Learning Outcome:

24.1 Planck’s quantum theory (½ hour)

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At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

Distinguish between Planck’
Planck’s quantum theory and
CHAPTER 24: classical theory of energy.
Quantization of light
Use Einstein’
Einstein’s formulae for photon energy,

(3 Hours) hc
E = hf =
λ

1 2

The spectrum of EM radiation emitted by the black body

24.1 Planck’s quantum theory (experimental result) is shown in Figure 24.1.
24.1.1 Classical theory of black body radiation Experimental

Black body is defined as an ideal system that absorbs all the result
radiation incident on it.
it The electromagnetic (EM) radiation
emitted by the black body is called black body radiation.
radiation Rayleigh -Jeans

From the black body experiment, the distribution of energy in theory Classical
physics
black body, E depends only on the temperature, T. Wien’s theory
E = k BT (24.1)

where k B : Boltzmann's constant

T : temperature in kelvin

If the temperature increases thus the energy of the black body
increases and vice versa. Figure 24.1

From the curve, Wien’s theory was accurate at short
wavelengths but deviated at longer wavelengths whereas the
3
reverse was true for the Rayleigh-Jeans theory. 4

The Rayleigh-Jeans and Wien’s theories failed to fit the
According to this assumptions, the quantum of the energy E
experimental curve because this two theories based on classical for radiation of frequency f is given by
ideas which are
 Energy of the EM radiation is not depend on its frequency E = hf (24.2)
or wavelength.
wavelength −34
 Energy of the EM radiation is continuously.
continuously where h : Planck's constant = 6.63 ×10 Js

Since the speed of EM radiation in a vacuum is
24.1.2 Planck’s quantum theory c = λf

In 1900, Max Planck proposed his theory that is fit with the
experimental curve in Figure 24.1 at all wavelengths known as then eq. (24.2) can be written as
Planck’s quantum theory.
The assumptions made by Planck in his theory are : hc


E= (24.3)
 The EM radiation emitted by the black body is in discrete λ
(separate) packets of energy.
energy Each packet is called a
quantum of energy.
energy This means the energy of EM radiation
From eq. (24.3), the quantum of the energy E for radiation is
is quantised.
quantised inversely proportional to its wavelength.
wavelength
 The energy size of the radiation depends on its frequency.
frequency
5 6

It is convenient to express many quantum energies in electron- 24.1.3 Photon

volts.

Photon is defined as a particle with zero mass consisting of a

The electron-
electron-volt (eV
(eV)) is a unit of energy that can be defined quantum of electromagnetic radiation where its energy is
as the kinetic energy gained by an electron in being
concentrated.
concentrated
accelerated by a potential difference (voltage) of 1 volt.
volt

A photon may also be regarded as a unit of energy equal to
Unit conversion:
hf.
1 eV = 1.60 × 10 − 19 J

Photons travel at the speed of light in a vacuum. They are

In 1905, Albert Einstein extended Planck’s idea by proposing
required to explain the photoelectric effect and other
that electromagnetic radiation is also quantised. It consists of
phenomena that require light to have particle property.
property
particle like packets (bundles) of energy called photons of
electromagnetic radiation.
Table 24.1 shows the differences between the photon and
electromagnetic wave.
Note:
For EM radiation of n packets, the energy En is given by

E n = nhf (24.4)

where n : real number = 1,2,3,...

7 8
 EM Wave Photon Example 24.1 :
A photon of the green light has a wavelength of 740 nm. Calculate

Energy of the EM wave
Energy of a photon is a. the photon’s frequency,
depends on the intensity proportional to the
of the wave. Intensity of frequency of the EM b. the photon’s energy in joule and electron-volt.
the wave I is proportional wave where (Given the speed of light in the vacuum, c =3.00×108 m s−1 and
to the squared of its E∝ f Planck’s constant, h =6.63×10−34 J s)
amplitude A2 where
Solution :
I ∝ A2
f = 4.05 × 1014 Hz

Its energy is continuously
Its energy is discrete as
and spread out through shown in Figure 24.2b. E = 2.69 × 10 −19 J
the medium as shown in E = 1.66 eV
Figure 24.2a.

