Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
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By
TESSA L HESSE
B.A. (DePaul University) 2010
A.A. (Taft Community College) 2006
THESIS
MASTER OF SCIENCE
in
Child Development
in the
of the
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
DAVIS
Approved:
Committee in Charge
2016
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ProQuest Number: 10165739
In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript
and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed,
a note will indicate the deletion.
ProQuest 10165739
Published by ProQuest LLC ( 2016 ). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author.
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Abstract
school-based intervention for students with special needs. This study was designed to examine
differences and similarities in teacher’s perception of students with high functioning autism
spectrum disorder (HFASD) in the classroom compared to students who may exhibit similar
attention and executive function disturbances in the classroom, such as children with attention
deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Thirty-seven total teacher reports were collected on 26
children with HFASD and nine children with ADHD, ages 8 to 16 year old. Data was collected
via e-mail using the Social Skills Improvement System (SSIS) questionnaire, which measures
social skills, behavior problems, and academic competence. Overall, teachers perceived the
HFASD sample as displaying less social competence than the ADHD sample. This perception
was carried by a significant diagnostic group effect on the SISS engagement subscale. An
analysis of the items on this engagement subscale revealed that teachers were most aware of
differences in the items relating to the initiation of engagement, such as “invites others to join
activities”, or “starts conversations”, and these items were sufficient to correctly identify 80.8%
of the HFASD sample and 77.8% of the ADHD sample. The SSIS engagement scale was
significantly associated with parent reports on the SRS and on the learning problems subscale on
the Conners-3. Further, SSIS engagement was positively correlated with teacher ratings of
academic competence. The implications for the role and training of mainstream teachers are
discussed.
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Teacher Perception of the Academic Performance and Social Skill Abilities of children with
skill ability is important to the informed development of school-based interventions for students
al. 2003). As an increasing number of children with an HFASD are being integrated into typical
classrooms, mainstream education teachers are facing an increased demand to meet the
and behavioral support (Newman, 2007). In addition, the symptom overlap with attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) presents a unique challenge to regular teachers in serving both of
these populations within a single classroom. The challenge for these teachers lies in how to
provide for the specific academic and social support needs of each child, when discriminating
are characteristic of both HFASD and ADHD disorders; thus, regular education teachers become
responsible for both the management of behavior and the academic growth of these students
within the classroom (Gargaro, Rinehart, Bradshaw, Tonge and Sheppard, 2011; Sinzig, Walter
& Doepfner, 2009). How regular education teachers perceive students with HFASD has been
shown to predict behavior problems and rate of social inclusion (Roberson, Chamberlain &
Kasari, 2003). Further, level of social inclusion has been associated with academic achievement;
Cali, & Dawson, 2011). However, few studies have examined differences in teacher perception
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across groups of children. Specifically, how teacher perception may be related to the academic
Autism spectrum disorders are described as a group of developmental disorders that can
cause social, communication, and behavioral problems (CDC, 2015). Autism is characterized by
lack of eye contact, repetitive behaviors, delayed or no language, and trouble understanding other
people’s feelings or intentions (CDC, 2015). According to the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, (2015), autism spectrum disorders affect one in every 68 children and occurs in all
ethnic and socioeconomic groups. Children with high functioning autism in particular make up
about 60% of the autism spectrum. The prevalence of autism continues to rise, with a 23%
There is a significant discrepancy between intellectual ability (as measured by IQ) and
academic functioning in a majority of students with HFASD (Jones et al. 2009). Further, the
academic profile in this population is complex and multifaceted. Jones and colleagues (2009)
identified 73% of a sample of individuals with HFASD who had at least one area of math or
reading achievement that was discrepant from their IQ across five areas of academic
achievement. More specifically, the authors identified four subgroups within word reading or
arithmetic in which the individual’s achievement scores were either higher or lower than their
IQ. The profile with the largest gap between achievement and IQ was within reading
comprehension, and the authors found that the severity of social communication deficits was
correlated with reading comprehension scores (Jones et all, 2009). Lastly, McIntyre and
colleagues (in preparation) examined 8 to 16 year olds with HFASD and individuals with
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ADHD, and found that the HFASD group performed significantly worse on reading and
language measures, and autism symptomology was significantly related to poorer reading
comprehension outcomes.
