Licenta Health and Safety in Recycling Plants

University Vasile Alecsandri of Bacau
Industrial Engineering
Lucaci Emanuel-Adrian
Health and safety in recycling

plants
Bachelor Thesis
Submitted to the
Technological Educational Institute of Athens
As part of an Erasmus+ Exchange programme
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements of the Bachelor Degree in Industrial

Engineering,
Faculty of Machines Manufacturing Technologies
Supervisors: Prof.Dr.Eng. Maria Paralika (T.E.I of Athens, Greece)

Prof.Dr.Eng Crina Axinte (UVAB, Romania)
2017
Abstract
Recycling is one of the fastest-growing job sectors within the waste-

management industry, with jobs already far outpacing traditional trash-
collection jobs and wages.
Despite its virtuous image as one of the original green industries,
recycling is dirty, labor-intensive work. It involves loud, heavy machinery,
including semis, forklifts, conveyor belts, loaders, cranes, shredders and
grinders, all of which pose a serious threat to life and limb, especially if they’re
not properly serviced or lack basic safety features, which is often the case at
recycling firms. Unlike manufacturing, recycling cannot be completely
systematized because it depends on an ever-changing flow of recyclable
materials that come in all manner of shapes and sizes. This can require recycling
workers to personally handle most of the scrap passing through a facility,
potentially exposing them to carcinogens, explosives or toxics, to say nothing of
sharp objects.
Facing such hazards, it’s critical that these workplaces have active
health and safety programs that involve workers. Among other requirements,
workers need proper comprehensive training in materials handling, access to
personal protective equipment, and good ventilation inside the building.
Governments can also contribute to the reduction of hazards through
the implementation of regulations to govern the recycling process. Campaigning
for good practice in waste separation is important to raise awareness among
citizens of the consequences of their actions. In addition, by hiring managers
and recycling companies that ensure the implementation of proper safety
procedures, governments will be promoting the creation of jobs that take place
in safe conditions – and that’s exactly what the citizens and the planet needs.
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Acknowledgement
This thesis becomes a reality with kind support and help of many
individuals. I would like to extend my sincere thanks to all of them.
Foremost, I want to thank the Erasmus+ Exchange Programme for

giving me the opportunity to participate in such an overwhelming experience. I
want to thank the Erasmus Coordinator of Engineering Department, Conf. dr.
ing. Bogdan Alexandru CHIRIȚĂ and Roxana-Iuliana POPESCU from
International Relations Office from University "Vasile Alecsandri" of Bacau, for
their guidance and their support regarding any problem I had during the mobility.
I would like to express my gratitude towards my family for the

encouragement and moral support which helped me in completion of this paper,
to my dad for his patience and for letting me live with him during the mobility
period, to my sister for her interest in my work and her inspiring advices and of
course to my mom who sent me so many encouraging and lovely words.
It is my proud privilege to express my sincere thanks and deep sense of

gratitude to my supervisors, Prof.Dr.Eng Crina Axinte and Prof.Dr.Eng. Maria
Paralika for their valuable advices, sheer supervision and constant
encouragement in pursuance of this work.
Last, but not least, I want to offer this endeavor to our God Almighty
for the wisdom he bestowed upon me, the strength, the peace of mind and good
health in order to finish the research.
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Table of Contents
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................. 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 1
1.2 AIM AND OBJECTIVES ........................................................................................... 2
1.3 SCOPE OF THE STUDY ........................................................................................... 2
1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RESEARCH ............................................................................. 3
1.5 ORGANISATION OF THE CHAPTERS........................................................................... 3
2. Occupational Safety and Health ............................................................ 5

2.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 5
2.2 DEFINITIONS ...................................................................................................... 6
2.3 GENERAL ASPECTS ............................................................................................... 8
2.4 KEY PRINCIPLES IN OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY............................................. 11
2.5 GUIDE TO CONTROLLING RISKS IN THE WORKPLACE ................................................... 16
2.6 HEALTH AND SAFETY EU LEGISLATION ................................................................... 21
2.6.1 Directive 89/391/EEC - OSH "Framework Directive" ............................... 22
2.6.2 Individual Directives and Regulations ..................................................... 25
2.7 HEALTH AND SAFETY ROMANIA LEGISLATION .......................................................... 29
2.7.1 Law No. 319 of 14 July 2006 on Safety and Health at Work ................... 30
2.7.2 Main legislative acts ................................................................................ 35
3. Solid Waste Management (SWM) ....................................................... 38

3.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 38
3.2 WASTE CLASSIFICATION ...................................................................................... 39
3.3 BASIC SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT ..................................................................... 42
3.4 INTEGRATED SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT (ISWM) ............................................... 47
3.4.1 Waste hierarchy ....................................................................................... 48
3.5 WHY RECYCLING?.............................................................................................. 54
4. The recycling process and recycling technology ................................ 58
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4.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 58
4.2 DEFINITIONS .................................................................................................... 62
4.3 THE RECYCLING LOOP ......................................................................................... 64
4.4 RECYCLING PROCESS AND TECHNOLOGIES IN A MRF ................................................. 66
4.4.1 Key Objectives of MRF Design .................................................................. 66
4.4.2 Types of MRFs .......................................................................................... 67
4.4.3 Standard Equipment and System Configurations .................................... 68
4.4.4 Specialized Equipment ............................................................................. 75
5. Measures of Occupational Health and Safety in Recycling Plants .. 80

5.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 80
5.2 RECYCLING WORK: ESSENTIAL BUT HIGH-RISK ......................................................... 81
5.3 WHAT MAKES RECYCLING DANGEROUS? ................................................................ 86
5.4 MATERIALS RECOVERY FACILITY GUIDELINES .......................................................... 91
6. Conclusions .......................................................................................... 104
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List of Figures
Figure 1 Accidents at work ........................................................................................................ 9
Figure 2 Consequences of accidents at work and work-related ill-health for different groups
.................................................................................................................................................. 11
Figure 3 Joint ILO/WHO Comittee's definition of occupational health .................................. 16
Figure 4 Waste Hierarchy ........................................................................................................ 49
Figure 5 Recycling rates in Europe by waste stream ............................................................... 59
Figure 6 Recycling rates comparison on 10 years by country ................................................. 61
Figure 7 Comparison of MRF Types ...................................................................................... 68
Figure 8 Typical Tipping Floor................................................................................................ 69
Figure 9 In-feed Conveyor ....................................................................................................... 70
Figure 10 Disk Screen .............................................................................................................. 71
Figure 11 Manual Fiber Sort Line ........................................................................................... 72
Figure 12 Material Bunkers ..................................................................................................... 73
Figure 13 Paper Baler .............................................................................................................. 73
Figure 14 Bag Breaker ............................................................................................................. 75
Figure 15 Rotating Trommel Screen........................................................................................ 76
Figure 16 Drum separator ........................................................................................................ 77
Figure 17 Eddy Current ........................................................................................................... 77
Figure 18 Optical Sorter........................................................................................................... 78
Figure 19 News reports describe recycling work tragedies ..................................................... 82
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List of Tables
Table 1/5 Additional hazards for Material Recovery Facilities ............................................... 99
Table 2/5 Additional hazards for Material Recovery Facilities ............................................. 100
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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
In the past century, as the world's population has grown and become
more urban and affluent, waste generation has risen tenfold. By 2025 it will
double again. Rubbish is being produced faster than other environmental
pollutants, including greenhouse gases. Plastic clogs the world's oceans and
rivers, causing flooding in developing-world cities.
Recycling is a key component of modern waste reduction, and is the third

component of the "Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle" waste hierarchy. Recycling is
the most preffered option off all the waste treatements, because it helps preserve
the environment in addition to providing more usable objects to people without
the need for extra resources, but also because it has the ability to create
more ’green jobs’.
These jobs are also quickly becoming some of the most hazardous,
According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, over 300 workers were killed on
the job from 2003 to 2014 in U.S. Many of them work in scrap yards, recycling
plants, and oil recovery centers, and are working with heavy machinery with
poor training. In UK more than
3 000 recycling and waste workers are injured every year, a rate four times
higher than the average for all industries. HSE (Health and Safety Executive)
has estimated that more than one in 20 recycling workers suffer ill health or
injury because of their jobs. This is significantly higher than other reputedly
dangerous trades like farming, forestry and fishing, and nearly twice as high as
in construction and manufacturing.
Health and safety at work is relevant to all branches of industry, but it is

particulary important for the recycling industry. The very rapid growth of waste
generation over these years makes this industry impose its mark as one of the
most exposed sectors when it comes to occupational accidents. Although
tremendous improvements have made in health and safety performance in some
countries, the recycling industry lags behind most other industries. Reality
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shows that from year to year the recycling industry has more and more accidents
and fatalities, making it one of the most dangerous industries in which to work.
1.2 Aim and objectives

The principal aim of this research is to determine the importance of integrating
and improving health and safety standards within recycling plants, to investigate
the extent health and safety influence in the recycling plants performance and
finally to develop a model that will assist recycling plants companies to assess,
in terms of performance, the possible outcomes of their health and safety level.
In order to achieve the above mentioned aim, the following objectives were
set:
• Assessing health and safety in the recycling industry, description of the

general problems inherent, circumstances that allowed accident events to
occur and the lessons that should be learn to improve health and safety in the
recycling plants
• Overview of health and safety legislation with special emphasis on the
updated Romania regulations and the existing code of practice in the Romania.
• Investigating current improved methods of integrating health and safety within
recycling plants management and identifying the keys factors leading to
effective health and safety.
• Producing a best practice guide for health and safety in the recycling plants.
1.3 Scope of the study

• to improve health and safety standards at recycling plants by covering
general health and safety provisions as well as duties and responsibilities of
the employers, engineers, regarding safety measures and the minimum
necessary requirements.
• measures to be followed during all the stages of the sorting process to
provide safe workplace to all employees and to protect them against
accidents
• To ensure that there are satisfactory health and safety standards within the
company
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1.4 Significance of the research
The importance of the research stems from the need to develop an
understanding and investigate the problem of health and safety in recycling
plants in and make a contribution to knowledge in this area. Addressing health
and safety issues should not be seen as a regulatory burden as it offers
significant opportunities and benefits to the recycling companies. Such benefits
include: reduced risks in the workplace, less absences by employees and hence
increased productivity, fewer accidents and less threats of legal action, improved
standing among clients and partners, and obviously reduced costs to the business.
This research offers a best practice guide to health and safety in recycling plants.
1.5 Organisation of the chapters

The thesis is organised into 6 chapters:
• Chapter 1: Gives the introduction defining the problem and stating the aims and
objectives of the research and its scope
• Chapter 2: Presents general aspects regarding health and safety, most important
key principles for health and safety stated by the International Labour
Organization (ILO), a practical guide for risk assesement in workplaces, and the
legislation regarding health and safety in Romania as well as in Europe
• Chapter 3: Provides a summary of waste treatements, steps of Integrated Solid

Waste Management for the purpose of a better understanding of mechanics behind
the trash (waste), we, consumers, produce and the importance of recycling
• Chapter 4: Explains in details the recycling process and techonolgies used for
sorting different materials within a Materials Recovery Facility (MRF)/Recycling
Plant, standard and special equipment needed in a MRF and the importance of the
design for maximizing the performance and profit in such a plant
• Chapter 5: Provides the best prcatice guide for health and safety in recycling
plants, a list of most dangerous hazards that can occur in a recycling plant and
3
statistics about occupational accidents as well as news reports of workers who
died at work
• Chapter 6: Conclusions
4
2. Occupational Safety and Health
2.1 Introduction
Occupational safety and health (OSH) is generally defined as the science
of the anticipation, acknowledgment, evaluation, and control of hazards arising
in or from the workplace that could damage the health and prosperity of workers,
taking into consideration the possible impact on the surrounding communities
and the general environment. This domain is certainly vast, encompassing a
large number of disciplines and numerous workplace and environmental hazards.
A wide range of structures, skills, knowledge and analytical capacities are
needed to coordinate and implement all of the “building blocks” that make up
national OSH systems so that protection is extended to both workers and the
environment. The scope of occupational safety and health has evolved gradually
and continuously in response to social, political, technological and economic
changes. In recent years, globalization of the world’s economies and its
repercussions have been perceived as the greatest force for change in the world
of work, and consequently in the scope of occupational safety and health, in
both positive and negative ways. Liberalization of world trade, rapid
technological progress, significant developments in transport and
communication, shifting patterns of employment, changes in work organization
practices, the different employment patterns of men and women, and the size,
structure and life cycles of enterprises and of new technologies can all generate
new types and patterns of hazards, exposures and risks. Demographic changes
and population movements, and the consequent pressures on the global
environment can also affect safety and health in the world of work. It is no
coincidence that the protection of workers against sickness, disease, and injury
related to the working environment, as embodied in the Preamble to the
Constitution of the International Labour Organization (ILO), has been a central
issue for the Organization since its creation in 1919, and continues to be so
today. Occupational safety and health is a key element in achieving sustained
decent working conditions and strong preventive safety cultures
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2.2 Definitions
Occupational health and safety is a set of activities designed to ensure
optimal working conditions, the protection of the human being, the body
integrity and the lives of the workers and other persons involved in the work
process.
Health is the protection of the bodies and minds of people from illness
resulting from the materials, processes or procedures used in the workplace.
Safety is the protection of people from physical injury. The borderline

between health and safety is ill-defined and the two words are normally used
together to indicate concern for the physical and mental well-being of the
individual at the place of work.
Welfare is the provision of facilities to maintain the health and well-

being of individuals at the workplace.
Environmental protection is the arrangements to cover those activities

in the workplace which affect the environment (in the form of flora, fauna,
water, air, and soil) and, possibly, the health and safety of employees and others.
Such activities include waste and effluent disposal and atmospheric pollution.
Accident at work is defined as a discrete occurrence in the course of

work which leads to physical or mental harm. The phrase ‘in the course of work’
means ‘while engaged in an occupational activity or during the time spent at
work’.
An occupational disease is a disorder resulting from the exercise of a

profession caused by physical, chemical or biological agents that are
characteristic of the workplace, as well as the overworking of various organs or
systems of the body in the process of work.
A hazard is any agent that can cause harm or damage to life, health,
property or the environment. Identification of hazards is the first step in
performing a risk assessment.
An occupational hazard is a hazard experienced in the workplace.