Photon
Figure 24.2a Figure 24.2b
Table 24.1 9 10

Example 24.2 : Learning Outcome:

For a gamma radiation of wavelength 4.62×10−12 m propagates in
the air, calculate the energy of a photon for gamma radiation in
electron-volt. 24.2 The photoelectric effect (2½ hours)

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(Given the speed of light in the vacuum, c =3.00×108 m s−1 and At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
Planck’s constant, h =6.63×10−34 J s)
Explain the phenomenon of photoelectric effect.
Solution :
Define and determine threshold frequency, work function
and stopping potential.
E = 2.69 × 105 eV
Describe and sketch diagram of the photoelectric effect
experimental set-
set-up.

Explain by using graph and equations the observations
of photoelectric effect experiment in terms of the
dependence of :
 kinetic energy of photoelectron on the frequency of
light;
1 2
mvmax = eVs = hf − hf 0
2
11 12
 Learning Outcome:
24.2 The photoelectric effect

is defined as the emission of electron from the surface
24.2 The photoelectric effect (2½ hours) of a metal when the EM radiation (light) of higher frequency
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At the end of this chapter, students should be able to: strikes its surface.
surface
 photoelectric current on intensity of incident light;
Figure 24.3 shows the emission of the electron from the surface
 work function and threshold frequency on the types of the metal after shining by the light.
of metal surface.

W 0 = hf 0 EM - photoelectron
radiation

Explain the failure of classical theory to justify the
photoelectric effect. - - - - - - - - - -

Use Einstein’
Einstein’s photoelectric equation, Metal
Free electrons
K max = eVs = hf − W 0 Figure 24.3

Photoelectron is defined as an electron emitted from the
surface of the metal when the EM radiation (light) strikes its
13 14
surface.
surface

The set-up apparatus as follows:

24.2.1 Photoelectric experiment
 Two conducting electrodes, the anode (positive electric

The photoelectric effect can be studied through the experiment
potential) and the cathode (negative electric potential) are
made by Franck Hertz in 1887.
encased in an evacuated tube (vacuum).

Figure 24.4a shows a schematic diagram of an experimental
 The monochromatic light of known frequency and intensity is
arrangement for studying the photoelectric effect.
incident on the cathode.
EM radiation (light)
cathode Explanation of the experiment
anode
When a monochromatic light of suitable frequency (or

- - wavelength) shines on the cathode, photoelectrons are emitted.

- glass
These photoelectrons are attracted to the anode and give rise to
vacuum G the photoelectric current or photocurrent I which is measured by
photoelectron
the galvanometer.
V

When the positive voltage (potential difference) across the
power supply cathode and anode is increased, more photoelectrons reach the
rheostat
anode , thus the photoelectric current increases.

Figure 24.4a
15 16

As positive voltage becomes sufficiently large, the photoelectric EM radiation (light)
current reaches a maximum constant value Im, called cathode
anode
saturation current.
current
- -
 Saturation current is defined as the maximum constant - glass
value of photocurrent when all the photoelectrons have vacuum G
reached the anode.
anode photoelectron

If the positive voltage is gradually decreased, the photoelectric V
current I also decreases slowly. Even at zero voltage there are
still some photoelectrons with sufficient energy reach the anode power supply
rheostat
and the photoelectric current flows is I0.

Finally, when the voltage is made negative by reversing the Figure 24.4b: reversing power supply terminal
power supply terminal as shown in Figure 24.4b, the
As the potential of the anode becomes more negative, less
photoelectric current decreases even further to very low values photoelectrons reach the anode thus the photoelectric current
since most photoelectrons are repelled by anode which is drops until its value equals zero which the electric potential at
now negative electric potential.
this moment is called stopping potential (voltage) Vs.
 Stopping potential is defined as the minimum value of
negative voltage when there are no photoelectrons
17 reaching the anode.
anode 18