Social skill ability has been associated with academic ability within higher functioning
school aged children with autism (Estes, Rivera, Bryan, Cali & Dawson, 2011). More
specifically, the lack of reciprocated friendships and level of peer acceptance has been shown to
be significantly related to academic achievement within the ASD population (Wentzel, 2005). In
a study by Berry and colleagues (2012), level of social skill ability significantly predicted
academic achievement three years later. In another study, Estes, Rivera, Bryan, Cali and Dawson
(2011) examined academic achievement patterns and social abilities in a sample of 30 school-age
children with HFASD. Better social skills were found to be associated with better academic
achievement; more specifically, better social skill ability at age six was predictive of high
academic achievement at age nine. These studies highlight the importance of the social
Due to the complex academic profiles (abilities and deficits) possibly masked by
intellectual ability and social skill ability of children with HFASD, teachers are presented with a
unique challenge in identifying and supporting HFASD children within a mainstream classroom.
Without adequate social and academic support, children with HFASD will be at a signficiant
disadvantage later in life, possibly when entering college or the job market. This study was
performance and social skill ability of higher functioning students with HFASD in the classroom
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compared to students who may exhibit similar attention and executive function disturbances in
In addition to social and communication deficits, children with HFASD often present
with high levels of inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity (Sinzig, Walter & Doepfner, 2009).
Previous studies have found a high symptom overlap of HFASD with ADHD, with comorbid
presentation rates as high as 83% in one sample (Frazier et al., 2001). Behaviors such as
hyperactivity, impulsivity and opposition/defiance have been positively associated with teacher-
Because these two disorders can present in such a similar way, it is informative to understand the
degree to which teacher perception of the differences between children with HFASD and
children with ADHD in a mainstream classroom. For example, students with HFASD can often
have well-developed word identification, math fluency and factual knowledge, which may mask
the other academic and social deficits they may have (Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Skinner,
Martin, & Clubley, 2001). If teachers lump students with HFASD with other similar disorders,
such as ADHD, they may fail at adequately supporting the unique academic needs of this special
population, putting them at an early disadvantage both academically and socially, with
Children with autism are being mainstreamed into classrooms at an increasing rate
(McDonnell, 1998), and teacher perception of children with HFASD within the typical classroom
is largely overlooked. Although very few studies have examined teacher perception within this
population, a 2013 study by Lindsay, Prouix, Thomson and Scott examined teacher’s
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experiences and attitudes of the nature and management of children affected with HFASD within
the classroom setting. Behavior management, administrative challenges (training and support)
and a truly inclusive environment were reported as major challenges confronting the teachers
Although educators face these large obstacles, teachers generally have a positive outlook
toward the education of children with HFASD. Rodriguez, Saldana and Moreno (2012) assessed
teachers’ attitudes towards students with HFASD in a sample of 69 teachers of both special
needs and typical/mainstreamed classrooms and found that overall, teachers positively viewed
students with HFASD in terms of expectations of improvement and reported a positive emotional
response to working with students with an HFASD. Items focused on teacher perception of
improving the students’ academic and social abilities and experiencing enjoyable moments with
the child. Further, being a teacher of a child with HFASD in a mainstream classroom predicted
the level of need for information, and the authors suggest that these mainstream classrooms have
a high demand for constant training and support of staff; more so than a special education
classroom. Lack of an appropriate level of support for these teachers could pose negative
consequences for both the child affected by HFASD and the teacher.