Occupational hazards can encompass many types of hazards, including chemical
6
hazards, biological hazards (biohazards), psychosocial hazards, and physical
hazards.
A risk is the chance or probability that a person will be harmed or

experience an adverse health effect if exposed to a hazard. It may also apply to
situations with property or equipment loss, or harmful effects on the
environment.
The words ‘hazard’ and ‘risk’ are often confused. Understanding the
difference between ‘a hazard’ and ‘a risk’ is important for understanding the
role of toxicology in assessing risks. A hazard is anything that can cause harm,
whereas risk is the potential for a hazard to cause harm. You can also think of
it this way: A hazard will not pose any risk to you unless you are exposed to
enough of that hazard to cause harm. Risks associated with hazards can be
eliminated, or at least greatly reduced, by reducing exposure.
Risk assessment is the process where you:
• Identify hazards and risk factors that have the potential to cause harm
(hazard identification).
• Analyze and evaluate the risk associated with that hazard (risk analysis,
and risk evaluation).
• Determine appropriate ways to eliminate the hazard, or control the risk
when the hazard cannot be eliminated (risk control).
When thinking about your risk assessment, remember:
➢ a hazard is anything that may cause harm, such as chemicals,

electricity, working from ladders, an open drawer etc
➢ the risk is the chance, high or low, that somebody could be harmed by
these and other hazards, together with an indication of how serious the
harm could be
Example:
Hazard: Asbestos is a naturally-occurring, fibrous, heat-resistant

mineral material which may be found in some building materials like floor and
ceiling tiles. Asbestos is also found in some natural water supplies. Both oral
exposures through water consumption and inhalation exposure to air containing
7
asbestos are potential routes. The type of route and potential hazard we address
here is through inhalation of asbestos fibers. It is important to understand first
that asbestos is only an inhalation hazard to human health if the asbestos fibers
are airborne and near where a person can inhale them–but not if the fibers are
still embedded or stuck in the tile or floor of a building.
Human health risks: Can cause lung diseases such as cancer and also
asbestosis, which is not itself fatal although sometimes debilitating and can
progress to cancer.
How can the risks be eliminated? By taking appropriate precautions

(respirator, protective clothing) to avoid exposure if working in an environment
where airborne asbestos is present (for example during the demolition of
buildings containing asbestos), or by avoiding getting too close to buildings
undergoing demolition. If asbestos is in materials in a home and is in good
shape and is not airborne, it is recommended that it not be disturbed, as that may
be the best way to eliminate risks. Alternatively, if repairs are needed, simply
sealing the asbestos containing materials can also decrease risk.
2.3 General aspects

Progress in protecting workers health has always been and continues to
be a priority objective for the International Labour Organization (ILO). Despite
immense efforts made since the 1970s, occupational accidents and diseases are
still too frequent. Their costs to society and the enterprise, as well as to the
workers affected and their families, continue to be unacceptable. There are more
than 250 million work-related accidents every year. Workplace hazards and
exposures cause over 160 million workers to fall ill annually, while it has been
estimated that more than 1.2 million workers die as a result of occupational
accidents and diseases. These social costs can no longer be tolerated as the
inevitable price of progress. Reducing the toll of occupational accidents and
diseases has obvious implications in terms of the alleviation of human suffering.
The related economic costs place a considerable burden on the competitiveness
of enterprises. It is estimated that the annual losses resulting from work-related
diseases and injuries, in terms of compensation, lost work-days, interruptions of
8
production, training and retraining, medical expenses, and so on, routinely
amount to over 4 per cent of the total gross national product (GNP) of all the
countries in the world:
• According to the European Agency for Safety and Health, the loss to
GNP caused by workplace accidents and work-related ill health in
European Union Member States is in the range of 2.6 to 3.8 per cent.
• In the recent EU-funded project carried out by Matrix (2013), the cost
to Europe of work-related depression was estimated to be €617 billion
annually. The total was made up of costs to employers resulting from
absenteeism and presenteeism (€272 billion), loss of productivity
(€242 billion), health care costs of €63 billion and social welfare costs
in the form of disability benefit payments (€39 billion).
• The annual cost of accidents in the manufacturing sector of the United
States alone is more than US$190 billion.
• In Australia, the cost of workplace injuries and work-related ill health
has been estimated at between A$15 billion to A$37 billion.
These estimates are sufficient to demonstrate beyond any doubt that a

significant reduction in the incidence of occupational accidents and diseases
over a reasonable period of time will produce valuable economic benefits.
Paying attention to occupational safety and health should, therefore, be given a
high priority not only on moral but also on economic grounds. There is a clear
Figure 1 Accidents at work

business case for action on health and safety at work.
Accidents at work and work-related ill-health have an impact on

individuals, companies and the society. Each of these target levels is confronted
with the economic consequences. Yet, what might be a cost for the individual is
not necessarily perceived as a cost for society and vice versa. It is all a question
of perspective Victims and their family and friends face multiple consequences
that are often difficult to quantify. On societal level, efforts have been made to
make reliable estimates but the results heavily depend on the chosen methods,
the cost categories and the data sources In comparing costs between the affected
levels, it becomes clear that costs are not evenly distributed and that victims, as
well as society, are heavily burdened.
Poor and hazardous working conditions affect several target groups.

These are also the groups that will benefit – directly or indirectly – if the
working conditions improve and if the health of the employees improves. These
target groups can be sorted into three levels:
• societal: public or collective funds, healthcare systems, insurance

companies;
• company: OSH services, company/management, shareholders,
customers, other companies;
• individuals: workers, workers’ families
Costs fall on different parties but each of these parties has to bear other
consequences. Figure 2 provides an overview of these consequences indicating
that some of these are not or very difficult to quantify. Moreover, none of these
groups sees or experiences the full extent of the social and economic
consequences of accidents at work or work-related ill-health. The nature of the
consequences are such that it is rare all the costs are combined to provide an
overall picture of the magnitude and complexity of outcomes.
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Figure 2 Consequences of accidents at work and work-related ill-health
for different groups
2.4 Key principles in occupational health and safety

A number of key principles underpin the field of occupational health and
safety. These principles and the provisions of international labour standards are
all designed to achieve a vital objective: that work should take place in a safe
and healthy environment.
11
Occupational health and safety is an extensive multidisciplinary field,
invariably touching on issues related to, among other things, medicine and other
scientific fields, law, technology, economics and concerns specific to various
industries. Despite this variety of concerns and interests, certain basic principles
can be identified, including the following:
• All workers have rights. Workers, as well as employers and governments, must
ensure that these rights are protected and foster decent conditions of labour. As the
International Labour Conference stated in 1984:
(a) work should take place in a safe and healthy working environment;
(b) conditions of work should be consistent with workersí well-being
and human dignity;
(c) work should offer real possibilities for personal achievement, self-
fulfilment and service to society.
• Occupational health and safety policies must be established. Such policies must
be implemented at both the governmental and enterprise levels. They must be
effectively communicated to all parties concerned.
• There is a need for consultation with the social partners (that is, employers and
workers) and other stakeholders. This should be done during formulation,
implementation, and review of such policies.
• Prevention and protection must be the aim of occupational health and safety
programs and policies. Efforts must be focused on primary prevention at the
workplace level. Workplaces and working environments should be planned and
designed to be safe and healthy.
• Information is vital for the development and implementation of effective
programs and policies. The collection and dissemination of accurate information
on hazards and hazardous materials, surveillance of workplaces, monitoring of
compliance with policies and good practices, and other related activities are
central to the establishment and enforcement of effective policies.
• Health promotion is a central element of occupational health practice. Efforts
must be made to enhance workersí physical, mental and social well-being.
• Occupational health services covering all workers should be established. Ideally,
all workers in all categories of economic activity should have access to such
12
services, which aim to protect and promote workersí health and improve working
conditions.
• Compensation, rehabilitation, and curative services must be made available to
workers who suffer occupational injuries, accidents and work-related diseases.
Action must be taken to minimize the consequences of occupational hazards.
• Education and training are vital components of safe, healthy working
environments. Workers and employers must be made aware of the importance and
the means of establishing safe working procedures. Trainers must be trained in
areas of special relevance to different industries, which have specific occupational
health and safety concerns.
• Workers, employers and competent authorities have certain responsibilities,
duties, and obligations. For example, workers must follow established safety
procedures; employers must provide safe workplaces and ensure access to first
aid; and the competent authorities must devise, communicate and periodically
review and update occupational health and safety policies.
• Policies must be enforced. A system of inspection must be in place to secure
compliance with occupational health and safety and other labour legislation.
Clearly, some overlap exists among these general principles. For

example, the gathering and dissemination of information on various facets of
occupational health and safety affect all the activities. Information is needed for
the prevention as well as the treatment of occupational injuries and diseases. It is
also needed for the creation of effective policies and to ensure that they are
enforced. Education and training demand information. While these key
principles inform occupational health and safety programs and policies, the
above list is by no means exhaustive. More specialized areas also have
corresponding principles. Moreover, ethical considerations regarding such
matters as individualsí rights to privacy must be taken into consideration when
devising policies.
It is increasingly recognized that the protection of life and health at work

is fundamental; in other words, decent work implies safe work. Furthermore,
workers have a duty to take care of their own safety, as well as the safety of
anyone who might be affected by what they do or fail to do. This implies a right
13
to know and to stop work in the case of imminent danger to health or safety. In
order to take care of their own health and safety, workers need to understand
occupational risks and dangers. They should, therefore, be properly informed of
hazards and adequately trained to carry out their tasks safely. To make progress
in occupational health and safety within enterprises, workers and their
representatives have to cooperate with employers, as well as to participate in
elaborating and implementing preventive programs.
The responsibilities of governments, employers and workers should be

seen as complementary and mutually reinforcing to promote occupational health
and safety to the greatest extent possible within the constraints of national
conditions and practice.
Because occupational hazards arise at the workplace, it is the responsibility of
employers to ensure that the working environment is safe and healthy. This
means that they must prevent, and protect workers from, occupational risks. But
employers responsibility goes further, entailing a knowledge of occupational
hazards and a commitment to ensure that management processes promote health
and safety at work. For example, an awareness of health and safety implications
should guide decisions on the choice of technology or work organization.
Training is one of the most important tasks to be carried out by

employers. Workers need to know not only how to do their jobs, but also how to
protect their lives and health and those of their coworkers while working.
Within enterprises, managers and supervisors are responsible for ensuring that
workers are adequately trained for the work that they are expected to undertake.
Such training should include information on the health and safety aspects of the
work, and on ways to prevent or minimize exposure to hazards. On a wider scale,
employersí organizations should instigate training and information programs on
the prevention and control of hazards and protection against risks. Where
necessary, employers must be in a position to deal with accidents and
emergencies, including providing first-aid facilities. Adequate arrangements
should also be made for compensation of work-related injuries and diseases, as
well as for rehabilitation and to facilitate a prompt return to work. In short, the
objective of preventive programs should be to provide a safe and healthy
14
environment that protects and promotes workersí health and their working
capacity.
Governments are responsible for drawing up occupational health and

safety policies and making sure that they are implemented. Policies will be
reflected in legislation, and legislation must be enforced. But legislation cannot
cover all workplace risks, and it may also be convenient to address occupational
health and safety issues by means of collective agreements reached between the
social partners. Policies are more likely to be supported and implemented if
employers and workers, through their respective organizations, have had a hand
in drawing them up. This is regardless of whether they are in the form of laws,
regulations, codes or collective agreements. The competent authority should
issue and periodically review regulations or codes of practice; instigate research
to identify hazards and to find ways of overcoming them; provide information
and advice to employers and workers, and take specific measures to avoid
catastrophes where potential risks are high. The occupational health and safety
policy should include provisions for the establishment, progressive extension,
and operation of occupational health services. The competent authority should
supervise and advise on the implementation of a workers health surveillance
system and its link with programs of prevention, protection, and promotion of
workers health at the enterprise and national levels. The information provided
by surveillance will show whether occupational health and safety standards are
being implemented, and where more needs to be done to safeguard workers.
A concise statement that encapsulates the main purposes of occupational

health is the definition provided by the Joint ILO/WHO Committee (Figure 3).
As the definition indicates, the main focus in occupational health is on three
different objectives:
15
Figure 3 Joint ILO/WHO Comittee's definition of occupational health
• the maintenance and promotion of workers health and working

capacity;
• the improvement of the working environment and work to become
conducive to safety and health; and
• the development of work organizations and working cultures in a
direction that supports health and safety at work and thereby also
promote a positive social climate and smooth operation and may
enhance the productivity of the undertakings. The principle of working
culture is intended in this context to mean a reflection of the essential
value systems adopted by the undertaking concerned. Such a culture is
reflected in practice in the managerial systems, personnel policy,
principles for participation, training policies and quality management
of the undertaking.
2.5 Guide to controlling risks in the workplace

Introduction
As part of managing the health and safety of your business, you must
control the risks in your workplace. To do this you need to think about what
might cause harm to people and decide whether you are taking reasonable steps
to prevent that harm.
16
This is known as risk assessment and it is something you are required by
law to carry out. If you have fewer than five employees you don’t have to
write anything down.
A risk assessment is not about creating huge amounts of paperwork,

but rather about identifying sensible measures to control the risks in your
workplace. You are probably already taking steps to protect your employees,
but your risk assessment will help you decide whether you have covered all you
need to.
Think about how accidents and ill health could happen and concentrate
on real risks – those that are most likely and which will cause the most harm.
For some risks, other regulations require particular control measures.

Your assessment can help you identify where you need to look at certain risks
and these particular control measures in more detail. These control measures do
not have to be assessed separately but can be considered as part of, or an
extension of, your overall risk assessment.
Identify the hazards
One of the most important aspects of your risk assessment is accurately

identifying the potential hazards in your workplace. A good starting point is to
walk around your workplace and think about any hazards. In other words, what
is it about the activities, processes or substances used that could injure your
employees or harm their health?
When you work in a place every day it is easy to overlook some hazards,
so here are some tips to help you identify the ones that matter:
• Check manufacturers’ instructions or data sheets for chemicals and

equipment as they can be very helpful in explaining the hazards and
putting them in their true perspective.
• Look back at your accident and ill-health records – these often help to
identify the less obvious hazards.
17
• Take account of non-routine operations (eg maintenance, cleaning
operations or changes in production cycles).
• Remember to think about long-term hazards to health (eg high levels
of noise or exposure to harmful substances).
There are some hazards with a recognized risk of harm, for example working
at height, working with chemicals, machinery, and asbestos. Depending on the
type of work you do, there may be other risks that are relevant to your business.
Who might be harmed?
Then think how employees (or others who may be present, such as contractors
or visitors) might be harmed. Ask your employees what they think the hazards
are, as they may notice things that are not obvious to you and may have some
good ideas on how to control the risks.
For each hazard you need to be clear about who might be harmed – it will help
you identify the best way of controlling the risk. That doesn’t mean listing
everyone by name, but rather identifying groups of people (eg people working
in the storeroom or passers-by). Remember:
• Some workers may have particular requirements, eg new and young workers,
migrant workers, new or expectant mothers, people with disabilities,
temporary workers, contractors, home workers and lone workers.
• Think about people who might not be in the workplace all the time, such as
visitors, contractors, and maintenance workers.
• Take members of the public into account if they could be harmed by your
work activities.
• If you share a workplace with another business, consider how your work
affects others and how their work affects you and your workers. Talk to each
other and make sure controls are in place.
• Ask your workers if there is anyone you may have missed.
Evaluate the risks
Having identified the hazards, you then have to decide how likely it is that
harm will occur, ie the level of risk and what to do about it. Risk is a part of
everyday life and you are not expected to eliminate all risks. What you must do
18
is make sure you know about the main risks and the things you need to do to
manage them responsibly. Generally, you need to do everything ‘reasonably
practicable’ to protect people from harm. This means balancing the level of risk
against the measures needed to control the real risk in terms of money, time or
trouble. However, you do not need to take action if it would be grossly
disproportionate to the level of risk.
Your risk assessment should only include what you could reasonably be
expected to know – you are not expected to anticipate unforeseeable risks.
Look at what you’re already doing and the control measures you already have
in place. Ask yourself:
• Can I get rid of the hazard altogether?

