete Mixes
Flour Analysis. Proximate analysis in-
dicated the composition of the cake and
pastry flours was comparable (Table V).
SRC is a useful method for predicting
baking performance of soft wheat flour
(12,14), providing information on glute-
nin characteristics (lactic acid SRC value),
levels of damaged starch (sodium carbon-
ate SRC value), pentosan characteristics
(sucrose SRC value), and the combination
of these (water SRC value) (8).
Overall, cake flour had higher SRC val-
ues compared with those for pastry flour,
except in the case of lactic acid. The high-
er lactic acid SRC value for pastry flour
is supported by its slightly higher protein
content and, thus, possibly higher level of
glutenin.
RVA. The RVA pasting curves for the
control cake mix showed unusual triple
peaks, whereas the pasting curves for the
control cookie mix exhibited two peaks
(Fig. 2). Similar pasting patterns were ob-
served for the high and low ingredient
treatments (Figs. 3 and 4). Multiple inter-
actions between various ingredients (egg,
fat, lipid, and emulsifier) may have con-
tributed to the delay in starch pasting. The
addition of cocoa or vanilla and NFDM Fig. 4. RVA pasting curves for cookie mixes at high (A), control (B), and low (C) ingredient levels.

CEREAL FOODS WORLD / 33

did not significantly (P < 0.05) affect RVA
parameters in either cakes or cookies at
either high or low levels (Tables VI and
VII). When compared with the control mix,
a significant (P < 0.05) increase in peak
viscosity was found for high egg and high
flour treatments and low baking soda and
low sugar treatments, whereas viscosity re-
ductions were observed for low salt, low
egg, and low flour treatments compared
with the control cake mix. The same trend
was observed for final viscosity, except in
the case of low salt, which had a higher final
viscosity than the control mix. It is notable
that peak 1 for the high baking soda treat-
ment was higher than peak 1 for the con-
trol cake mix, but that viscosity then de-
34 / JANUARY–FEBRUARY 2016, VOL. 61, NO. 1
creased and remained lower than viscosity
for the control mix after peak 1 (Fig. 3).
In cookie mixes, high salt, high egg,
high flour, low baking soda, and low sug-
ar treatments increased peak viscosity
significantly (P < 0.05), whereas high
baking soda, high sugar, low salt, low egg,
and low flour treatments decreased peak
viscosity significantly (P < 0.05) (Table
VII). Final viscosity followed the same
trend. When comparing high and low
treatments, higher viscosities generally
were observed for low baking soda and
low sugar treatments, whereas high flour,
high egg, and high salt treatments con-
tributed to higher viscosities in both cake
and cookies (Figs. 3 and 4).
Baked Product Testing. The effects of
elevated ingredient levels were less likely
to be detected using test baking relative to
RVA analysis for both cakes and cookies.
The specific gravity of cake batter with a
high level of egg was significantly (P < 0.05)
higher than the control. Specific gravity for
samples with low baking soda, low sugar,
low egg, and high NFDM levels was sig-
nificantly (P < 0.05) lower than the con-
trol (Table VIII). Cakes with high egg,
low salt, and low sugar levels were signif-
icantly (P < 0.05) larger in volume than
the control, whereas cakes with high and
low baking soda, low egg, and low flour
levels were significantly (P < 0.05) smaller
in volume than the control. Texture was
only significantly (P < 0.05) different for egg, baking soda, fat, and sugar when com- were the second lowest of all the treatments.
high and low egg and low baking soda bined with flour were most noticeable when No peak or increase in viscosity was ob-
treatments; both of which were firmer compared with other ingredients, such as served in formulations with sugar. Even
than the control cake mix. Bake loss was salt, cocoa, vanilla, and NFDM. The curve though the amount of sugar was high rel-
significantly (P < 0.05) higher for low egg for salt was essentially the same as that for ative to the amount of flour (Table III), this
and lower for low salt treatments than the the control. Cocoa and NFDM lowered supports the finding from experiment I,
control cake mix. No significant difference peak viscosity compared with the control. which showed that a high level of sugar
was found for shrinkage value. The addition of egg resulted in an earlier reduces the pasting curve.
The percent diameter increase in the peak viscosity compared with 100% flour
cookies indicated the tendency of a dough in both cake and cookie mixtures. Baking DISCUSSION
to spread, and all treatments showed an soda reduced the peak for the cake mix-
increase in diameter after baking. Cookies ture and increased the peak for the cookie Experiment I: Variation of Ingredient
made with high egg, high flour, low bak- mixture; however, final viscosity for both Levels in Complete Mixes
ing soda, and low sugar levels were sig- mixes was higher than the control. Peak Starch gelatinization during baking is a
nificantly (P < 0.05) smaller in diameter and final viscosities for the fat treatment key process that impacts final cake quality.
compared with the control (Table IX).
Cookies made with high sugar, high vanilla,
high baking soda, low flour, and low egg
levels were significantly (P < 0.05) larger in
diameter than the control. Cookie height
was not statistically affected by formula-
tion, except for low egg (P < 0.05). Cookies
with low baking soda, low egg, and low
flour levels differed significantly (P < 0.05)
from the control with regard to baking
weight loss. Low baking soda treatment
resulted in the lowest moisture loss, where-
as low egg and low flour treatments result-
ed in higher moisture loss than the control.