Autism spectrum disorders are heterogeneous across biological, social, and behavioral
domains, making HFASD a unique disorder for teachers to provide adequate intervention
techniques for. The symptoms which fall within the social dimension include: social difficulties
eye-contact, body language, and gestures), and difficulty in developing and maintaining
relationships (Lord & Jones, 2014). Although the literature is vast on all three of these areas of
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social-emotional functioning, a critical problem facing teachers is the lack of ability to
differentiate children with HFASD’s on these core social dimensions from children with other
disorders within the classroom, where a high proportion of socialization takes place for school-
age children. If teachers are unable to differentiate between these two disorders, they may not
appropriately facilitate positive interactions with peers within the school and classroom setting,
where a majority of social interactions outside of the family occurs for school-age children. The
elementary school age is an important time for the development of social skills that will last into
adulthood, and appropriate facilitation by teachers will needed to foster these skills.
In a 2010 study, Iizuka and colleagues compared teacher ratings of 30 children with
HFASD and 30 children with ADHD using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. When
comparing the ratings of teachers between the HFA and ADHD groups, teachers rated the
hyperactivity/inattention and conduct problems, whereas they rated the HFASD group as having
greater difficulty in the area of peer problems. Although both groups may present with high
hyperactivity/inattention problems, teachers in this sample perceived those with ADHD to have
In another informative study, Ehlers, Gillberg and Wing (1999) examined parent and
teacher ratings on the Autism Spectrum Screening Questionnaire (ASSQ) in a clinical sample of
children with various kinds of behavior disorders including ASD, ADHD and learning disorders.
This study indicated that parents and teachers could not distinguish HFASD and ADHD children
on measures of ADHD, but the teachers tended to rate the children with HFASD as having many
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In a 1993 study on children with ASD and other developmental delays by Lord,
Storoschuk, Rutter and Pickles examined preschool aged children with ASD and similarly aged
children with other developmental delays, using the Autism Diagnostic Interview- Revised
(ADI-R), which is used to diagnose children with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The
authors examined three main domains: qualities of reciprocal social interaction, communication
and language, and restrictive and repetitive, stereotyped interests and behaviors. Lord et al.
(1993) found significant diagnostic group differences on the reciprocal social interaction scale,
including items such as: direct gaze, social smiling, and seeking to share own enjoyment.
However, when examining the high scoring (what the author’s refer to as autistic-like)
developmentally delayed children and the ASD children, Lord et al. (1993) had trouble
discriminating between the high scoring developmentally delayed children and the ASD children
in items such as initiating interactions with familiar adults, seeking affection or comfort, and
using simple gestures such as pointing to express interest. Significant diagnostic effects were
found on several subdomains of the communication domain, such as: gestures (ASD used
significantly less gestures) spontaneous imitation, imaginative play, and imitative social play.
developmentally delayed group for those with some words, but not for those without spoken
language. Within two additional subdomains, conversation and stereotyped use of language,
significant diagnostic group differences were found on items such as social chat, conversation,
and stereotyped utterances, with the ASD group showing more difficulty in these areas.
Interestingly, the ASD children did not show significant differences from the developmentally
delay group in other language areas such as inappropriate questions and pronoun reversal. This
study clearly demonstrates that when comparing children with and autism spectrum disorder and
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children with other developmental delays beginning at the preschool level, teachers are having
In previous studies, teacher attitude has shown to be associated with classroom behavior
problems and social inclusion (Robertson et al., 2003). In a sample of 187 children (12 of which
were diagnosed with autism) from second and third grade mainstream classrooms, Robertson et
al. (2003) found that overall, teacher perceptions of students with an ASD who were included in
the mainstream classroom were positive. In addition, among the students with an ASD, a
moderate association was found between teacher’s perception of their own relationship with the
student and a peer report of the student’s level of social inclusion within the classroom; teacher-
student relationships reported as conflictual were negatively associated with student’s level of
Parent Perception of the Academic Competence of Children with HFASD and ADHD
The existing literature shows discrepancies between the academic competence in the
classroom and IQ as measured in children with HFASD, and therefore it is possible that parents
of children with HFASD hold a different perception of the learning difficulties or academic
achievement abilities within the home environment. When examining parent report of homework
difficulties in students with HFASD and without HFASD, Endedijk, Denessen and Hendriks
(2011) found that the parents of students with HFASD perceived their children to suffer
significantly more from homework problems than students without HFASD. Further, to the
author’s knowledge, little to no research has been done comparing teacher report of academic
Specific Aims
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In order to contribute more information to what is a small literature in understanding
teacher perception of children with HFASD, the current study was designed to address the
following aims:
children with high functioning autism and children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.