• If not, how can I control the risks so that harm is unlikely?
Some practical steps you could take include:
• trying a less risky option;

• preventing access to the hazards;
• organizing your work to reduce exposure to the hazard;
• issuing protective equipment;
• providing welfare facilities such as first aid and washing
facilities;
• involving and consulting with workers.
Improving health and safety need not cost a lot. For instance, placing a mirror
on a blind corner to help prevent vehicle accidents is a low-cost precaution,
considering the risks. Failure to take simple precautions can cost you a lot more
if an accident does happen. Involve your workers, so you can be sure that what
you propose to do will work in practice and won’t introduce any new hazards.
If you control a number of similar workplaces containing similar activities,

you can produce a model risk assessment reflecting the common hazards and
risks associated with these activities.
You may also come across model assessments developed by trade associations,
employers’ bodies or other organizations concerned with a particular activity.
19
You may decide to apply these model assessments at each workplace, but you
can only do so if you:
• satisfy yourself that the model assessment is appropriate to

your type of work;
• adapt the model to the detail of your own work situations,
including any extension necessary to cover hazards and
risks not referred to in the model.
Record your significant findings
Make a record of your significant findings – the hazards, how people

might be harmed by them and what you have in place to control the risks. Any
record produced should be simple and focused on controls.
Any paperwork you produce should help you to communicate and manage the
risks in your business. For most people this does not need to be a big exercise –
just note the main points down about the significant risks and what you
concluded.
When writing down your results keep it simple, for example ‘fume from
welding – local exhaust ventilation used and regularly checked’.
A risk assessment must be suitable and sufficient, ie it should show that:
 a proper check was made;
 you asked who might be affected;
 you dealt with all the obvious significant hazards, taking into
account the number of people who could be involved;
 the precautions are reasonable, and the remaining risk is low;
 you involved your employees or their representatives in the

process.
Where the nature of your work changes fairly frequently or the workplace
changes and develops (eg a construction site), or where your workers move
20
from site to site, your risk assessment may have to concentrate more on a broad
range of risks that can be anticipated.
If your risk assessment identifies a number of hazards, you need to put them in
order of importance and address the most serious risks first.
Identify long-term solutions for the risks with the biggest consequences, as
well as those risks most likely to cause accidents or ill health. You should also
establish whether there are improvements that can be implemented quickly,
even temporarily, until more reliable controls can be put in place.
Remember, the greater the hazard the more robust and reliable the measures to
control the risk of an injury occurring will need to be.
Regularly review your risk assessment
Few workplaces stay the same. Sooner or later, you will bring in new
equipment, substances, and procedures that could lead to new hazards. So it
makes sense to review what you are doing on an ongoing basis, look at your risk
assessment again and ask yourself:
• Have there been any significant changes?

• Are there improvements you still need to make?
• Have your workers spotted a problem?
• Have you learned anything from accidents or near misses?
Make sure your risk assessment stays up to date.
2.6 Health and Safety EU legislation

A wide variety of Community measures in the field of safety and health
at work has been adopted on the basis of Article 153 of the Treaty on the
Functioning of the European Union. European directives are legally binding and
have to be transposed into national laws by the Member States.
European Directives set out minimum requirements and fundamental

principles, such as the principle of prevention and risk assessment, as well as the
responsibilities of employers and employees. A series of European guidelines
aim to facilitate the implementation of European directives as well as European
standards which are adopted by European standardization organizations.
21
Member States may adopt stricter rules to protect workers but their
legislation must comply with the minimum standards. As a result, national
safety and health legislation vary across Europe.
The most important legal act is the European Framework Directive

(1989/391/EEC), which establishes general principles for managing safety and
health, such as responsibility of the employer, rights/duties of workers, using
risk assessments to continuously improve company processes, and workplace
health and safety representation.
Directive (1989/391/EEC) is often referred to as the “framework

directive” and the 'basic law' on occupational safety and health in the EU. It
established the instrument of risk assessment in European OSH legislation,
which, when it was adopted in 1989, was a revolutionary principle for the legal
systems and OSH management systems of many countries
2.6.1 Directive 89/391/EEC - OSH "Framework Directive"
Objective
The aim of this Directive is to introduce measures to encourage

improvements in the safety and health of workers at work. It applies to all
sectors of activity, both public and private, except for specific public service
activities, such as the armed forces, the police or certain civil protection services.
It is of fundamental importance as it the basic safety and health legal act

which lays down general principles concerning the prevention and protection of
workers against occupational accidents and diseases. It contains principles
concerning the prevention of risks, the protection of safety and health, the
assessment of risks, the elimination of risks and accident factors, the informing,
consultation and balanced participation and training of workers and their
representatives.
On the basis of this "Framework Directive", a series of individual

directives were adopted. The Framework Directive with its general principles
continues to apply in full to all the areas covered by the individual directives,
but where individual directives contain more stringent and/or specific provisions,
these special provisions of individual directives prevail.
Definitions
22
Definition of the terms “worker”, “employer”, “workers' representative
with specific responsibility for the safety and health of workers” and
“prevention”.
worker: any person employed by an employer, including trainees and

apprentices but excluding domestic servants;
employer: any natural or legal person who has an employment relationship with
the worker and has responsibility for the undertaking.
and/ or establishment;
Contents
The Framework Directive contains basic obligations for employers and

workers. Nevertheless, the workers' obligations shall not affect the principle of
the responsibility of the employer.
It is the employer's obligation to ensure the safety and health of workers

in every aspect related to work and he may not impose financial costs on the
workers to achieve this aim. Alike, where an employer enlists competent
external services or persons, this shall not discharge him from his
responsibilities in this area.
The general principles of prevention listed in the directive are the

following:
• avoiding risks
• evaluating the risks
• combating the risks at source
• adapting the work to the individual
• adapting to technical progress
• replacing the dangerous by the non or the less dangerous
• developing a coherent overall prevention policy
• prioritizing collective protective measures (over individual protective

measures)
• giving appropriate instructions to the workers
23
Employers’ and workers' obligations
The employer shall:
• evaluate all the risks to the safety and health of workers, inter alia (among
other things) in the choice of work equipment, the chemical substances or
preparations used, and the fitting-out of work places
• implement measures which assure an improvement in the level of protection

afforded to workers and are integrated into all the activities of the undertaking
and/or establishment at all hierarchical levels
• take into consideration the worker's capabilities as regards health and safety
when he entrusts tasks to workers;
• consult workers on introduction of new technologies;

designate worker(s) to carry out activities related to the protection and
prevention of occupational risks.
• take the necessary measures for first aid, fire-fighting, evacuation of workers
and action required in the event of serious and imminent danger
• keep a list of occupational accidents and draw up and draw up, for the
responsible authorities reports on occupational accidents suffered by his
workers
• inform and consult workers and allow them to take part in discussions on all
questions relating to safety and health at work;
• ensure that each worker receives adequate safety and health training
The worker shall:
• make correct use of machinery, apparatus, tools, dangerous substances,

transport equipment, other means of production and personal protective
equipment
• immediately inform the employer of any work situation presenting a serious

and immediate danger and of any shortcomings in the protection arrangements
• cooperate with the employer in fulfilling any requirements imposed for the
protection of health and safety and in enabling him to ensure that the working
environment and working conditions are safe and pose no risks.
24
Health surveillance should be provided for workers according to national
systems. Particularly sensitive risk groups must be protected against the dangers
which specifically affect them.
In addition to the Framework Directive, a series of individual

directives focusing on specific aspects of safety and health at work were
adopted. Nevertheless, the Framework Directive continues to apply to all areas
covered by the individual directives. Where individual directives contain more
stringent and specific provisions, these special provisions prevail. Individual
directives tailor the principles of the Framework Directive to:
• Specific tasks (e.g. manual handling of loads)
• Specific hazards at work (e.g. exposure to dangerous substances or physical

agents)
• Specific workplaces and sectors (e.g. temporary work sites, extractive

industries, fishing vessels)
• Specific groups of workers (e.g. pregnant women, young workers, workers

with a fixed duration employment contract)
• Certain work-related aspects (e.g. organization of working time)
The individual directives define how to assess these risks and, in some
instances, set limit values for certain substances or agents.
2.6.2 Individual Directives and Regulations
Workplaces, equipment, signs, personal protective equipment:
• Directive 2009/104/EC – use of work equipment
of 16 September 2009 concerning the minimum safety and health requirements for
the use of work equipment by workers at work
• Directive 92/58/EEC - safety and/or health signs
of 24 June 1992 on the minimum requirements for the provision of safety and/or
health signs at work
25
• Directive 89/656/EEC - use of personal protective equipment
of 30 November 1989 on the minimum health and safety requirements for the use
by workers of personal protective equipment at the workplace
• Directive 89/654/EEC - workplace requirements
of 30 November 1989 concerning the minimum safety and health requirements for
the workplace: The object of this Directive is to introduce minimum measures
designed to improve the working environment, in order to guarantee a better
standard of safety and health protection
• Regulation (EU) 2016/425 on personal protective equipment
of the European Parliament and of the Council of 9 March 2016 on personal

protective equipment and repealing Council Directive 89/686/EEC
• Directive 2006/95/EC - electrical equipment
of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 December 2006 on the

harmonization of the laws of Member States relating to electrical equipment
designed for use within certain voltage limits
• Directive 95/16/EC - lifts
of 29 June 1995 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to
lifts.
• Directive 89/686/EEC - personal protective equipment
of 21 December 1989 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States

relating to personal protective equipment.
• Directive 75/324/EEC - aerosol dispensers
of 20 May 1975 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to
aerosol dispensers.
Exposure to chemical agents and chemical safety:
• Directive 2009/161/EU - indicative occupational exposure limit values
26
of 17 December 2009 establishing a third list of indicative occupational
exposure limit values in implementation of Council Directive 98/24/EC and
amending Commission Directive 2000/39/EC (Text with EEA relevance)
• Directive 2009/148/EC - exposure to asbestos at work
of 30 November 2009 on the protection of workers from the risks related to

exposure to asbestos at work (Text with EEA relevance)
• Directive 2006/15/EC - indicative occupational exposure limit values
of 7 February 2006 establishing a second list of indicative occupational

exposure limit values in implementation of Council Directive 98/24/EC and
amending Directives 91/322/EEC and 2000/39/EC
• Directive 2004/37/EC - carcinogens or mutagens at work
of 29 April 2004 on the protection of workers from the risks related to exposure
to carcinogens or mutagens at work (Sixth individual Directive within the
meaning of Article 16(1) Directive 89/391/EEC)
• Directive 2000/39/EC - indicative occupational exposure limit values
of 8 June 2000 establishing the first list of indicative occupational exposure

limit values in implementation of Council Directive 98/24/EC on the protection
of the health and safety of workers from the risks related to chemical agents at
work.
• Directive 98/24/EC - risks related to chemical agents at work
of 7 April 1998 on the protection of the health and safety of workers from the
risks related to chemical agents at work (fourteenth individual Directive within
the meaning of Article 16(1) of Directive 89/391/EEC)
• Directive 91/322/EEC - indicative limit values
of 29 May 1991 on establishing indicative limit values by implementing Council

Directive 80/1107/EEC on the protection of workers from the risks related to
exposure to chemical, physical and biological agents at work.
27
• Directive 96/82/EC - major-accident hazards
of 9 December 1996 on the control of major-accident hazards involving

dangerous substance ("Seveso II Directive")
Exposure to physical hazards
• Directive 2003/10/EC - noise
of 6 February 2003 on the minimum health and safety requirements regarding

the exposure of workers to the risks arising from physical agents (noise)
(Seventeenth individual Directive within the meaning of Article 16(1) of
Directive 89/391/EEC).
• Directive 2002/44/EC - vibration
of 25 June 2002 on the minimum health and safety requirements regarding the
exposure of workers to the risks arising from physical agents (vibration)
(sixteenth individual Directive within the meaning of Article 16(1) of Directive
89/391/EEC).
Exposure to biological agents
• Directive 2000/54/EC - biological agents at work
of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 September 2000 on the

protection of workers from risks related to exposure to biological agents at work
(seventh individual directives within the meaning of Article 16(1) of Directive
89/391/EEC)
Provisions on workload, ergonomic and psychosocial risks
• Directive 90/270/EEC - display screen equipment
of 29 May 1990 on the minimum safety and health requirements for work with
display screen equipment (fifth individual Directive within the meaning of
Article 16 (1) of Directive 89/391/EEC)
• Directive 90/269/EEC - manual handling of loads
28
of 29 May 1990 on the minimum health and safety requirements for the manual
handling of loads where there is a risk particularly of back injury to workers
(fourth individual Directive within the meaning of Article 16 (1) of Directive
89/391/EEC)
• Directive 2003/88/EC - working time
of 4 November 2003 concerning certain aspects of the organization of working

time
Sector specific and worker related provisions
• Directive 94/33/EC - young workers
of 22 June 1994 on the protection of young people at work
• Directive 2006/54/EC - equal opportunities
of the European Parliament and of the Council of 5 July 2006 on the

implementation of the principle of equal opportunities and equal treatment of
men and women in matters of employment and occupation
• Directive 2002/14/EC - informing and consulting employees
of 11 March 2002 establishing a general framework for informing and

consulting employees in the European Community
• Directive 2000/78/EC - equal treatment
of 27 November 2000, establishing a general framework for equal treatment in

employment and occupation.
2.7 Health and Safety Romania Legislation

In Romania, the occupational safety and health (OSH) at work area is
regulated through three major types of legislation: primary, secondary and
tertiary legislation.
a. Primary legislation (general principles):
29
▪ Law No. 319 of 14 July 2006 on Safety and Health at Work amended on 27
September 2010
b. Secondary legislation (preventive measures, rules of application):
▪ Government Decision (GD) No. 1425 of 11 October 2006 on the