The potential energy U due to this retarding voltage Vs now

24.2.2 Einstein’s theory of photoelectric effect
equals the maximum kinetic energy Kmax of the photoelectron.
U = K max
A photon is a ‘packet’
packet’ of electromagnetic radiation with
particle-
particle-like characteristic and carries the energy E given by
1 2 E = hf
eV s = mv max (24.5)
2 and this energy is not spread out through the medium.
medium
where m : mass of the electron
Work function W0 of a metal

The variation of photoelectric current I as a function of the

Is defined as the minimum energy of EM radiation required
voltage V can be shown through the graph in Figure 24.4c.
Photoelectric current, I to emit an electron from the surface of the metal.
metal
Im
It depends on the metal used.
used

Its formulae is W = E
I0 0 min and E min = hf 0

W 0 = hf 0 (24.6)

where f0 is called threshold frequency and is defined as the

0 Voltage,V minimum frequency of EM radiation required to emit an
− Vs
electron from the surface of the metal.
metal
Figure 24.4c After Before reversing the terminal 19 20

Since c=λf then the eq. (24.6) can be written as Einstein’
Einstein’s photoelectric equation

In the photoelectric effect, Einstein summarizes that some of the
hc
W0 = (24.7) energy E imparted by a photon is actually used to release an
λ0 electron from the surface of a metal (i.e. to overcome the
binding force) and that the rest appears as the maximum
where λ0 is called threshold wavelength and is defined as the kinetic energy of the emitted electron (photoelectron
photoelectron). It is
maximum wavelength of EM radiation required to emit an given by
electron from the surface of the metal.
metal 1
E = K max + W 0 where E = hf and K max = mv max 2

Table 24.2 shows the work functions of several elements. 2
1 2
Element Work function (eV
(eV)) hf = mv max + W 0 (24.8)
Aluminum 4.3
2
Sodium 2.3 where eq. (24.8) is known as Einstein’s photoelectric equation.
Copper 4.7
Since Kmax=eVs then the eq. (24.8) can be written as
Gold 5.1
hf = eV s + W 0 (24.9)
Silver 4.3
where Vs : stoppingvoltage
Table 24.2 21 e : magnitude for charge of electron 22

Note:
Example 24.3 :

1st case: hf > W 0 OR f > f 0 Cadmium has a work function of 4.22 eV. Calculate
v max K max a. its threshold frequency,
hf - b. the maximum speed of the photoelectrons when the cadmium is
shined by UV radiation of wavelength 275 nm,
W0 Electron is emitted with maximum
Figure 24.5a Metal - kinetic energy.
energy c. the stopping potential.
(Given c =3.00×108 m s−1, h =6.63×10−34 J s, me=9.11×10−31 kg and

2nd case: hf = W 0 OR f = f 0
e=1.60×10−19 C)
hf Solution :
- v=0 K max = 0
Electron is emitted but maximum f 0 = 1.02 × 1015 Hz
W0 vmax = 3.26 × 105 m s −1
Figure 24.5b Metal - kinetic energy is zero.
zero

3rd case: hf < W 0 OR f < f 0 Vs = 0.303 V
hf
No electron is emitted.
W0
Figure 24.5c Metal -
23 24
 Example 24.4 :
A beam of white light containing frequencies between 4.00 ×1014 Hz
and 7.90 ×1014 Hz is incident on a sodium surface, which has a
work function of 2.28 eV.
a. Calculate the threshold frequency of the sodium surface.
b. What is the range of frequencies in this beam of light for which
electrons are ejected from the sodium surface?
c. Determine the highest maximum kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons that are ejected from this surface.
(Given c =3.00×108 m s−1, h =6.63×10−34 J s, me=9.11×10−31 kg and
e=1.60×10−19 C)
f 0 = 5.51 × 1014 Hz
K max = 1.59 × 10 −19 J