2) To examine the degree to which teachers held similar or different views of the
academic ability of children with high functioning autism and children with attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder.
3) To examine whether or not teachers and parents agree in their attitudes and perceptions
of academic competence of high functioning children with autism and children with attention
Hypothesis 1:It is expected that teachers will rate the children with a HFASD higher on
the SSIS scales of social communication behavior than the ADHD children. These include the
Hypothesis 2: Because of the previously reported tendency for children with HFASD to
be adept at math, science and technological content, it is expected that teachers will rate the
academic competence of HFASD children higher (more academically competent) than those
Hypothesis 3: parents will be more aware of academic problems in their children with a
HFASD than teachers will. Therefore, in contrast to the teachers reports on the SSIS, parents
will rate children with a HFASD higher on the Conner-3 learning problems subscale than
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Method
Participants
Participants were recruited during a three-month period from a larger, three-year longitudinal
study examining reading comprehension, language ability, and memory. With parent permission,
teacher’s reports of social skill and academic ability were solicited via e-mail using the Social
Skills Improvement System (SSIS) (Gresham & Elliot, 2008) questionnaire, which measures
social skills, behavior problems, and academic competence. Forty-eight teachers were contacted
and 35 returned the questionnaire data. This yielded data on 26 higher function children with
HFASD and nine students with ADHD (Means: Age = 11.1 vs. 11.9 years; IQ = 101.8 vs. 101.3;
(see Table 1 for additional demographic data). Both groups were matched on age and IQ, and
participants were excluded if they had a full-scale IQ of less than 71. Diagnostic symptom
Questionnaire (Lifetime); Social Responsiveness Scale, and the Conners-3 that were composited
to form one overall measure of discrimination: HFASD= .78 vs. ADHD -1.6, p<.001.
MEASURES
Social Skills Improvement System Rating Scales (SSIS). (Gresham & Elliot, 2008) The SSIS
is a teacher report used to identify social skills deficits using 3 scales: social skills, problem
behaviors, and academic competence. The social skills scale has seven subdomains:
Each item is rated on a four-point frequency scale (0=Never, 1=Seldom, 2=Often, and 3=Almost
Always) based on the observed behavior. In addition, the SSIS has a 3-point importance rating
(0=Not Important, 1=Important, and 2=Critical) in order to identify social deficits requiring
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immediate intervention. The importance ratings were not included in analyses for the current
study, and they do not lead to changes in subscale scores. The teacher form also includes a
Internalizing, and Autism Spectrum. The Academic Competence scale measures performance in
reading, math, motivation, parental support, and general cognitive functioning. Scores on all
three main scales are standardized. In previous studies, the SSIS shows strong internal
consistency and test re-test reliability with coefficient alpha levels in the upper .90’s for each
scale, and a test re-test indices of .82-.87 for each scale (Gresham, Elliot, Vance & Cook, 2011).
For the current study, the SSIS demonstrated a high internal consistency (alpha = .83) on 35
items.
The Social Communication Questionnaire (SCQ). Lifetime Version (Rutter et al., 2003) is a
parent report measure that screens for an autism spectrum disorder in children ages 4 years and
older and has an established validity. Parents indicate via yes or no on each item based on the
presence or absence of the indicated behavior. Total scores range from 0 to 39, and a criterion
score of 15 is adequate for use in 8-16 year-old children with an IQ of 70 or greater (Corsello et
al., 2007). This measure shows high reliability for this study with an alpha = .86.
The Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS). (Constantino et al., 2003). The SRS is a 65-item
quantitative measure of autism symptomology via parent or teacher report. Each item is rated on
a scale from 0 (never true) to 3 (almost always true) and generates a total score that provides an
index of deficits and severity of symptomology, with higher scores indicating greater social
deficit. The SRS measures: social awareness, social information processing, capacity for
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reciprocal social responses, social anxiety/avoidance, and characteristics of autism such as
preoccupations/traits. This measure shows high reliability for this study (alpha = .94).
Measure of ADHD
Conners-3 Parent Report. The Conners-3 Parent Report (Conners, 2004, 2010) was
administered via parent report to measure ADHD symptomology. The Conner’s provides
Symptom Scales for the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual IV- Text Revised (DSM-IV-TR) that
are created based on parent observations of their children over the last month, making the scores
reflective of current, and not past, symptomology. A score is considered average if it falls in the
range of 40-59, elevated levels (or more than typically reported scores) are indicated by a score
of 60-69, and a score of 70 or greater indicates very elevated levels, or many more concerns than
are typically reported. This measure shows high reliability for this study; alpha = .83.
Procedure
All data were collected for this study after formal review and approval from the UC
Davis Internal Review Board of the data collection and procedures for this study.
Caregivers who gave consent to allow contact of student’s teachers completed a form
with teacher information, including teacher’s name, school, and email address. Teachers were
then contacted via a standardized email with information about the study and the SSIS
questionnaire. They were asked to participate, and it was communicated that participation was
optional. Teachers were informed that if they did participate, they would receive a 20-dollar
target gift card upon questionnaire completion. Teachers were then sent a separate, follow-up
email with a customized Survey Monkey link that would take them to an online version of the
that provides customizable surveys and survey web address links to send to participants. Survey
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monkey’s customizable surveys are password protected, and the data collected is protected via
Secure Sockets Layer (SSL), which encrypts sensitive information being transmitted through the
equipment, etc.) and is collocated at third party audited data centers. Survey Monkey owns and
manages all of the equipment located in those data centers, which are staffed and surveyed 24/7.
Access is secured by security guards, visitor logs, and entry requirements such as passcards and
Once completed, teachers were sent the gift card via an online access code. Caregiver
questionnaires (Conners-3, SRS, SCQ) were completed during an earlier lab visit with their child
Results
The first Aim of this study examined the ability of teachers to distinguish between the
social behavior problems of children with HFASD and children with ADHD. To examine this, a
multivariate analysis was conducted with the two groups (ADHD and HFA) and the seven
dimensions of the SSIS social skills subscale were used as dependent measures: communication,
cooperation, assertion, responsibility, empathy, engagement and self-control (see table 2). The
social competence, Wilkes lambda = .56, F (7,26) = 2.92, p < .02, partial eta2 = .44. This
perception was carried by a significant diagnostic group effect on the SISS Engagement Scale, F
(1,32) = 9.31, p < .005, eta2 = .23 (see table 2) . The other dimension with a diagnostic effect
that approached significance was the empathy scale (p =.13) (p. (see table 2). Differences on the
communication, cooperation, assertion, responsibility and self-control subscales did not approach
significance (ps < .25 to .80). There was no evidence of any significant diagnostic group
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differences on the SSIS Problem Behavior Scale, with four subscales: internalizing,
In order to better understand what types of behaviors on the SSIS engagement scale were
most useful for teachers in distinguishing between two diagnostic groups, a discriminate analysis
was conducted using the seven items from the SSIS engagement scale. This analysis revealed