Methodological Norms for the enforcement of the Law No. 319 on Safety and
Health at Work, amended by GD 955/2010
▪ Government Decision No. 955 of 27 September 2010 on the amendment and

completion of the Methodological Norms for the enforcement of the Law No.
319 of 14 July 2006 on Safety and Health at Work approved by the
Government Decision No. 1425 of 11 October 2006
▪ Government Decisions transposing EU Directives
▪ Standards (standards on safety, standard of the product)
▪ Other legal acts of public administration
c. Tertiary legislation (detailed preventive measures):
▪ Companies’ own OSH instructions in the completion and\or implementation

of the regulation in the field according to the specific conditions of their
activity.
2.7.1 Law No. 319 of 14 July 2006 on Safety and Health at Work
The Law No. 319 of 14 July 2006 on the safety and health of workers at
work establishes general principles concerning the prevention of occupational
risks, the protection of workers’ health and safety at work, the
reduction/elimination of risk and accident factors, information, consultation,
balanced participation in accordance with the legal provisions, training of
workers and their representatives, as well as general guidelines for the
implementation of the said principles. The Law No. 319 applies to every
employer who employs at least one worker, to the workers and the workers’
representatives i.e. to every person participating in the work process. It also
applies to all the activity sectors, both from the private and public sector and
transposes the framework Council Directive 89/391/EEC of 12 June 1989 on the
30
introduction of measures to encourage improvements in the safety and health of
workers at work into the Romanian legislation. The Law No. 319 entered into
force on 1 October 2006 thus replacing the Law No. 90 of 1996 on Labour
Protection that governed the OSH area during the pre-adherence period in
Romania.
The Law No. 90 of 1996 on Labour Protection suited the major changes
occurred in the labour market during the transition period in Romania. These
changes were mostly determined by the transition from an economy governed
by the state ownership upon the economic sector to the market economy and the
beginning of the privatization process.
In 2006, ten years later, alongside with the socio-economic changes of

the labour market, the need of new regulations in terms of worker safety and
health became more than evident. Therefore, the Law No. 319 of 14 July 2006
on safety and health of workers was the result of the social partners’
consultation. It reflects the transformations suffered by the Romanian society as
a whole during the transition from the state economy to the market economy and
a free market. In particular, it reflects the transformation of the institutional
framework in the OSH area and of the domestic workforce as well.
It also represents a major step ahead as regards the approach to worker

safety and health in the light of the European values stipulated within the EEC
Directives in the field, and the principles of a modern social law according to
which the human life is a supreme value and the safe and healthy workplaces
represent a basic worker right. The Law No. 319 also reflects an increased
emphasis on prevention and counseling in the OSH area in line with the EU
Directives in force rather than the control and sanction based principles that
characterized the former labour regulations.
In Romania, the legal regulations in the OSH area also include a series of
acts that transpose the specific directives drawn up for the implementation of the
framework Directive 89/391/EEC of 12 June 1989 and address specific
activities and related risks of all the activity sectors. They were adopted into the
Romanian legislation through Government Decisions and ensured the
31
compatibility of the domestic legislation with the EU regulations in the OSH
area.
In conclusion, the Romanian OSH system might be characterized by a

comprehensive legislative framework that fully transposed the EU legislation in
the area and an adequate institutional framework aligned to the Community
requirements in the field. The weak point would be in terms of the
implementation of the legal provisions on OSH and the identification of the
most efficient instruments for this purpose.
Content
General obligations on employers:
• The employer shall ensure the safety and health of workers in every aspect
related to work.
• If an employer calls to external services, it is not relieved of its responsibilities
in this area.
• The obligations of workers in health and safety at work does not affect the
principle of employer responsibility.
Within its responsibilities, the employer shall take the necessary measures to:
• ensure the safety and health protection;
• prevent occupational hazards;
• inform and train the workers;
• ensure organizational framework and necessary means of safety and health at
work.
The employer shall implement the measures mentioned above based on the
following general principles of prevention:
• avoiding risks;
• evaluating the risks which can not be avoided;
• the control of hazards to the source;
32
• adapting the work to man, especially as regards the design of jobs, the
choice of work equipment, methods of work and production, to reduce
monotonous work, work with a predetermined rate and lower their
effects on health;
• adapting to technical progress;
• replacing what is dangerous with what is not dangerous or is less
dangerous;
• developing a coherent overall prevention policy to include technology,
work organization, working conditions, social relationships and the
influence of environmental factors at work;
• adoption as a priority to collective protection measures to individual
protection measures;
• giving appropriate instructions to workers.
Other obligations of employers:
a) adopt, from the research phase, design and execution of construction,

work equipment and the development of manufacturing technologies, the
solutions according to the laws in force concerning safety and health at work, by
whose application to be removed or diminished risks of injury and occupational
disease for workers;
b) to prepare a plan of prevention and protection measures consisting of

technical, health, organizational and other resources based on risk assessments
which to apply appropriate working conditions specific unit;
c) to obtain authorization from the standpoint of safety and health at

work before starting any activity, according to law;
d) establish for workers, through job file, duties and their responsibilities
in health and safety at work, functions properly exercised;
e) to develop own instructions for purposes of this law to complete

and/or application of health and safety regulations at work, taking into account
the particularities of the activities and of the workplaces under their
responsibility;
f) to ensure and control the knowledge and implementation by all

workers of measures specified in the prevention plan and protection established
33
and the legal provisions on health and safety at work, the workers designated by
their competence or external services;
g) take measures to ensure the materials necessary information and

training for workers, such as posters, leaflets, films and filmstrips on health and
safety at work;
h) to provide information to each person prior to employment in the risks

to which it is exposed in the workplace, and the prevention and protection
measures required;
i) take action to authorize the exercise of trades and professions required

by specific legislation;
j) hire only people who are following a medical examination and, if

necessary, to test the psychological skills correspond load of work to be
executed and provide regular medical examination and, if necessary,
psychological control periodically thereafter employment;
k) to keep track of high-risk areas;
l) ensure permanent and correct functioning of systems and safety

devices, apparatus measurement and control, as well as the catchment, and
neutralizing harmful substances released during technological processes;
m) to submit documents and give relationships required by labor

inspectors during inspection or performing research events;
n) to ensure the implementation measures taken by labor inspectors

during inspection visits and research events;
a) appoint, at the request of the labor inspector, workers who participate

in inspection or investigation of the events;
p) not modify the actual production resulting from a fatal accident or

collectively, apart from cases where maintaining this state would cause other
accidents or jeopardize lives and injure others;
q) to ensure work equipment without danger to the safety and health of

workers;
r) to provide personal protective equipment;
34
s) required to provide personal protective equipment again when
degradation or loss of protective qualities occurs.
Obligations of workers:
a) make correct use of machinery, apparatus, tools, dangerous substances,

transport equipment and other means of production;
b) make correct use of personal protective equipment provided and, after

use, return it or put it in the place intended for storage;
c) not to proceed with decommissioning, changing, changing or

removing arbitrarily safety devices own, especially of machinery, tools, plant,
and buildings, and use these devices correctly;
d) immediately inform the employer and/or workers assigned any work

situation they have reasonable grounds for considering represents a danger to
the safety and health of workers and any deficiency protection systems;
e) to inform his supervisor and/or employer accidents suffered by

oneself;
f) to cooperate with the employer and/or workers appointed for as long

as is necessary to enable any measures or requirements imposed by the labor
inspectors and sanitary inspectors, health protection and safety of workers;
g) to cooperate as long as necessary, with the employer and/or workers

assigned to enable the employer to ensure that the working environment and
working conditions are safe and without risks to health and safety in its field;
h) to acquire and comply with security and health legislation and

measures to implement them;
i) to give relations required by labor inspectors and sanitary inspectors.
2.7.2 Main legislative acts
▪ The Safety and Health at Work Act (Law No. 319 of 14 July 2006 on the
Safety and Health at Work)
35
▪ Government Decision No.1425 of 11 October 2006 on the Methodological
Norms for the enforcement of the Law No. 319 on Safety and Health at Work,
amended by GD 955/2010
▪ Government Decision No. 955 of 27 September 2010 on the amendment and

completion of the Methodological Norms for the enforcement of the Law No.
319 of 14 July 2006 on Safety and Health at Work approved by the
Government Decision No.1425 of 11 October 2006 on the Methodological
Norms for the enforcement of the Law No. 319 on Safety and Health at Work,
amended by GD 955/2010
▪ Government Decision No. 1875/2005 on the protection of workers from the

risks related to exposure to asbestos at work
▪ Government Decision No. 1876/2005 on the minimum safety and health

requirements regarding the exposure of workers to the risks arising from
vibration

requirements regarding the exposure of workers to the risks arising from noise
▪ Government Decision No. 971/2006 on the minimum requirements for the

provision of safety and/or health signs at work

requirements regarding the use of the equipment with display screen
▪ Government Decision No. 1048/2006 on the minimum health and safety

requirements for the use by workers of personal protective equipment at the
workplace
▪ Government Decision No. 1051/2006 concerning the minimum safety and

health requirements for the manual handling of loads where there is a risk
particularly of back injury to workers
▪ Government Decision No. 1058/2006 on minimum requirements for

improving the safety and health protection of workers potentially at risk from
explosive atmospheres
▪ Government Decision No. 1091/2006 concerning the minimum safety and

health requirements for the workplace
36
▪ Government Decision No. 1092/2006 on the protection of workers from risks
related to chemical agents
▪ Government Decision No. 1093/2006 regarding the protection of workers

from the risks related to exposure to carcinogen or mutagen agents at work
▪ Government Decision No. 1135/2006 regarding the minimum safety and

health requirements for work on board fishing vessels
▪ Government Decision No. 1146/2006 regarding the establishment of minimum

safety and health requirements for the use of work equipment by workers at
work
▪ Government Decision No. 1218/2006 laying down minimum requirements for

the health and safety at work for the protection of workers from risks related to
chemical agents
▪ Government Decision No. 600/2007 on the young worker's protection at the

workplace
▪ Government Decision No. 355/2007 on the worker's health surveillance
37
3. Solid Waste Management (SWM)
3.1 Introduction
Any useless, unwanted discarded material that is not a liquid or gas is
referred as solid waste or refuse. For e.g. it may be yesterday’s news paper, junk
mail, today’s meal scraps, pieces of bread, waste rice, racked leaves, dust, grass
clippings, broken furniture, abandoned materials, animal manure, sewage sludge,
industrial refuse or street sweepings etc.
Waste is an issue that affects us all. We all produce waste: on average,

each of the 500 million people living in the EU throws away around half a ton of
household rubbish every year. This is on top of huge amounts of waste
generated from activities such as manufacturing (360 million tons) and
construction (900 million tons), while water supply and energy production
generate another 95 million tons.
With rapid population expansion and constant economic development,

waste generation both in residential as well as commercial/industrial areas
continues to grow rapidly, putting pressure on society's ability to process and
dispose of this material. Also, inappropriately managed solid waste streams can
pose a significant risk to health and environmental concerns. Improper waste
handling in conjunction with uncontrolled waste dumping can cause a broad
range of problems, including polluting water, attracting rodents and insects, as
well as increasing floods due to blockage in drains. As well, it may bring safety
hazards from explosions and fires. Improper solid waste management can also
increase greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, thus contributing to climate change.
The primary goal of solid waste management is reducing and eliminating

adverse impacts of waste materials on human health and environment to support
economic development and superior quality of life.
Solid Waste Management is defined as the discipline associated with

control of generation, storage, collection, transport or transfer, treatment and
disposal of solid waste materials in a way that best addresses the range of public
health, conservation, economics, aesthetic, engineering and other environmental
considerations.
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Solid waste management practices can differ for residential and
industrial producers, for urban and rural areas, and for developed and
developing nations. The administration of non-hazardous waste in metropolitan
areas is the job of local government authorities. On the other hand, the
management of hazardous waste materials is typically the job of the generator,
subject to local, national and even international authorities.
Solid waste management is not just a corporate social responsibility or a

non-priority service anymore. Improper waste management is a public health
and environmental crisis, economic loss, operational inefficiency and political
and public awareness failure. Integrated solid waste management can be a nation
building exercise for healthier and wealthier communities. Therefore, it needs
global attention to arrive at solutions which span across such a wide range of
issues.
3.2 Waste classification

Major types of waste:
• Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) commonly known as trash or garbage in the

United States and as refuse or rubbish in Britain, is a waste type consisting of
wastes from households, sanitation waste and street sweepings. It also includes
wastes and discarded materials from institutions and commercial complexes and
debris from construction and demolition activities.
They are divided into the following streams:
o Domestic or Household wastes: these wastes are generated by household

activities such as cooking, cleaning, repairs and redecoration and include
empty containers, packaging, clothing, old books, newspapers, old furnishings,
etc.
o Commercial wastes: wastes generated in offices, wholesale stores, restaurants,
hotels, markets, and other commercials establishments are classified as
commercial wastes. These are further categorized into garbage and rubbish.
o Institutional wastes: Considerable wastes are generated from institutions such
as schools, colleges, hospitals and research institutions. Such wastes include
garbage, rubbish, and hazardous materials.
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Garbage: the four broad categories:
→ Organic waste: kitchen waste, vegetables, flowers, leaves, fruits.

→ Toxic waste: old medicines, paints, chemicals, bulbs, spray cans,
fertilizer and pesticide containers, batteries, shoe polish.
→ Recyclable: paper, glass, metals, plastics.
→ Soiled: hospital waste such as cloth soiled with blood and other body
fluids.
• Construction and demolition waste: consists of unwanted material produced

directly or incidentally by the construction or industries. This includes building
materials such as insulation, nails, electrical wiring, shingle, and roofing as well as
waste originating from site preparation such as dredging materials, tree stumps,
and rubble. Construction waste may contain lead, asbestos, or other hazardous
substances.
• Industrial waste: is the waste produced by industrial activity which includes any
material that is rendered useless during a manufacturing process such as that
of factories, industries, mills, and mining operations.
• Mining waste (tailings): they consist of earth materials, stones, rocks, sludge,
melting sometimes with oxides of metals, chemicals, and toxic components.
• Hazardous waste: is waste that poses substantial or potential threats to public
health or the environment. These wastes may be found in different physical states
such as gaseous, liquids, or solids. A hazardous waste is a special type of waste
because it cannot be disposed of by common means like other by-products of our
everyday lives. Depending on the physical state of the waste, treatment and
solidification processes might be required. Characteristic hazardous wastes are
materials that are known or tested to exhibit one or more of the following four
hazardous traits: ignitability, reactivity, corrosivity, toxicity. Some examples of
hazardous wastes you may find around your house include antifreeze, batteries,
brake fluid, chemical strippers, chlorine bleach, contact cement, drain cleaners,
fire extinguishers, herbicides, insecticides and insect repellent, kerosene, lawn
chemicals, lighter fluid.
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• Biomedical waste: is any kind of waste containing infectious (or potentially
infectious) materials. It may also include waste associated with the generation of
biomedical waste that visually appears to be of medical or laboratory origin (e.g.,
packaging, unused bandages, infusion kits, etc.), as well research laboratory waste
containing biomolecules or organisms that are restricted from environmental
release.
Biomedical waste may be solid or liquid. Examples of infectious waste include
discarded blood, sharps, unwanted microbiological cultures and stocks,
identifiable body parts (including those as a result of amputation), other human or
animal tissue, used bandages and dressings, discarded gloves, other medical
supplies that may have been in contact with blood and body fluids, and laboratory
waste that exhibits the characteristics described above. Waste sharps include
potentially contaminated used (and unused discarded) needles, scalpels, lancets
and other devices capable of penetrating the skin.
Biomedical waste is generated from biological and medical sources and
activities, such as the diagnosis, prevention, or treatment of diseases. Common
generators (or producers) of biomedical waste include hospitals, health clinics,
nursing homes, medical research laboratories, offices of physicians, dentists, and
veterinarians, home health care, and morgues or funeral homes. In healthcare
facilities (i.e., hospitals, clinics, doctor's offices, veterinary hospitals and clinical
laboratories), waste with these characteristics may alternatively be called medical
or clinical waste.
• Biodegradable waste: waste includes any organic matter in waste which can be
broken down into carbon dioxide, water, methane or simple organic molecules by
micro-organisms and other living things using composting, aerobic digestion,
anaerobic digestion or similar processes. Biodegradable waste can be commonly
found in municipal solid waste (sometimes called biodegradable municipal waste,
or BMW) as green waste, food waste, paper waste, and biodegradable plastics.
Other biodegradable wastes include human waste, manure, sewage, sewage sludge
and slaughterhouse waste. In the absence of oxygen, much of this waste will
decay to methane by anaerobic digestion.
• Electronic waste (E-Waste): describes discarded electrical or electronic devices.
Used electronics which are destined for reuse, resale, salvage, recycling, or
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disposal are also considered e-waste. Informal processing of e-waste in
developing countries can lead to adverse human health effects and environmental
pollution.
Electronic scrap components, such as CPUs, contain potentially harmful
components such as lead, cadmium, beryllium, or brominated flame retardants.
Recycling and disposal of e-waste may involve significant risk to the health of
workers and communities in developed countries and great care must be taken to
avoid unsafe exposure in recycling operations and leaking of materials such as
heavy metals from landfills and incinerator ashes.
• Green waste: also called agricultural waste is biodegradable waste that can be
composed of garden or park waste, such as grass or flower cuttings and hedge
trimmings, as well as domestic and commercial food waste. Examples: grass
cuttings, leaves, hedge trimmings, prunings, flowers, branches, weeds, plants etc.
• Bulky waste: is a technical term taken from waste management to describe waste
types that are too large to be accepted by the regular waste collection. It is usually
picked up regularly in many countries from the streets or pavements of the area.
This service is provided free of charge in many places, but often a fee has to be
paid. Bulky waste items include discarded furniture (couches, recliners, tables),
large appliances (refrigerators, ovens, tv's), and plumbing fixtures (bathtubs,
toilets, sinks). A large amount (30-60%, depending on area) of bulky waste is
picked up by scavengers before it is collected.
3.3 Basic Solid Waste Management