25 26

Exercise 24.1 :
Given c =3.00×108 m s−1, h =6.63×10−34 J s, me=9.11×10−31 kg and
e=1.60×10−19 C
1. The energy of a photon from an electromagnetic wave is
2.25 eV
a. Calculate its wavelength.
b. If this electromagnetic wave shines on a metal, electrons
are emitted with a maximum kinetic energy of 1.10 eV.
Calculate the work function of this metal in joules.
1.84×10−19 J
ANS. : 553 nm; 1.84×
2. In a photoelectric effect experiment it is observed that no
current flows when the wavelength of EM radiation is greater
than 570 nm. Calculate
a. the work function of this material in electron-volts.
b. the stopping voltage required if light of wavelength 400 nm
is used.
(Physics for scientists & engineers, 3rd edition, Giancoli,
Giancoli, Q15,
p.974)
27 ANS. : 2.18 eV;
eV; 0.92 V 28
 24.2.3 Graph of photoelectric experiment
3. In an experiment on the photoelectric effect, the following data
Variation of photoelectric current I with voltage V
were collected.

for the radiation of different intensities but its frequency is
Wavelength of EM Stopping potential, fixed.
fixed I
radiation, λ (nm) Vs (V)
2I m Intensity 2x
350 1.70
450 0.900
Im Intensity 1x
a. Calculate the maximum velocity of the photoelectrons
when the wavelength of the incident radiation is 350 nm.
b. Determine the value of the Planck constant from the above V
data. − Vs 0
7.73×105 m s−1; 6.72×
ANS. : 7.73× 6.72×10−34 J s Figure 24.6a
Reason:
From the experiment, the photoelectric current is directly
proportional to the intensity of the radiation as shown in
29 Figure 24.6b. 30

I Reason:
From the Einstein’s photoelectric equation,
2I m
Stopping voltage,Vs h W
Im hf = eVs + W0 Vs =   f − 0
e e
Light intensity Vs2 y = m x +c
0 1× 2×
Figure 24.6b
Vs1

for the radiation of different frequencies but its intensity is 0 frequency, f
fixed.
fixed I f 0 f1 f 2
W0 If Vs=0, hf = e(0) + W0
Im −
e W0 = hf f 0

f2 > f1 Figure 24.7b

f2
f1
V
− Vs2 − Vs1 0
Figure 24.7a 31 32

For the different metals of cathode but the intensity and Variation of stopping voltage Vs with frequency f of the radiation
frequency of the radiation are fixed.
fixed
for different metals of cathode but the intensity is fixed.
fixed
I Vs
Im W01 W02 W03

W02 > W01

W01 W03 >W02 > W01
Figure 24.8a W02
V Figure 24.9
− Vs1 − Vs2 0
Reason: From the Einstein’s photoelectric equation, 0 f
f 01 f 02 f 03
Vs  1  hf 
hf hf = eVs + W0 Vs =  − W0 +   Threshold (cut-
(cut-off)
 e  e  Reason: Since W0=hf0 then W0 ∝ f 0
e frequency
Vs1 h W
y = m x + c hf = eVs + W0 Vs =   f − 0 If Vs=0, hf = e(0) + W0
Vs2 e e W0 = hf f0
Energy of a photon
W0 in EM radiation y = m x +c
0 W01 W 02 hf = E 33 34
Figure 24.8b