that the engagement items were able to correctly identify 80.8% of the ASD sample (specificity)
and 77.8% of the ADHD sample. The analysis revealed that three of the engagement scale items
diagnostic groups. These included: teacher report on the frequency of interacting well with other
children (p . <04); frequency of inviting others to join activities (p<.05); and the frequency of
The second aim of this study examined the degree to which teachers held similar
or different views of the academic ability of children with high functioning autism and children
with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Interestingly, analyses revealed that teachers
reported that HFASD children were more academically competent than the ADHD children, F
The third aim of this study examined whether or not teachers and parents agree in their
attitudes and perceptions of academic competence of high functioning children with autism and
children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. In order to understand how well teacher
report of engagement related to parent report of social behaviors and behavior problems, the
SSIS engagement subscale was correlated with parent report on the SRS and Conners-3. When
looking only at the HFASD group, these analyses revealed that teacher report of engagement was
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significantly associated with parent reports on the SRS (r = -.55, p < .001; see table 4). The
Conners-3 included a parent report measure of learning problems, which measured reading task
completion and mathematics in school for each child. For the HFASD group, teacher report of
engagement was associated with parent report of fewer learning problems on the Conners-3 (r = -
.42, p < .04) and positively correlated with teacher ratings of academic competence (r = .44, p <
.05) (see table 4). Interestingly, analyses also revealed that teachers reported that HFASD
children were more academically competent than the ADHD children, F (1, 32) = 3.98, p < .05,
eta2 = .13, but there was no diagnostic group difference in parent reports on the Conner’s
Learning Problems in School subscale F (1, 32) = .98, p = .47, eta2 = .21. As expected, within the
HFASD group, teacher report of engagement was negatively correlated with parent report of
social problems (SRS), and parent report of learning problems on the Conners-3 was
significantly positively associated with parent report of inattention on the Conners-3 (see table
4).
In order to examine how well teacher report of engagement related to parent report of
social behaviors and behavior problems within the ADHD group, the same correlations were
applied- the SSIS engagement subscale was correlated with parent report on the SRS and
Conners-3 (see table 5). Two correlations approached significance, which were teacher report of
engagement with both parent report of learning problems (p <10) and parent report of
oppositional behavior (p <.10). As expected, IQ was negatively correlated with parent report of
learning problems on the Conners-3 and teacher report of academic competence on the SSIS.
Discussion
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In an attempt to examine the ability of teachers to distinguish between the social behavior
problems of children with HFASD and children with ADHD, an analysis of the items on the
engagement scale revealed that teachers report distinguished differences in the engagement items
of the SSID, which were: interacting well with other children, inviting other to join in activities,
and starting conversations with peers. Together, these engagement behaviors form a composite
that may be related to one of the core symptom dimensions of ASD. In the DSM V, one of the
symptoms of the social communication deficit domain includes a failure to initiate or respond to
social interactions . Similarly, the data in this study would suggest that the engagement behavior
reflected the tendency of children with HFASD to be inhibited in initiated social experiences
with others. This is an important observation because, while engagement is a social symptom, it
may have a negative impact on engagement within group based learning in the classroom, which
may impeded academic and social development throughout all grade levels in school.
The validity of these observations was supported by the correlations between teacher’s
ratings of engagement in the classroom and parent rating of diagnostic symptoms on the SRS.