Solid Waste management is all the activities and actions required to
manage solid waste from its inception to its final disposal. This includes
amongst other things collection, transport, treatment and disposal of waste.
The solid wastes generation takes place everywhere people live and work,
as a result of their needs and activities. After finishing a meal, that remains of
the food someone considers they have no further value for his nutrition are
wastes.
An empty plastic bottle of water, an empty can of refreshment, a broken

furniture (or an old one), a wrong written piece of paper, a broken glass, the
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used sanitary materials, an old or destroyed suit, a useless pair of shoes, the
wrapping of a gift are some examples in the unlimited list of municipal solid
wastes. Normally all these materials (considered like wastes( are collected from
the owner in a special can or plastic bag at the house, office, shop, school.
The waste generation is the first step, afterward the owner likes very
much to dispose them to a place, far from the house, because he is disturbed
from the bad smell, the volume and the bad look of the wastes. The Municipality
has usually the responsibility for the disposal of the municipal solid wastes. On
the streets of a city, the municipality has put big cans with or without wheels for
the temporary disposal.
The collection of solid wastes from the cans is the next step. Depending
on the city and the density of population in each neighborhood the collection
takes place at different times. In some small cities once or twice by week is
enough for the effective and satisfying collection, but in the big cities, it is
necessary to collect the wastes twice by day.
For the collection in our days, the services use special types of track, the
„garbage-tracks”. They are big, closed and equipped with special mechanisms
for elevating the cans and shooting rubbish inside the track, as well as for
pressing the wastes and minimize their volume. The pressing mechanism
consists either by mill (a helix of Archimedes with pressing ratio (1:2-1:5) or by
press (mechanical press with jaw making a semi-circular movement, and
pressing ratio 1:3 – 1:8).
In case the streets are narrow the use of a small and flexible track is
necessary, on the opposite if the streets are large and the volume of wastes are
big it is used a big track relatively. The design of the more efficient routes of
garbage-tracks is very important for the optimization of spending time and
expenditures concerning the collection of municipal solid wastes.
A personnel consisting of three persons (the driver of the truck and two
workers) works on each garbage-truck.
The transportation of solid wastes, far from the living areas, in order to
be permanently disposed, takes place when the garbage-track is full. In the big
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cities with a big volume of wastes consequently, there are installed intermediate
installations between the city and the place of final disposal.
We call them transfer stations and they serve to consolidate the wastes in
loads, to compact them further in order to decrease their volume and sometimes
to store them for short time (2-3) days.
Afterward the solid wastes, are transported with bigger vehicles for
waste treatment to a recycling plant usually known as Materials Recovery
Facility (MRF) or sorting facility.
A Materials Recovery Facility (MRF) is a facility which sorts

(manually or/and automatically) and processes materials that are collected
elsewhere and brought to the MRF for the purpose of recovery of recyclable
materials. The transfer of wastes is an integral part of the operation. The transfer
facilities at a MRF are relatively smaller than transfer stations because
recyclables have been removed from the waste stream.
Most MRFs are not separate, independent facilities, but are often
incorporated into new or existing transfer stations. Those MRFs that are part of
larger facilities are rarely accessible to the public. However, since operations are
potentially dangerous, it is important that the public is excluded from access to
the sorting/processing areas. The safety of the employees who perform the
actual separation of recoverable materials from the waste stream will require
close observation by the inspector.
After the separation process in the MRF, the recyclables are made into
bales and transported further on for manufacturing new goods while the
remaining of the waste which cannot be recycled are sent either at an
Incineration Plant or to a landfill.
Incineration is a waste treatment process that involves

the combustion of organic substances contained in waste materials. Incineration
and other high-temperature waste treatment systems are described as "thermal
treatment". Incineration of waste materials converts the waste into ash, flue
gas and heat. The ash is mostly formed by the inorganic constituents of the
waste and may take the form of solid lumps or particulates carried by the flue
gas. The flue gases must be cleaned of gaseous and particulate pollutants before
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they are dispersed into the atmosphere. In some cases, the heat generated by
incineration can be used to generate electric power.
Incineration with energy recovery is one of several waste-to-

energy (WtE) technologies such as gasification, pyrolysis and anaerobic
digestion. Most WtE processes produce electricity and/or heat directly through
combustion, or produce a combustible fuel commodity, such
as methane, methanol, ethanol or synthetic fuels.
In some countries, incinerators built just a few decades ago often did not
include a materials separation to remove
hazardous, bulky or recyclable materials before combustion. These facilities
tended to risk the health of the plant workers and the local environment due to
inadequate levels of gas cleaning and combustion process control. Most of these
facilities did not generate electricity.
In 2015 Sweden reported that 50 percent of the household waste is burnt

to produce energy at incineration plants. There are rumors that they run out of
waste and in order to maintain the energy production they are buying waste
from other countries such as UK and Norway. There are other rumors which
state that countries that send garbage to Sweden pay Sweden for the service of
taking care of their trash. So Sweden actually makes a profit from taking on free
fuel energy.
Incinerators reduce the solid mass of the original waste by 80–85% and
the volume (already compressed somewhat in garbage trucks) by 95–96%,
depending on composition and degree of recovery of materials such as metals
from the ash for recycling. This means that while incineration does not
completely replace landfilling, it significantly reduces the necessary volume for
disposal. The ash which remains after the incineration process is called
incinerator bottom ash (IBA).
The ash typically has a small amount of ferrous metals contained within
it. This ash can be processed to standardize the material and
remove contaminants in order for it to be used as an aggregate. The aggregate
uses for the material include bulk fill, asphalt, cement bound materials,
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lightweight blocks, pavement concrete. Alternatively, if there are no local
markets for the IBA the material is typically disposed of in a landfill.
The final disposal of solid waste or what remains of it is sent to a landfill

site which is the least preferable option in the waste hierarchy and should be
limited to the necessary minimum.
Land-filling means the disposal of wastes in the surface soil of the

earth. For many centuries in the past, the disposal of wastes in landfills has been
the only way of disposal because it was the most economical and
environmentally acceptable.
At the beginning the landfill was a big or smaller area, according to the
volume of disposed wastes, lying out of the city’s borders where the wastes
were put on the soil surface. I was simply a dump, with bad smell, bad view,
very attractive to mice and birds and very often happened fire, which was very
dangerous for the environment. On the other hand, poor people searched very
often the wastes and, since the organics were decomposed, many kinds of
epidemics appeared in the cities. The liquids produced by the organic
degradation (leachate) entered through the soil in the underground water so they
contaminated it as well as they flowed, aided by the precipitations, on the
surface and they contaminated the surface-waters.
Later the landfill becomes „sanitary landfill” because at the end of the day’s
operation the wastes were covered by earth, in order to minimize the odors and
protected the social health. Anyway, the contamination of the waters and
atmosphere was not fully blocked.
In our day's sanitary landfill means a carefully designed structure built into or
on top of the ground which purpose is to bury the trash in such a way that it will
be isolated from groundwater, will be kept dry and will not be in contact with air.
With such conditions, wastes do not break down very rapidly.
In fact, when a landfill is closed, the site, especially the groundwater, must be
monitored and maintained for up to 30 years to ensure that the eventual leaks
will be discovered before their toxins contaminate the environment.
In more developed countries like Germany only 1% of the waste is landfilled,

most of it being recycled while in much poorer countries like Romania more
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than 80% of waste is going directly to a landfill, the other 19 percent is being
composted(9%), recycled(7%) and incinerated(3%).
3.4 Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM)

For many years, there has been a divide in how to deal with solid
municipal waste. Some believe the answer is waste management, which is the
process of managing waste that is created and implementing disposal methods
that reduce harm to the environment. The second strategy is waste reduction,
which is the process of reducing the total amount of waste produced and also
using waste for alternative purposes.
Although many people have strong opinions about which strategy is

preferred, there is a new plan for dealing with waste that combines the two
opposing strategies. The system is called integrated waste management, which
combines a variety of strategies for both waste management and waste reduction.
Some common examples of basic waste management that are involved in
integrated waste management are burying waste in sanitary landfills and burning
waste in mass burn incinerators. Integrated waste management also includes
waste reduction methods, such as reusing, recycling and composting. It is
thought by both scientists and economists that if integrated waste management
is implemented on a large scale all over the world, that between 75-90% of
municipal solid waste could be eliminated due to the variety of strategies in
place.
Although it might sound simple to implement integrated waste

management by using a variety of waste strategies, it is actually more complex.
Priorities have been put in integrated solid waste management concerning:
• Prevention (reduce) solid waste generation

• Reuse products and materials
• Recycling
• Energy recovery
• Landfill
This is also known as the waste hierarchy.
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As you can now tell from the priorities of the integrated waste
management system, for the system to work efficiently, more effort and
attention need to be paid to waste reduction. Unfortunately, although the
priorities were designed by scientists and backed by data, most countries, still
tend to focus more attention on basic waste management.
3.4.1 Waste hierarchy
The evaluation of processes that protect the environment alongside

resource and energy consumption to most favorable to least favorable actions.
The hierarchy establishes preferred program priorities based on sustainability.
To be sustainable, waste management cannot be solved only with technical end-
of-pipe solutions and an integrated approach is necessary.
The waste management hierarchy indicates an order of preference for

action to reduce and manage waste and is usually presented diagrammatically in
the form of a pyramid. The hierarchy captures the progression of a material or
product through successive stages of waste management.
The aim of the waste hierarchy is to extract the maximum practical

benefits from products and to generate the minimum amount of waste. The
proper application of the waste hierarchy can have several benefits. It can help
prevent emissions of greenhouse gases, reduces pollutants, saves energy,
conserves resources, creates jobs and stimulates the development of green
technologies.
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Figure 4 Waste Hierarchy
1. Prevention
Good waste management begins with preventing waste being produced

in the first place – after all, what is not produced does not have to be disposed of.
Waste prevention is becoming more and more important as the global
population increases and we eat away at our finite supply of natural resources.
However, this is a very challenging concept as it is difficult to measure
something which, by definition, never existed. One of the key tools being used
to encourage waste prevention is eco-design, which focuses on environmental
aspects during the conception and design phase of a product. Eco-friendly
products should be made using recycled secondary raw materials and should
avoid the use of hazardous substances. These products should consume less
energy during the use phase and should be able to be recycled once they have
been discarded. Waste prevention is closely linked to improving manufacturing
methods and influencing consumers so that they demand greener products and
less packaging. Many Member States are running awareness-raising campaigns
to educate the public and encourage consumers to demand goods that produce
less waste and drive the creation of a more resource-efficient market.
Waste prevention focuses more on educating the public about how waste
is gonna affect them if they don’t do anything to prevent it from happening.
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So, optimizing the use of raw materials, purchasing durable, long-lasting
products rather than disposable ones, buying only what we need, using recycled
materials, buying products that do not have a lot of packaging, etc. Are ways to
decrease waste and save the earth resources and make them available for the
future generations.
2. Waste minimisation
Reducing waste is self-explanatory, and relies on making a process more

efficient. This option often applies industrial processes far more than the
common domestic environment. People may think it's odd when chemical
engineers tinker with a chemical reaction to change its yield from 99.5% to
99.75% (an apparently minuscule increase) but this halves a number of waste
side products produced. Generally, improved efficiency is synonymous with
economic viability as well as more useful output can be gained from the same
input, and less waste is less expensive to dispose of.
This can also apply outside the industry, by homes using more efficient
appliances or using their electric supply more effectively, from not leaving the
heating on constantly or water running too long, to only boiling a kettle with the
right amount of water in it.
Example: Businesses can often modify their current practices to reduce

the amounts of waste generated by changing the design, manufacture, purchase,
or use of materials or products. Sample goals in this area include:
• Reducing office paper waste by implementing a formal policy to duplex all

draft reports, and by making training manuals and personnel information
available electronically.
• Improving product design to use fewer materials.
• Redesigning packaging to eliminate excess material while maintaining

strength.
• Working with customers to design and implement a packaging return program.
• Switching to reusable transport containers.
• Purchasing products in bulk.
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3. Reuse
This is simple; reduce waste by not wasting something, but reusing it.
Because it takes so many resources to make a product and along its entire life
cycle so much waste is generated, it’s ideal that every product would be reusable.
A „reusable” product is one that is designed to be durable and used over

and over again, instead of being „disposable” and thrown away after one use. It
is well known in Europe the reuse of beer’s bottles until now. Usually, people
return bottles to the shops where beer is sold and they get a little discount. The
empty bottle is going back to the industry on the returning of the vehicle which
transferred the full bottles to the shop.
Reuse can extend a product life many times. Reusing products before
they are recycled or thrown away can save virgin natural resources, energy,
reduce disposal needs and costs. The longer a product can be used, the better,
since it does not need to be replaced by a new one.
When we buy less expensive items, we may think that we save money,
but in the long run, we may have to replace the less expensive item two or three
times, while a better quality item might last more and it wouldn’t have need any
replacement. And each time a cheaper product is replaced, it has to be
manufactured again, and more resources are needed and more waste is created.
Another way products can be given a second (or third or fourth) life is by
being repaired, rebuilt, restored, or reconditioned and then reused; typewriter
and computer printer ribbon cartridges can be refilled, tires can be retreated, cars
can get new engines, etc.
For many products, individual parts can be reused to repair items – auto
dismantlers particularly salvage the useful parts of crashed cars for resale rather
than simply recycle the whole car as scrap metal.
Increasing a product lifetime through better design, repair of broken or

worn items and continuing to reuse a product for its entire lifespan is more
effective than recycling because it doesn't not need to be reprocessed before it
can be used again.
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3. Recycling and Composting
"Nothing is lost, nothing is created, everything is transformed." (Antoine

Lavoisier)
When a product cannot be reused or repaired, recycling would be the

next alternative.
Recycling is a series of activities that includes collecting recyclable materials

that would otherwise be considered waste, sorting and processing recyclables
into raw materials such as fibers, and manufacturing raw materials into new
products.
Collecting and processing secondary materials, manufacturing recycled-

content products, and then purchasing recycled products creates a circle or loop
that ensures the overall success and value of recycling. |
As consumers, we can participate in making the cycle work by making sure we
recycle everything that can be recycled and purchasing as many products made
from recycled material as we can.
Gluts of recyclable materials can become worthless if there are not enough
buyers of recycled products. When we buy recycled products, we create an
economic incentive for recyclable materials to be collected, manufactured, and
marketed as new products. Thus, buying recycled has both economic and
environmental benefits.
Apart from the common materials that are usually recycled such as paper,
plastics, glass, aluminium, etc. There are a lot of other materials that could be
recycled. When considering the recyclability of a product there are two separate
and distinct issues:
• First, can a product or material technically be recycled and