Experiment II: Measuring Performance

Effects of Single Ingredients on Flour
The pasting curves for cake and cookie
flours blended with a variety of individual
ingredients showed behaviors similar to
those observed in experiment I (Figs. 5
and 6). However, the effects of individual
ingredients on pasting properties were more
pronounced. The effects on RVA curves of

CEREAL FOODS WORLD / 35

The baking process is highly dependent
on starch gelatinization temperature, along
with other factors (17). In this study, the
effects of a variety of ingredients, espe-
cially protein, sugar, fat, and baking soda,
were evaluated, and differences in RVA
pasting curves were clearly observed. In a
cake system, gluten is more likely to func-
tion as a binder than as a source of struc-
ture (17). In general, the viscosity of a bat-
ter increases with gluten content. Higher
peak and overall viscosities are correlated
with a higher cake volume due to the abil-
ity of gluten to retain expanded air nuclei
until the setting temperature is reached
Fig. 5. RVA pasting curves for a mixture of flour and different ingredients used for cake blends:
1) sodium bicarbonate and flour; 2) 100% cake flour; 3) salt and flour; 4) cocoa and flour; 5) non-
fat dry milk and flour; 6) egg and flour; 7) oil and flour; 8) sugar and flour.
Fig. 6. RVA pasting curves for a mixture of flour and different ingredients used for cookie blends:
1) sodium bicarbonate and flour; 2) salt and flour; 3) 100% pastry flour; 4) vanilla and flour; 5) non-
fat dry milk and flour; 6) egg and flour; 7) oil and flour; 8) sugar and flour.
36 / JANUARY–FEBRUARY 2016, VOL. 61, NO. 1
(18). The baking results in this study sup-
port this theory, except for the results of
the low baking soda treatment. Low bak-
ing soda levels produced a lower cake
volume, probably due to an insufficient
leavening effect. High baking soda levels
produced a characteristic deviation in
performance relative to the control: a
rapid increase in viscosity at the begin-
ning of the RVA test, particularly for the
cake mixes, followed by a decrease in vis-
cosity at the end of the RVA test for both
the cake and cookie mixes.
The presence of elevated levels of sugar
has been shown to delay starch pasting and
decrease protein denaturation because it
competes with protein and starch for wa-
ter, resulting in decreased viscosity (5,6,
14,15). The results of this study showed
that the high sugar treatment reduced vis-
cosity, whereas the low sugar treatment
increased viscosity in both the cake and
cookie mixes, which agrees with the lit-
erature (5,10).
The amount of egg added in the formu-
lation had the most significant influence on
baking properties in both cakes (dry egg
white and egg yolk) and cookies (powdered
whole egg). RVA pasting curves revealed
more information on the differences pro-
duced by ingredients present in the sys-
tem. Even though cake volume and cookie
spread were affected slightly by several in-
gredients, the most significant differences
in bake tests were observed in products
with variations in the amount of egg add-
ed. The RVA was able to detect statistically
significant deviations from the control for
variations in multiple ingredients, while
test baking showed significant deviations
only for samples with varied levels of egg.
Similar to the pasting curve for cake,
double peaks in the cookie pasting curve
may show the peaks of protein denatur-
ation and starch gelatinization as indi-
cated by temperature. The assumption
can be made that for cakes the first peak
represents starch pasting, the second peak
represents starch–lipid complex forma-
tion, and the third peak represents starch,
protein, and lipid interaction (19). Like-
wise, for cookies the first peak represents
starch pasting and the second peak (third
peak for cakes) represents the comprehen-
sive interaction between starch, protein,
and lipid. Lack of a third peak for cookies