This suggests that the teacher-observed engagement behaviors were central to the diagnostic
symptoms of the standardized parent measures of social symptoms and ASD’s. Further evidence
that this core symptom measurement may be related to academic development was provided by
two other observations: academic competence, IQ and learning problems. Teacher report of
academic competence and engagement were positively correlated, and teacher report of
engagement was negatively correlated with parent report of learning problems The less engaged
the high functioning child with autism was within the classroom, the more both the parent and
teacher noted that they may be struggling cognitively and academically in the classroom. These
findings show that it may important for teachers to maintain an environment in which the
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children are engaged and socially included with their peers in the mainstream classroom, as both
academic competence and learning problems could be affected by this, though further research is
In examining the degree to which teachers held similar or different views of the academic
ability of children with high functioning autism and children with attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder, this study found that teachers tended to rate HFASD children as more academically
competent than those children affected by ADHD. It may be that the externalizing behavior of
children with ADHD is different from that of HFASD children, and these externalizing behaviors
create a more negative impression for teachers. In a 2002 study by Eisenberg and Schneider,
teacher perceptions of the academic abilities of both boys and girls with ADHD were
substantially more negative compared to their peers. Further, DeShazo and colleagues (2002)
found that the more severe the behavior problems of children with ADHD were, the more
Another possible reason why teachers tended to rate children with HFASD as more
academically competent than children with HFASD is that students with ASD are able to
demonstrate a well-developed capacity to answer factual questions in class or on tests, giving the
impression of academic competence to a greater degree than ADHD children. If teachers tend to
have an overly positive perception of the academic competence of children with ASD they may
be less likely to provide the additional support for the academic development and social
emotional needs of these children. This already existing demand on the resources of a single
teacher could be further exacerbated by the new standards of the Common Core curriculum,
where children are required to learn and demonstrate a concept in more than one way (such as a
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simple math problem), which could be a huge challenge to children with HFASD who rely on
To address the third aim of this study, whether or not teachers and parents agree in their
attitudes and perceptions of academic competence of high functioning children with autism and
children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, parents were asked to rate academic
Parents of children with ASD did not rate them as more academically competent than parents of
ADHD children. The reasons for this inconsistency in perspectives between parent report and
teacher report on the academic competence of are not clear. It is possible that there is some set of
abilities or some styles of behavior exhibited by children with ASD in the classroom that give
teachers a sense of their competence that is not available or is different from parent observations
An additional possibility is that teachers are responsible for numerous children (30-40 or
more in the classroom) and may only be able to acquire a constrained or limited view of the
competences of one child, and alternatively parents may be more privy to specific information
and have a clearer view of the competence of children with ADHD. All of these hypotheses need
Implications
The current study yields important implications mainstream teachers and policy makers
who are responsible for the education and development of those with both HFASD and ADHD.
With the growing number of special education students being mainstreamed into typical
classrooms, teachers will need close consultation and support of other staff members, specifically
special education teachers and inclusion specialists on the instructional methods needed in order
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to support these children in a social and academic setting. Further, this study found a link
between social engagement and academic functioning. It may be beneficial for schools to
implement facilitated social opportunities for the HFASD and ADHD children to interact with
peers during lunch and recess times, as most socialization (outside of family members) for
Limitations
This paper is not without its limitations. The sample size was relatively small with only
26 HFASD participants and nine ADHD participants. This limited sample size likely impacted
the power of the analyses, and in turn the analyses approaching significance could likely become
significant with a larger sample size. Future research is needed to examine the link between
teacher perception of social skills and the academic abilities of student with HFASD and students
with ADHD.
Another limitation of the current study was the selection of measures used. In order to
assess different perspectives of both teachers and parents in different contexts (school and
home), two different measures were used to asses academic competence in the school and
learning problems perceived at home. The use of two separate measures was in part necessary to
tap into different perspectives in different contexts, however it would be beneficial for future
research to include the use of more measures, and the same measures, across reporters and
contexts.
Future Directions
As these findings yield significant implications for teacher training, future research is
needed to examine the extent to which current mainstream teachers are trained in special
education curriculum and disorders. Future studies are needed to examine any possible
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relationship between teacher training in HFASD and ADHD populations and engagement and
academic abilities. Such findings, if found, could aid in the development of appropriate training
methods for mainstream teacher, in turn better supporting HFASD and ADHD children and their
In this study, one of the challenges was to motivate teachers in providing the data, so only
a fraction of teachers’ contacted returned data. In the future, establishing a stronger partnership
with teachers by having research staff go into schools and observe, and work directly with
teachers may elicit more teacher participation and in turn, more data collected.