24.2.4 Failure of wave theory of light Classical predictions Experimental Modern theory
observation

Table 24.3 shows the classical predictions (wave theory),
photoelectric experimental observation and modern theory The higher the Very low intensity but The intensity of light is the
explanation about photoelectric experiment. intensity, the greater high frequency number of photons
the energy imparted to radiation could emit radiated per unit time on a
Classical predictions Experimental Modern theory
the metal surface for photoelectrons. The unit surface area.
area
observation
emission of maximum kinetic Based on the Einstein’s
Emission of Emission of When the light frequency is
photoelectrons. When energy of photoelectric equation:
photoelectrons occur photoelectrons occur greater than threshold
for all frequencies of only when frequency frequency, a higher rate of the intensity is low, the photoelectrons is K max = hf − W0
light. Energy of light is of the light exceeds photons striking the metal energy of the radiation independent of light The maximum kinetic
independent of the certain frequency surface results in a higher is too small for intensity. energy of photoelectron
frequency. which value is rate of photoelectrons emission of electrons. depends only on the light
characteristic of the emitted. If it is less than frequency and the work
function.
function If the light
material being threshold frequency no
intensity is doubled, the
illuminated. photoelectrons are emitted.
number of electrons emitted
Hence the emission of also doubled but the
photoelectrons depend on maximum kinetic energy
the light frequency remains unchanged. 36
35
 Classical predictions Experimental Modern theory Classical predictions Experimental Modern theory
observation observation
Light energy is spread Photoelectrons are The transfer of photon’s Energy of light Energy of light According to Planck’s
over the wavefront, the emitted from the energy to an electron is depends only on depends on quantum theory which is
amount of energy surface of the metal instantaneous as its energy amplitude ( or frequency. E=hf
incident on any one almost is absorbed in its entirely, intensity)
intensity and not on
electron is small. An instantaneously much like a particle to frequency. Energy of light depends on
electron must gather after the surface is particle collision. The its frequency.
sufficient energy illuminated, even at emission of photoelectron Table 24.3
Note:
before emission, hence very low light is immediate and no time
there is time interval intensities. interval between
Experimental observations deviate from classical predictions based on
between absorption of absorption of light energy wave theory of light.
light Hence the classical physics cannot explain the
light energy and and emission. phenomenon of photoelectric effect.
emission. Time interval
The modern theory based on Einstein’
Einstein’s photon theory of light can
increases if the light explain the phenomenon of photoelectric effect.
intensity is low.
It is because Einstein postulated that light is quantized and light is
emitted, transmitted and reabsorbed as photons.
photons

37 38

Example 24.5 : Example 24.6 :

In a photoelectric experiments, a graph of the light frequency f is
a. Why does the existence of a threshold frequency in the
plotted against the maximum kinetic energy Kmax of the
photoelectric effect favor a particle theory for light over a wave
photoelectron as shown in Figure 24.10.
theory? f × 1014 Hz
b. In the photoelectric effect, explains why the stopping potential
depends on the frequency of light but not on the intensity.
Solution :
4.83

K max (eV)
0
Figure 24.10
Based on the graph, for the light of frequency 7.14×1014 Hz,
calculate
a. the threshold wavelength,
b. the maximum speed of the photoelectron.
(Given c =3.00×108 m s−1, h =6.63×10−34 J s, me=9.11×10−31 kg and
39 e=1.60×10−19 C) 40
 Solution :
λ0 = 6.21× 10 −7 m
vmax = 5.80 × 105 m s −1

41 42

Exercise 24.2 :
Given c =3.00×108 m s−1, h =6.63×10−34 J s, me=9.11×10−31 kg and 1. a. Calculate the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectron.
e =1.60×10−19 C b. Deduce the work function of the cathode.
1. A photocell with cathode and anode made of the same metal c. If the experiment is repeated with monochromatic light of
connected in a circuit as shown in the Figure 24.11a. wavelength 313 nm, determine the new intercept with the
Monochromatic light of wavelength 365 nm shines on the V-axis for the new graph.
cathode and the photocurrent I is measured for various values
1.60×10−19 J, 3.85×
ANS. : 1.60× 3.85×10−19 J; −1.57 V
of voltage V across the cathode and anode. The result is
shown in Figure 24.11b. 2. When EM radiation falls on a metal surface, electrons may be
emitted. This is photoelectric effect.
365 nm I ( nA) a. Write Einstein’s photoelectric equation, explaining the
meaning of each term.
5 b. Explain why for a particular metal, electrons are emitted
G
only when the frequency of the incident radiation is greater
V than a certain value?
c. Explain why the maximum speed of the emitted electrons
−1 0 is independent of the intensity of the incident radiation?
V (V)
Figure 24.11a Figure 24.11b 43 (Advanced Level Physics, 7th edition, Nelkon&Parker,
Nelkon&Parker, Q6, p.835)
44
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Next Chapter…
CHAPTER 25 :
Wave properties of particle

45