• Second, in real life can a product or material practically be recycled
The difference between these two definitions of recyclable is

controversial in the product/packaging-labelling world. Some say that any
product or material that can technically be recycled should be labeled
„recyclable”. Others say that the attribute „recyclable” should only be used on a
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label if, in fact, it can really be recycled in the community where the product or
package is sold.
While recyclables such as glass or newspapers can be recycled almost

everywhere, other recyclables like plastics or motor oil can only be recycled in
the limited number of areas where programs have been set up. In this case, a
question appears: it is economically feasible to recycle a product?
Another important area of recycling is composting. Composting is

another form of recycling. It is a natural process which recycles organic waste
into useful material by biological decomposition.
By composting, organic waste as yard trimmings, leaves and many kinds of
kitchen scraps are converted into natural soil additives which can be a valuable
resource in vegetable and flower gardens, landscaping, and many other
applications.
Compost contains both carbon and nitrogen sources, which can be simplified
as browns for carbon (e.g., leaves, straw, woody materials) and greens for
nitrogen (e.g., grass and food scraps). Adequate sources of carbon and nitrogen
are important for microorganism growth and energy. Water and air are other two
vital compost ingredients for the microorganisms.
Greens provide nitrogen and act as a source of protein for the microbes that
are hard at work in a compost pile: green leaves, coffee grounds, tea bags, plant
trimmings, raw fruit and vegetable scraps, fresh grass clippings.
Browns are a source of carbon, and provide energy for the microbes:
dried grasses, leaves and some weeds, straw, woodchips, twigs and branches,
sawdust, shredded newspaper, corn cobs and stalks.
While many materials can be composted, there are some items that
should be kept out of a compost pile, like food with meat, dairy or oils, diseased
plants, weeds gone to seed, ash from charcoal or coal, because they can attract
pests.
Composting has the following benefits:
• Keeps organic wastes out of landfills

• Provides nutrients to the soil
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• Increases beneficial soil organisms (e.g., worms and centipedes)
• Suppresses certain plant diseases
• Reduces the need for commercial fertilizers and pesticides
• Increase the ability of the soil to absorb air and water
• Protects soils from erosion
• Support pollution remediation
When reuse of a product or recycling is not possible we proceed to the

next steps of waste hierarchy which is energy recovery (incineration) as well
as final disposal (landfill) which are explained earlier in the chapter 2.3 Basic
Solid Waste Management.
3.5 Why recycling?

The contribution of recycling to the environmental preservation is of a
great importance because through recycling a community has the opportunity to:
Conserve resources for our children’s future (according to the principle of
sustainability)
Recycling is a positive step which we can take to help the environment.

It encourages us to think about the waste we create and take responsibility for
what happens to it. Ultimately this is the greatest advantage of recycling as
raising awareness is the first step towards changing the way we deal with any
problem. One of the main aims of recycling comes from reducing the amount of
new material required. Recycling conserves natural resources, such as timber,
water, and minerals. Since fewer raw materials are required, recycling creates
further benefits for materials where the cost of the initial extraction or
production is high- either economically, socially or environmentally.
In theory, recycling allows a material to be continually reused for the

same purpose, and in many cases, this theory holds true, most notably in the
recycling of metals and glass.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) stresses quite amazing statistics

on recycling:
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• The recycling of aluminium, for example, saves 95% of the CO2 emissions
– an environmentally harmful greenhouse gas –compared to refining new
metal.
• Recycled paper supplies more than 37% of the raw materials used to make
new paper products in the U.S. Without recycling, this material would
come from trees. Every ton of newsprint or mixed paper recycled in the
equivalent of 12 trees. Every ton of office paper recycled is the equivalent
of 24 trees.
• When one ton of steel is recycled, 2.500 pounds of iron ore, 1.400 pounds
of coal and 120 pounds of limestone are conserved.
Recycling eases the demand for the resources
The processing and transportation activities add to the environmental

impact. Recycling reduces the impact of the extraction and transportation
created at the point where the raw material is extracted. Activities such as
mining, quarrying, and logging can be environmentally destructive, destroying
the natural environment and precious local wildlife habitats. Concerns about
limited resources such as raw materials and land space for disposal of waste
have increased the importance of recycling. Recycling prevents habitat
destruction, loss of biodiversity, and soil erosion associated with logging and
mining.
This is important because the vast majority of resources that we use in

the manufacturing products and providing services cannot be replaced. The use
of these resources cannot go on indefinitely – we would run out.
Save energy
Recycling often uses less energy, causes less pollution than using raw
materials and also results in fewer emissions. Manufacturing with recycled
materials, with very few exceptions, saves energy and water and produces less
air and water pollution than manufacturing with virgin materials. Burning fossil
fuels for energy produces carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas which contributes to
global warning, so using less energy is vital.
For example, the manufacture of bags from recycled rather than virgin
polythene reduces energy consumption by two-thirds, produces one-third of the
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sulfur dioxide and one-half of the nitrous oxide, uses only one-eighth of the
water and reduces carbon dioxide generation. It takes 95% less energy to recycle
aluminium than it does to make it from raw materials. The energy we save when
we recycle one glass bottle is enough to light a light bulb for four hours. These
saving far outweigh the energy created as by-products of incineration and
landfilling.
Reduce the need for new landfills and incinerators
In addition, recycling reduces the amount of waste going to landfill or

incineration. Dealing with our rubbish in this way is not an ideal solution.
Landfilling and inceration can harm the environment if not properly managed.
Many landfill sites are nearby full and we rapidly running out of the suitable
land, close to where the rubbish is produced, for new sites. Most importantly,
when we bury or burn our rubbish we are losing valuable natural resources.
Such immense quantities of waste, if recycled and disposed properly, can be of
substantial help in the conservation of valuable resources.
Prevent emissions of many greenhouse gases and water pollutants
Recycling benefits are in the air and water by creating a net reduction in
ten major categories of air pollutants and eight major categories of water
pollutants. Recycling can significantly reduce various emissions. For example,
in the US, processing minerals contributes almost half of all reported emissions
from industry, sending 1.5 million tons of pollution into the air and water each
year.
Recycling Reduces Toxic E-Waste
When we talk about recycling household and work place things, we tend
to ignore or are less aware of how to deal with the electrical and electronic
waste (sometimes called e-waste). E-waste is valuable as a source of secondary
raw material but also toxic if disposed of improperly. Due to rapid technology
change, obsolescent items have created a fast growing mass of electronic waste
around the globe.
In order to reduce this, working TVs, monitors, computers, cell phones,

batteries and other consumer electronics can be sold or donated, thereby
56
prolonging their useful life. Some new regulations, for example,
the WEEE (Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment) Directive in the
European Union makes businesses, manufacturers and retailers of electrical and
electronics equipment responsible for making sure their goods do not end up in
landfill or incineration, where the toxic chemicals, metals and associated solders,
glues, and plastics can cause both environmental and health problems.
Repurposing electronic equipment involves dismantling of parts into metals,
plastics and so on and individually processing them depending on the available
technology.
In view of reducing environmental pollution and cutting down energy

consumption, recycling is an important step to undertake. A sustainable lifestyle
is the need of the times and we can very well adopt such beneficial changes in
our daily life.
Recycling Creates Jobs
Apart from the environmental benefits, think of the employment that it

can generate. When you put your waste in different bins for paper, plastics, glass
and so on, the contents of each are further segregated and taken to recycling
plants. The man power involved in the logistics and processing of your waste is
considerable and thus you are helping to keep them in jobs and aid in the
welfare of their families. What could be more appropriate in tough economic
times as now to create and keep people employed?
The danger of global climate change has forced us to take drastic

measures to cut down on pollution levels to slow down if not eradicate this
phenomenon. In view of this, ambitious but necessary targets for recycling are
also being set by governments around the world.
To meet these targets, more and more people must take action regularly.
As a result, the amount of waste reaching the landfill sites is reduced and the
quantity of land fill sites is reduced. Hence better land use for other constructive
purposes is ensured.
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4. The recycling process and recycling technology
4.1 Introduction
Although municipal waste represents only around 10 % of total waste
generated in the EU (Eurostat, 2016a and 2016b), it is very visible, and
prevention of this waste has the potential to reduce its environmental impact not
only during the consumption and the waste phases but also throughout the
whole life cycle of the products consumed. Countries that have developed
efficient municipal waste management systems generally perform better in
overall waste management.
Over the last two decades, European countries have increasingly shifted
their focus with regard to municipal waste from disposal methods to prevention
and recycling. Moving municipal waste management up the ‘waste hierarchy’ is
essential to extract more value from resources while reducing the pressures on
the environment and creating jobs.
“Recycling rates in Europe continue to rise, European Environment

Agency (EEA) claim” (14 November 2016)
“European countries are improving their diversion of household waste

from landfill, a European Environment Agency (EEA) assessment has
suggested.”
In particular, the move away from landfill has been accompanied by a

considerable rise in recycling rates across Europe over the past decade, due in
part to European environmental policies, according to the EEA report.
The 7th Environmental Action Programme, adopted in November 2013,

stresses the need for full implementation of EU waste legislation with a
particular focus on the waste hierarchy. The vision set out in the programme is
that ‘recycled waste should be used as a major, reliable source of raw material
for the Union, through the development of non-toxic material cycles’. While
existing waste policies have been successful so far, there is still a large potential
‘in moving towards a circular economy where ultimately nothing is wasted’.
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In 2014 Germany, Austria, Belgium, Switzerland, the Netherlands and
Sweden recycled at least half of their municipal waste, statistics showed.
Overall, in 15 out of 32 countries, the increase in recycling rates was at least 10
Figure 5 Recycling rates in Europe by waste stream
percentage points over the 2004-2014 period.
This indicator shows how the progress Europe is making towards the goal to
recycle more waste, using municipal solid waste and packaging waste as
examples.
For these two waste streams, legally binding quantitative targets for
recycling exist in EU legislation. The Waste Framework Directive sets a target
of 50 % of municipal waste (more precisely the target applies to specific types
of household and similar wastes) to be recycled by 2020 in individual countries
(except Turkey and Switzerland). The Packaging and Packaging Waste
Directive (94/62/EC) requires the EU Member States to recycle at least 55 % of
packaging waste by 2008. Several countries have different target years for
meeting the Packaging and Packaging Waste Directive targets: 2012 for the
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Czech Republic, Estonia, Cyprus, Lithuania, Hungary, Slovenia, and Slovakia;
2013 for Malta; 2014 for Poland; 2015 for Latvia. In addition, Romania and
Bulgaria have been granted specific derogations, defined in their respective
Treaties of Accession. In December 2015, the European Commission proposed a
new set of more ambitious targets for recycling of both municipal and packaging
waste, as part of its circular economy strategy.
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The recycling rate of municipal waste grew continuously by 13
percentage points in the EU-27 countries and Norway in the period 2004-2014
(Figure 5), which clearly indicates improvements in waste management. In 2014,
43 % of municipal waste generated in the EU-27 and Norway was recycled,
Figure 6 Recycling rates comparison on 10 years by country
including both material recycling and composting.
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4.2 Definitions
Curbside collection or Kerbside collection is a service provided to
households, typically in urban and suburban areas of removing household waste.
It is usually accomplished by personnel using purpose built vehicles to pick up
household waste in containers acceptable to or prescribed by the municipality.
Instead of sending their recyclables to a centralized location, in “Curbside
Collection”, the recyclables are picked up from the recyclers using a waste
collection vehicle.
Systems of “Curbside Collection” encompass many subtly different

forms, which differ mostly on which point in the process the recyclables are
sorted and cleaned. The different forms of the curbside collection include
"Mixed Waste Collection", "Commingled Recyclables" and "Source Separation".
A Dropf-off center is a facility for the drop-off and temporary holding

of materials such as paper, cardboard, glass, metal, plastic, batteries, and motor
oil. These centers require the recyclers (eg. the homemaker) to bring the
recyclables to a central location, either an installed or mobile collection station
or the reprocessing plant itself. This form of recycling waste collection is the
easiest to establish. However, since the use of such centers is on a voluntary
basis, it often suffers from low and unpredictable supply of recyclables.
Buy-back center: When it comes to Buy-back Centres, the recyclers are

similarly required to bring the recyclables to a central location. However, at the
Buy-back Centres, the cleaned recyclates are purchased from the recyclers. This
method of recycling waste collection provides an incentive for recyclers to send
their used items for recycling, hence ensuring a stable supply of recyclables. In
turn, the post-processed materials are then sold, hopefully with a profit. Given
that the resale value of post-processed materials may sometimes be lower than
the processing cost, government subsidies may be required for the system of
Buy-back Centres to be viable.
Mixed Waste Collection means that the recyclables are mixed with the
rest of the waste at the collection. The recyclables would then need to be sorted
out and cleaned at a central sorting facility. This results in a lot of recyclables
62
being wasted, especially paper which may be too soiled to reprocess.
Nonetheless, there is an advantage to this form of curbside collection – there is
no need to pay for the separate collection of different recyclables and no public
education is needed. Since all the sorting takes place in a central location, any
change to which materials are recyclable can be easily accommodated.
Single-stream recycling (also known as “fully commingled” or "single-

sort") recycling refers to a system in which all paper fibers, plastics, metals, and
other containers are mixed in a collection truck, instead of being sorted by the
depositor into separate commodities (newspaper, paperboard, corrugated
fiberboard, plastic, glass, etc.) and handled separately throughout the collection
process. In single-stream, both the collection and processing systems are
designed to handle this fully commingled mixture of recyclables, with materials
being separated for reuse at a materials recovery facility (MRF).
There’s less decision making required because people don’t need to sort
their recyclables. However, single-stream recycling has sparked many
discussions and debates over how effective it really is within the recycling
industry.
Although the items are sorted at a processing facility, the process has
been described as “trying to unscramble a scrambled egg.” Many of those
single stream recyclables collected never make it to their next life. Paper ends
up with the bottles and cans and the paper mills struggle with unwanted
containers, particularly glass. These misdirected recyclables are contaminants
and are disposed of rather than recycled.
Dual stream recycling is also referred to as source separated recycling.