Most importantly, if HFASD children appear to be different from other children in social
engagement behaviors, it will be important for research studies to asses the direction of the
relationship between social engagement and academic competence. It is unknown whether or not
a deficit in the ability to engage socially is impeding the academic competence of children with
HFASD, or whether the teachers’ perception of a deficit in academic competence impedes the
social engagement with peers. Lastly, this study found that these social engagement behaviors
are associated with academic competence, thus it is important for researchers to have some
understanding of what impedes engagement in the classroom. It would be beneficial for future
research to determine how to develop methods that teachers can utilize to facilitate engagement
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Table 1.
Demographics
HFASDa ADHDb
N 26 9
Age (years)
Mean 11.1 11.9
Range 8.24-15.21 9.89-14.75
Gender: boys (girls) 21 (7) 5 (2)
Ethnicity (percentiles)
Caucasian 57.7 66.7
Minority 34.6 33.3
Declined to state 7.7 0
IQ
Mean 101.8 101.3
Range 80.0-130.0 74.0-131.0
Mother’s education (percentiles)
Completed high school or lower 0 0
Some college 19.2 12.5
College graduate 34.6 25.0
Some graduate school 7.7 12.5
Completed graduate school 38.5 50.0
Note. a = high functioning autism spectrum disorder; b = attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder.
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Table 2.
Multivariate analysis of social skills and problem behavior outcomes.
HFASDa ADHDb Partial Eta
Mean (SD) Mean (SD) F Squared
Social skills
Communication 13.2 (3.52) 15.0 (4.50) 0.91 .03
Cooperation 11.7 (2.92) 10.7 (4.47) 1.52 .05
Assertion 10.5 (3.37) 11.1 (4.04) 0.07 .00
Responsibility 11.1 (3.96) 12.4 (5.20) 0.22 .01
Empathy 8.30 (4.00) 11.1 (4.49) 2.47 .07
Engagement 9.0 (4.22) 14.4 (4.53) 9.31** .23
Self-control 11.2 (4.50) 13.9 (5.13) 1.69 .05
Problem Behaviors
Internalizing 6.0 (2.88) 3.8 (3.96) 3.16† .09
Externalizing 7.2 (5.55) 8.4 (8.37) 0.26 .01
Bullying 1.2 (1.98) 1.7 (2.92) 0.30 .01
Hyperactivity/Inattention 7.2 (3.50) 7.6 (6.42) 0.05 .00
Note. **p < .01, †p < .10; Social Skills Wilks’ Lambda = .56*; Problem Behaviors Wilks’
Lambda = .81, ns; a = high functioning autism spectrum disorder; b = attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder.
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Table 3.
Discriminate analysis on engagement subscale items.
Null Test Sig Decision
1. Makes friends easily Independent samples Mann- .03* Reject the null
Whitney U Test hypothesis
2. Interacts well with other Independent samples Mann- .17 Retain the null
children Whitney U Test hypothesis
3. Joins activities that have already Independent samples Mann- .00** Reject the null
started Whitney U Test hypothesis
4. Invites others to join in Independent samples Mann- .02* Reject the null
activities Whitney U Test hypothesis
5. Participates in games or group Independent samples Mann- .05† Reject the null
activities Whitney U Test hypothesis
6. Starts conversations with peers Independent samples Mann- .06† Retain the null
Whitney U Test hypothesis
7. Introduces himself/herself to Independent samples Mann- .06† Retain the null
others Whitney U Test hypothesis
Note. **p < .01, *p < .05, †p < .10.
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Table 4.
HFASD Correlations (n=26)
SSIS Conners SSIS
Engagement Learning Academic
Problems Competence
SCQ Total -.12 .31 .12
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Table 5.
ADHD Correlations (n=9)
SSIS Conners-3 SSIS
Engagement Learning Academic
Problems Competence
SCQ Total -.13 .41 -.39
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