(second peak for cakes) is possibly due to
the lack of specific ingredients in the cake
mix, such as mono- and diglycerides. Wa-
ter availability and fat levels influenced the
spread and final texture of cookies, espe-
cially those made with a lower amount of
leavening agent. In cookies, expansion and
spread are influenced by the availability
of liquid, gluten development, and starch
properties. A higher solids content in the
dough limits the effects of water and fat.
Limited gluten development during mix-
ing results in less spread and smaller di-
ameter. This also was seen in the cookies
with high flour and egg levels (7). Con-
sequently, diameter and height are inter-
related because less spread usually results
in greater height.
Pentosan content is highly correlated to
cookie diameter and cake volume because
its hydrophilic structure enables increased
water absorption, which consequently af-
fects the viscosity of dough (12). An in-
crease in cookie height is caused by a com-
bination of gluten development, increased
starch gelatinization, or lower sugar con-
centration (13). High gluten development
leads to lower moisture loss because more
water is bound in the flour and because of
other solids present in the formulation (6).
Kweon et al. (13) described the effect of re-
tardation of both gluten development and
starch gelatinization/pasting on the spread
of finished cookies. In the current study,
lack of leavening agent also affected expan-
sion of dough during baking, resulting in
a smaller diameter.
Experiment II: Measuring Performance
Effects of Single Ingredients on Flour
The results for experiment II support
the findings from experiment I, especially
the effects of functional ingredients, includ-
ing egg, sugar, and fat. Egg proteins tend
to be denatured at lower temperatures
than the temperatures at which starch
gelatinizes (10). The earlier RVA peaks in
cake and cookies with higher egg levels
(curve 6 in Figures 5 and 6) were due to
the lower denaturation temperature of the
protein (12). The presence of sugar de-
layed starch gelatinization and decreased
protein denaturation because it competed
for water with protein and starch (curve 8
in Figures 5 and 6) (10). The results indi-
cate that the amount of sugar used in the
experiment was too high and that it had
detrimental effects on the functionality
of other ingredients, including starch and
protein. This supports the results from ex-
isting studies in terms of viscosity reduc-
tion. Fat functioned as a lubricant by coat-
ing starch and protein and, thus, disrupting
the continuous matrix (curve 7 in Figures
5 and 6) (10). In addition, the presence of
fat in a starch system promotes the forma-
tion of amylose–lipid complexes, resulting
in reduced peak viscosity (9,17). Final vis-
cosity and setback were relatively higher
with higher fat content, possibly due to
the interaction of lipid with starch upon
cooling (9).
CONCLUSIONS
Functional ingredients, including flour,
egg, baking soda, and sugar, significantly
affected RVA pasting curves and test bak-
ing parameters, while NFDM, cocoa, and
vanilla did not produce significant effects.
Except for eggs, test baking did not allow
for differentiation between control cakes
and cookies and those made with modified
formulations. In contrast, the RVA clearly
differentiated cake and cookie mixes with
high and low levels of key ingredients, gen-
erating repeatable results in a timely man-
ner. The results of this study demonstrate
that the RVA can be a more effective, sen-
sitive, and rapid method than test baking
for evaluating bake mix quality and per-
formance.
Acknowledgments
We thank our suppliers for providing us with
ingredients for and expertise on formulating
dry mixes, especially Dakota Blenders LLC.
We also thank Northern Crops Institute stu-
dent interns, especially Lauren Kolker, for pro-
viding support on data collection.
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