This means keeping the fiber component –– paper and cardboard –– separate
from containers, including glass and plastic containers and cans. Some of the
benefits are:
• Lower levels of contamination;
• Higher quality and more valuable recovered material;
• Lower costs to process the collected recyclables.
63
`Most professional recycling firms believe this is the right option for
most businesses and institutions. In a professional situation, it’s straightforward
to keep recyclables separated. That gives the organization the maximum
financial benefit from recycling.
Manual separation – separation of recyclable or biodegradable

components of waste by hand sorting.
Mechanical separation – separation of recyclable or biodegradable

components of waste through the use of mechanical equipment such as
trommels, screens, and separators.
Recyclables – materials that have served their original purpose but still
have useful physical or chemical properties that can be reused or reprocessed as
materials for new products. Typical examples include paper, glass, metals,
cardboard, and plastic containers.
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) – a plastic material commonly used

to make bottles for food, beverages, pharmaceutical, and other liquid products.
The standard plastic code for PET is #1.
Biodegradables – organic materials which include food wastes and

paper that can be broken down by microorganisms into simpler, more stable
compounds such as carbon dioxide and water. This property allows these
materials to be transformed into compost.
Polypropylene – a plastic material that is used to manufacture chairs,

dairy tubs, bags, ropes, carpets, and mats. The standard plastic code for
polypropylene is #5.
4.3 The recycling loop

Every recycling system represents a material conversion process. A
production process takes available things and makes usable products by
converting, separating, and/or combining them into other forms or uses.
Collecting and processing secondary materials, manufacturing recycled-content
products, and then purchasing recycled products creates a circle or loop that
ensures the overall success and value of recycling. The recycling process
follows the production process and can be considered a secondary production
whereby residuals and wastes are reworked.
64
1. Collection and Processing
When we take materials to a bring bank or put them out for the local
authority to collect, they have not at that point been recycled – although they
have been collected for recycling. They are yet to be processed, ready for
recycling, and then made into a new product, at which point they have been
recycled.
Collecting recyclables varies from community to community, but there

are for primary methods:
• Curb side,
• Drop-off centres,
• Buy-back centers, and
• Deposit /refund programs.
Regardless of the method used to collect the recyclables, the next step of
their journey is usually the same. Recyclables are sent to a material recovery
facility to be sorted and prepared into marketable commodities for
manufacturing. Recyclables are bought and sold just like any other commodity,
and prices for the materials change and fluctuate with the market.
2. Manufacturing
Once cleaned and separated, the recyclables are ready to undergo the
second part of the recycling loop. More and more of today’s products are being
manufactured with total or partial recycled content. Common household items
that contain recycled materials include newspapers and paper towels; aluminium,
plastic, and glass soft drink containers; steels cans; and plastic laundry detergent
bottles.
Recycled materials also are used in innovative applications such as

recovered glass in roadway asphalt (glassphalt) or recovered plastic in carpeting,
park benches, and pedestrian bridges.
3. Purchasing Recycled Products
The recycling process isn’t really fully completed until we buy or use the
products that have been made from the recycled materials. Buying recycled
creates a demand for the collected material, aiding the development of the
65
material’s reprocessing infrastructure and therefore increasing opportunities for
recycling. As well as helping the environment, buying recycled also helps to
generate investment in new industries and creates new jobs. The process of
buying recycled is called “closing the loop”.
A product cannot be described as recycled until it has been incorporated

into a new product, thus coming full circle. This process ensures that the supply
of waste materials balances demand, and stimulates the market in recycled
products. By “buying recycled” governments, as well as businesses and
individual consumers, each play an important role in making the recycling
process a success. As consumers demand more environmentally sound products,
manufacturers will continue to meet the demand by producing high-quality
recycled products. Marketable commodities or secondary raw materials can be
recovered virtually uncontaminated from a waste stream through the use of
sorting or separating equipment.
For recycling to be economically viable and recycling schemes to be

successful, there must be markets into which collectors of waste can sell their
materials.
4.4 Recycling process and technologies in a MRF

4.4.1 Key Objectives of MRF Design
MRFs (materials recovery facility) must be designed to produce clean,

consistent, marketable products from heterogeneous materials that contain some
level of contamination. Designing, constructing and equipping a new MRF, or
redesigning an existing facility, requires an efficient integration of automated
technologies and manual labor. When designing a MRF, the following are
generally considered some of the key objectives in order to maximize efficiency
and cost-effectiveness:
• Maximize material throughput.

• Maximize material recovery and minimize processing residue.
• Maximize automation and minimize manual labor.
• Create a safe environment for workers.
• Produce consistent streams of quality recovered materials.
• Optimize system performance and reduce downtime.
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4.4.2 Types of MRFs
A MRF is a processing facility where materials are sorted and prepared

for marketing either to end users (manufacturers) or to other facilities for
additional processing. The configuration of the MRF processing line will vary
depending upon how materials are received.
• Source separated – Incoming recyclables have been sorted by type at the

point of collection, e.g., drop-off and curb-sort collection programs. Some
processing might be needed to further sort materials, such as separating
steel cans from aluminum cans and sorting glass by color, but the primary
purpose of the facility is to remove contaminants and prepare the material
for marketing, often by baling, flattening, or crushing.
• Dual stream – Recovered materials are received in two streams, typically
fiber (newspaper, magazines and catalogs, mixed paper, cardboard, etc.)
and commingled containers (plastic, glass, metal, and sometimes aseptic
containers). Separation of materials is accomplished by a combination of
automated equipment and manual sorting.
• Single stream – Recovered materials are received in a single stream, with
fiber and commingled containers combined. The first stages of processing
typically utilize equipment that separates the material into two streams
(fiber and containers), which are further sorted using equipment similar to
that used in dual stream MRFs.
• Mixed waste – Unsegregated mixed waste is processed using various
technologies to separate mixed recyclable materials from waste.
Recyclable materials are then processed using equipment similar to a
single stream MRF. Some mixed waste MRFs process the entire waste
stream, while others target commercial waste or loads rich in recyclables.
Most try to minimize the amount of wet or organic waste being processed.
While no two MRFs are exactly alike, Table 2.1 summarizes some of the
key differences between dual stream, single stream and mixed waste MRFs.
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4.4.3 Standard Equipment and System Configurations
The configuration of a MRF processing line is critical to the overall quality of

the materials marketed. It depends upon numerous factors including the types
and quantities of materials to be processed, desired processing rates, and
required specifications for the end products. While no two MRFs are identical,
they generally employ common design principles and sequencing in the
configuration of equipment and labor. MRFs are designed in three-dimensional
space, taking advantage of height to facilitate materials handling and storage as
well as minimize the facility footprint. As a general rule, incoming materials are
elevated by conveyor belts to above-ground platforms where equipment and
personnel separate out materials, which then fall into or are conveyed to interim
storage bunkers. Recyclables are then processed (i.e. baled, densified, etc.) and
placed into storage prior to being transported to markets. The major processing
steps in a typical single stream or dual stream MRF are described in the
Figure 7 Comparison of MRF Types
following paragraphs.
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➢ Step #1: Recyclables Dumped on Tipping Floor
As shown in Figure 8,
recyclables are first offloaded on a
tipping floor inside the MRF and
stored until processed. Commonly,
the tipping floor is sized to provide at
least two days of incoming storage
capacity to allow a buffer against
unscheduled equipment downtime, to Figure 8 Typical Tipping Floor

provide sufficient material for the
MRF to operate during a second shift, and/or to accommodate future growth.
The floor is constructed from concrete able to withstand heavy traffic and
impacts.
Material receiving and storage areas are typically housed in covered

structures to keep materials dry and to avoid leachate runoff. Tipping floors
need multiple, large access doors and sufficient area so vehicle delays are
minimized and incoming loads can be tipped directly on the concrete slab.
Special considerations may also be required if bulk (transfer trailer) loads of
recyclables are to be received. Tipping floors also need high concrete push walls
to protect the building structure and facilitate materials handling and storage.
Bucket loaders are used for materials handling. A trained loader operator
typically manages incoming traffic and inspects incoming loads for excessive
levels of contamination. Laborers may be present to assist the floor manager and
to perform “floor sorting” of oversized materials (e.g. cardboard) and large
contaminants.
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➢ Step #2: Materials Delivered to Sorting Line via In-feed Conveyors
A bucket loader pushes recyclables

onto in-feed conveyors to move the
recyclables into the sorting system. A
horizontal conveyor is typically placed below
grade so that recyclables can be slid onto the
conveyor (see Figure 9). For dual stream
MRFs, separate in-feed conveyors are
dedicated to commingled containers and fiber.
In single stream MRFs, both containers and
fibers are pushed onto the same in-feed
conveyor. The horizontal conveyor connects
to an incline conveyor that runs at a slightly Figure 9 In-feed Conveyor
faster speed to spread out the material.
Materials should be fed into the sorting system at a consistent flow rate.
Metering or leveling drum feeders are often used to accomplish this. A
consistent material feed rate prevents surges, allows for more efficient manual
sorting in the presort area, and maximizes the efficiency of automated
equipment encountered later in the processing line.
➢ Step #3: Presort
The in-feed conveyor typically delivers material to a presort conveyor

line where large contaminants, bulky recyclables, and items that could damage
downstream sorting equipment or pose a threat to personnel are removed.
Recyclables that might be removed at this stage include corrugated cardboard,
telephone directories, or large stacks of paper. Sorters stand at work stations
alongside a horizontal conveyor belt and inspect material as it passes by.
Contaminants or bulky recyclables are dropped through chutes into roll-off
containers or waste storage bunkers below the sorting system. Some MRFs have
a top conveyor at this stage where telephone directories or large stacks of paper
are placed and conveyed for final cleanup and baling.
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➢ Step #4: Separating Single Stream Fiber and Containers
Historically, MRF design and technology was based on sorting fiber and
containers on separate sorting lines because of their fundamentally different
characteristics (shape, size, density, etc.). For example, steel cans are more
efficiently captured by a magnet when they are not buried below large pieces of
newspaper. Therefore, the evolution of single stream processing has entailed
placing specialized sorting equipment at the front of the sorting system that
separates fiber from containers, which then proceed on separate sorting lines.
The fundamental technology employed in most single stream MRFs to

make this separation is disk or star screens (see Figure 10). A disk screen
consists of a series of rotating axles, each containing a number of disks spaced
along the axle. The disks are intermeshed in arranged rows and decks to form a
moving bed. The disks can be round, oval, or star shaped and can be of varying
dimensions and diameters. The disks, as well as the space between the axles, can
be adjusted to sort varying sizes of material.
Large materials travel across the

top of the screen while small materials
fall through it. To separate fiber and
containers, most MRFs utilize inclined
disk screens. Fiber, which tends to be flat,
travels up the inclined screen and onto
the fiber sorting line. Containers tumble
back down or through the screen and are Figure 10 Disk Screen
then conveyed to the container sorting
line.
A series of disk screens are often used to recover various grades of paper.
A primary disk screen is typically used to separate cardboard. The technology
reportedly can remove 80-90% of the OCC.7 An inclined disk screen with
smaller disks can also be used to sort other grades of paper such as ONP from
smaller paper fractions.8 A second stage screen, called a polishing screen, can
then separate the remaining smaller paper (mixed paper), containers and residual
materials.
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➢ Step #5: Sorting Lines
Whether by hand or machine, there are two basic sorting methods:
• Positive sorting – the targeted material is pulled out of the material mix
• Negative sorting – foreign material and impurities are removed and the
targeted material remains on the conveyor.
After fiber and commingled containers have been separated into two
different streams, they travel down separate sorting lines. These sorting lines
employ a combination of positive and negative sorting to recover specific types
of recyclable commodities. The lines might utilize some automated equipment,
but almost always include manual sorting from conveyor belts.
Fiber: MRFs handling primarily residential recyclables in which the

fiber stream is predominantly newspaper and coated groundwood (e.g.
magazines and catalogs) might perform a negative sort to produce either a #7
News or Mixed Paper.9 The same sorting systems can be used to negatively sort
for different recycled paper grades, depending on feedstock characteristics and
market conditions. Positive sorting activities on the fiber line generally entail
personnel picking off OCC, ONP and possibly high-grade paper (see Figure 11).
Positively sorted materials are
dropped through metal chutes
into storage bunkers below.
MRFs with high-volume fiber
lines generally incorporate a set
of sorting stations followed by a
“load flipper” that inverts the
material on the conveyor to Figure 11 Manual Fiber Sort

expose buried material before a Line
final series of sorting stations.
Commingled Containers: Container sorting lines at MRFs generally rely

on positive sorting to remove recyclable commodities, while leaving residue and
contaminants on the sorting conveyor. Plastic containers may be manually
72
sorted or mechanically separated with disk screens or air classifiers. Further
sorting of plastic by resin and color is generally performed manually. Steel cans
are removed by a magnetic separator. Aluminum cans may be manually sorted
or mechanically recovered using an eddy current separator. Whole glass bottles
are typically manually separated, although optical sorting machines are
becoming increasingly common. As materials are positively sorted, they are
dropped through chutes or transferred to separate conveyors that connect to
storage bunkers. In some MRFs, broken glass remains on the conveyor as a
negative sort, and then is delivered directly to a bunker at the end of the
conveyor.
➢ Step #6: Interim Storage
Sorting and processing

functions at a MRF need to
operate independently. For
example, it is more efficient for
a MRF to operate a single, high-
capacity baler to handle all
different grades of paper.
Likewise, another baler may be
configured to handle steel, Figure 12 Material Bunkers

aluminum and various types of
plastic containers.
Consequently, MRFs employ interim storage bunkers, which are often

located directly below or near the sorting line. In most modern MRFs, the
bunkers are equipped with their own in-floor conveyor and placed perpendicular
along the side of the conveyor. The materials are stored in the bunkers until
sufficient quantities have accumulated to be prepared for shipment.
➢ Step #7: Preparing Materials for Market
Consolidating or densifying
recyclable commodities is the final
step in MRF processing before
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Figure 13 Paper Baler

materials are loaded into vehicles or rail cars for shipment to market. This step
increases onsite storage capacity and improves transportation efficiency. The
most widely used processing method in modern MRFs is to compress material
into large, dense rectangular cubes called bales, the size of which can b e
adjusted. Baling equipment (balers) are classified as either horizontal or vertical
(also called down-stroke), depending on the direction that the primary
compression ram travels. Horizontal balers handle higher capacity throughput
than vertical balers and are the most common balers used in MRF operations.
Horizontal balers are classified based on two main features. First, the
baling chamber can be either open or closed. Second, balers may be single-ram
or two-ram, which describes the number of hydraulic compression rams
employed. Figure 13 shows an open-chamber single ram baler. Compression
pressure and bale density are controlled by the metal arms that squeeze the bale
as it is discharged.
A single-ram baler can be adjusted to produce bales of various lengths,

but cannot produce a bale as densely compressed as a two-ram baler. A two-ram
baler produces only one size of bale but can switch quickly and easily to process
different types of materials. Two-ram closed-chamber balers use one ram to
compress materials into a closed chamber, and then a second ram mounted
perpendicular to the first one to discharge bales from the chamber.
Balers used for paper are usually equipped with a fluffer that partially
chops and fluffs up the paper as it falls into the baling chamber, which helps
improve bale consistency and quality. Balers used for plastic bottles are
sometimes equipped with a perforator that punctures and flattens them as they
fall into the baling chamber. This helps to reduce plastic bottle “memory” – or
the tendency for them to expand after baling.
Balers are widely used to process the full range of MRF commodities
with the exception of glass. Glass crushers are used to produce material with
consistent particle size, and are available in various throughput capacities and
cullet (crushed glass) sizes. Some MRFs employ other equipment to handle cans
and plastic bottles. For example, can flatteners and densifiers are sometimes
used for steel and aluminum cans and are available in various throughput
74
capacities. Shredders and granulators are occasionally used in MRFs for plastic
bottles, but are more commonly used by secondary processors that receive baled
plastics from MRFs.
4.4.4 Specialized Equipment
Two major trends in recycling collection have been (1) to improve

collection efficiency by increasing the level of commingling and (2) to increase
the number of materials collected (e.g. all residential paper and all plastic
containers). In order to handle increased commingling and diversity of recycled
materials, as well as improve efficiency, MRFs employ a range of specialized
and automated technologies. Mixed waste MRFs, in particular, utilize
specialized equipment near the front end of the processing line to separate
potentially recyclable materials from the remainder of the waste stream.
This section highlights some of the more specialized types of equipment

that are used in mixed waste MRFs, as well as equipment that can reduce the
level of manual sorting in dual or single stream MRFs. Automated separation
equipment can process a larger volume of materials at greater speed than manual
sorting. In highly automated MRFs, mixed streams of containers and fibers
proceed through task-specific equipment in sequence (the line configuration) to
be sorted and separated by size and shape, by weight, by electromagnetic
characteristics, and by color and chemical makeup. While manual sorting is still
the most effective method for certain tasks, such as removing bulky items and
conducting final quality control, specialized equipment has reduced labor inputs
and contributed significantly to cost savings at MRFs.
Bag Breaker – Bag

breakers (see Figure 14) are
especially useful in mixed
waste MRFs where waste is
more likely to arrive in garbage
bags. Automated bag breakers
eliminate the need for manual
bag opening. Large, rotating
drums open the bags and Figure 14 Bag Breaker
75
release the contents, which are discharged from the machine. Rather than send
the entire waste stream through the bag breaker, bagged materials are often
pulled from t he processing line in the presort area and sent through the bag
breaker. Released materials then rejoin the processing line.
Rotating Trommel –
Rotating trommels are used to
separate materials by size (see
Figure 15). A trommel screen is a
perforated, rotating drum set at an
angle to allow for gravity feed and
discharge. The rotation creates a
tumbling that separates out smaller
sized objects (e.g. dirt, grit, bottle Figure 15 Rotating Trommel

caps and broken glass) that fall Screen
through the perforations. Larger objects work their way through the drum to exit
at the downstream end. Trommels of different lengths and with varying
perforation sizes can be set in a series for staged screening. Trommels typically
range from 8 to 80 feet in length and from 2 to 6 feet in diameter. Trommels are
sometimes used in mixed waste MRFs after the presort area. In some mixed
waste facilities, the trommel has small perforations to remove fines (dirt, grit,
broken glass, etc.) that are sent for composting. In other mixed waste MRFs, the
perforations may be large to make a first cut at sorting paper. Some trommels
are equipped with knives to also function as bag breakers or are enhanced with
magnets to simultaneously remove ferrous metals. The rotation and tumbling of
materials within the trommel can exacerbate glass breakage. This reduces the
ability to recover glass and also has the potential to contaminate fiber by
becoming embedded in it.
Air Classifiers – Air classifiers use blowing air to separate lighter

weight materials from heavier materials. For example, the technology can be
used to separate aluminum and plastic from glass. The technology can also suck
lighter materials from the commingled material stream as it passes by on the
conveyor, leaving the heavier material behind. An alternative application
employs multiple layers of high-velocity air blowing in parallel across the waste
76
stream, taking the lighter materials to another conveyor and leaving heavier
materials to drop off the end of the conveyor. The multiple layers of blowing air
prevent swirling that would remix materials and is effective to separate
materials that differ slightly in weight, such as different grades of paper.
Drum Separators – Drum separators can be combined with other

technologies depending on the material targeted for separation. For example,
electromagnetic drum separators are commonly used for separating ferrous
metals. Air drum separators combine one or more rotating drums with a
recirculation fan. An example of this technology is the Nihot drum separator
(see Figure 16), which is in use or being considered by a number of mixed waste
MRFs. It uses air separation combined with rotating drums and an expansion
chamber to separate materials based on density and shape. The objective is to
make an initial separation of mixed recyclables from non-recyclable waste. The
recyclable stream continues on through a processing line that is similar in
configuration to a single stream MRF. The remaining waste could be further
processed to recover organics for composting and the remaining residue would
go to disposal.
Figure 16 Drum separator
Eddy Current – Eddy

current separators remove non-
ferrous metals (i.e. aluminum
cans) from the commingled
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Figure 17 Eddy Current

container stream (see
Figure 17). Magnetic
rotors spin rapidly to
produce a magnetic field
and to induce an electric
current in the nonferrous
metal as it passes by on
the conveyor. The electric
current in the nonferrous
metal generates a magnetic field with opposite polarity to that created by the
rotor. The nonferrous metal is repelled away from the rotors by the opposing
electrical fields. The eddy current is a mature technology; however, new
developments are enabling it to be applied to the separation of aseptic packages
from aluminum cans by sensing the thickness of the aluminum in the package.
An air classifier then ejects the aseptic package from the waste stream.
Optical Sorters – Optical sorting machines (see Figure 18) incorporate

optical sensors with mechanical separators, most commonly small, powerful air
jets that blow targeted materials off of a conveyor belt. Optical sorters are able
to distinguish not only Figure 18 Optical Sorter
color differences based on
visible light but also distinguish different materials, like plastic resins, based on
other optical characteristics. Optical sorters are currently installed in about 14%
of single stream MRFs and 7% of commingled container lines in the U.S.10
Figure 18: Optical Sorter Optical sorters are used by glass beneficiation plants to
separate glass by color but are more commonly used to sort plastics in MRFs.
The higher market values for plastics, as compared to glass, make the
acquisition of an optical sorter more economically viable. Over 70% of the
MRFs with optical sorters have units to sort plastics, 17% have units that sort
fiber, and 12% have units that sort glass. Two methods exist to feed material
into the optical sensors. A singulated feed presents the objects one by one. This
process is relatively slow and not well suited to a commingled recyclables
stream. The more commonly used method is the mass feed, which presents a
single layer of materials spread across the width of the conveyor belt to the
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optical sorter. Manufacturers of mass-feed equipment claim sort purities of 90-
95%, depending upon the contaminant level of the in-feed and the material
being scanned.11 Two sensors can be used in a series to increase the sorting
purity or to sort another stream. A common type of optical sorting equipment
used in MRFs today employs Near Infrared (NIR) spectroscopy. By this method,
the optical sorter exposes each piece of material to a light source such as a
halogen lamp as the material moves past on the conveyor. A microprocessor
within the optical sorter analyzes the quality of reflected light coming off of the
material to determine its molecular composition. This unique molecular
composition identifies the material for separation.
Glass Cleanup Systems – Single stream and especially mixed waste

MRFs generally experience a higher degree of glass breakage than dual stream
MRFs. As communities and processing facilities strive to maximize waste
diversion, systems are being utilized to clean up or recover glass cullet from
shredded fiber, dirt and other debris in the residue stream. Systems can have
modular components, such as vibrating screens and air separation, to fit the
specific needs of a facility. Unlike glass bottles, which can be used to
manufacture new glass bottles, glass cullet is usually marketed for non-container
uses, such as construction aggregates, insulation applications, and paving
materials.
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5. Measures of Occupational Health and Safety in
Recycling Plants
5.1 Introduction
Zero waste is the future. Growth in the recycling economy has the
potential to not only conserve the environment, but also create 1.5 million new
jobs. But research indicates that recycling work can be dangerous, with injury
rates more than double the national average. By addressing this problem, local
governments have an opportunity to secure the sustainability and health of their
cities while ensuring that recycling jobs are good jobs. Recyclers deserve safe
working conditions, as they protect public health and the planet from waste,
pollution, and resource depletion.
The environmental necessity of recycling is well-established: achieving a

75% recycling rate would yield greenhouse gas emission reductions equivalent
to shutting down one-fifth of all U.S. coal power plants. In short, recycling
provides proven benefits for clean air and waste reduction, and along with other
zero waste strategies it can offer a critical pathway for municipalities to achieve
sustainable growth. Recycling can also play a key role in urban job creation
strategies. At our current national recycling rate of 34.5%, the U.S. recycling
industry employs nearly 1 million people and generates billions of dollars of
economic activity annually. Studies have shown that recycling creates at least 10
times as many jobs per ton of waste as disposal in either incinerators or landfills,
and that investments in recycling, composting, and recycling reliant
manufacturing could produce 1.5 million more jobs across the country. But
recycling workers face serious hazards on the job. In too many cities across the
country, sorters work in loud and dusty facilities where they are often exposed
to extreme temperatures. Working long hours, they lean over conveyor belts
sorting materials – pulling out things that don’t belong, ensuring the best quality
materials are bundled together for the highest value. They work with heavy
equipment in dangerous situations – climbing onto and into massive conveyor
belts and balers to clean them. They maneuver past huge front-end loaders and
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forklifts, and walk by heavy bales of material that, when unsafely managed, can
fall on workers who are in the wrong place at the wrong time. Moreover, they
deal with an array of inherently unsafe materials that should not be on the
recycling line – used needles, chemicals, dead animals and broken glass. As a
result of these unsafe conditions, recycling workers face above-average injury
rates and are sometimes even killed on the job. Many recycling sorters are
employed by temp agencies, further increasing the likelihood that they won’t
have the training or experience needed to do their job safely. But it doesn’t have
to be this way. Occupational hazards can be mitigated, and in some cases
eliminated, with a combination of engineering controls, improved safety
systems, work practices, and extensive training. There are important actions and
best management practices that cities can and should take to improve recycling
jobs. Cities that offer curbside recycling service generally contract with private
companies to process recyclable materials collected from households. To ensure
safe and dignified recycling jobs, municipal governments must require rigorous
health and safety standards in recycling contracts.
5.2 Recycling Work: essential but high-risk

Across the United States, there are approximately 21,000 workers who
process recyclable materials after they’ve been collected by city or private waste
collection crews and taken to the local Materials Recovery Facility. At the MRF,
glass, paper and metals are sorted into different materials streams by machines
and by hand, with recycling workers pulling items off conveyor belts for sorting
as they pass by. MRFs are dependent on hand sorting to ensure that the highest
quality and cleanest recyclable materials are extracted. Workers also sort out
mistakes (non-recyclable or hazardous materials), which are removed and sent
to waste disposal facilities. Hand sorting ensures that materials collected for
recycling can be most efficiently turned into high-grade feedstock that fetches
the best prices in the marketplace for recyclable material. Depending on the
contract terms between cities and recycling providers, profit-sharing
arrangements can bring in additional revenue to cities from the sale of recycled
materials. The work that recycling sorters do is essential to the overall
functioning of the system. Yet their work is also dangerous. The combination of
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repetitive motion in awkward positions, exposure to extreme heat and cold,
working around heavy machinery and moving vehicles, and the unpredictable
nature of the materials that come into recycling facilities means that recycling
workers face high workplace injury rates.
For recycling workers, going to work can be fatal
Seventeen workers were killed on the job at recycling MRFs between

2011 and 2013 in U.S. (OSHA 2015a). OSHA accident reports and fatality
records as well as news media reports illustrate the range of hazards that
contributed to these fatal incidents, including being struck by moving vehicles at
MRFs (such as forklifts, bulldozers, and trucks), being caught or crushed in
balers and other heavy machinery during maintenance or while attempting to
clear jams, being crushed by falling bales, and being buried under tons of
materials.
Figure 19 News reports describe recycling work tragedies
Excerpt from OSHA Accident Investigation (OSHA 2012a):
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“Employee is Struck and Asphyxiated by Paper Load, Later Dies”
Republic Services, North Las Vegas, Nevada
At approximately 11:00 a.m. on June 8, 2012, Employee #1 was sorting and

loading paper material onto a conveyor belt. The conveyor carried the paper into a
processing area, where it was compacted and baled. At the beginning of the operation,
the material was hand sorted to remove nonpaper items, after which it was deposited
into a holding bay. 3 News Reports Describe Recycling Worker Tragedies St. Louis Co.
man dies after getting caught in compactor St. Louis Post-Dispatch, Kim Bell, June 13,
2011 (Bell 2011) Northampton recycling plant worker injured on the job dies The
Morning Call, Tracy Jordan, October 3, 2011 (Jordan 2011) Horror as worker is
crushed by trash compactor in Brooklyn New York Post, Georgett Roberts, March 16,
2013 (Roberts 2013) Fayette man fatally crushed by bales of paper The Tribune-Review,
December 20, 2011 (Tribune-Review 2011) Amputation at Recycling Plant Prompts
OSHA Action in New Jersey Waste Management World, Ben Messenger, March 20,
2013 (Messenger 2013) Man run over at recycling center in North Bay ABC7 News,
March 12, 2013 (ABC7 News 2013) 44 As material filled the holding bay, it was
released onto the conveyor belt. On June 8, 2012, the amount of paper in the holding
bay was significantly more than an average day’s amount. Furthermore, the operation
was delayed for approximately two hours because the paper was jammed in the holding
bay due to its weight and compaction. Employee #1 was standing on the conveyor belt
and pulling material from the holding bay by hand to break up the pile and move the
material onto the conveyor more efficiently. While removing the jammed paper, he was
struck and engulfed in a mound of paper, which was estimated to weigh approximately
2.5 tons. Coworkers discovered Employee #1 laying on the baler feed conveyor in the
supine position covered by the paper load. Emergency medical personnel were
summoned. They arrived and had an employee at the facility use a frontend loader to
lift the material off of him. Employee #1 was transported to a medical center. At
approximately 4:49 a.m. on June 14, 2012, he was pronounced dead after being
removed from life support.
Recycling workers are injured at higher rates than other workers, and
injuries can be severe
Fatality rates only paint a partial picture of the dangers MRF workers
face. MRF workers are also injured on the job at high rates, and when they are,
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the consequences can be severe. The rate of nonfatal injury incidents in MRFs
was 8.5 per 100 workers in 2012 (BLS 2014). This is much higher than the rate
for all industries (3.5 per 100 workers) and higher than the average for all waste
management and remediation services (5.1 per 100 workers) (BLS 2014).
Review of OSHA citations found theseexamples to illustrate how

unsafeconditions put MRF workers at risk:
• OSHA cited Eagle Recycling in North Bergen, New Jersey for multiple
violations following the amputation of an employee’s fingers. OSHA cited
the company with a serious violation for failing to implement a
lockout/tagout program to control potentially hazardous energy, among
other violations (OSHA 2013a).
• An employee’s leg was caught in a machine and severed at the Taft
Recycling Center in Orlando, Florida (Orlando Sentinel 2010). OSHA
cited the facility operator Smurfit Stone for hazards including lack of
lockout/tagout procedures and permit-required confined spaces (OSHA
2012b). • The California Department of Industrial Relations' Division of
Occupational Safety and Health (Cal/OSHA) cited American Reclamation,
Inc., its subsidiary, South Coast Fibers, Inc. and their staffing agency,
Steno Employment Services, Inc., with 36 safety violations the agency
alleges put more than 60 sorters, drivers, helpers and mechanics at risk
while on the job. Cal/OSHA issued five serious violations, including: a
failure to follow a written program to prevent workers' entry into
machinery before the energy is shut off, an unsafe work platform raised on
a forklift, and various unguarded pieces of machinery that could lead to
amputations and other serious injuries (California Department of Industrial
Relations 2012).
• Old Atlanta Recycling in Atlanta, Georgia was cited for 15 serious safety
violations. The multiple violations included failing to provide an energy
control program for workers maintaining and servicing equipment to keep
machines from accidentally starting up, to formally train powered
industrial truck operators, and to guard a conveyor belt (OSHA 2012c). •
EDCO Waste and Recycling Services, Inc. of San Marcos, California, was
cited by OSHA for an incident when an employee’s hand was crushed
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inside a baler while the employee was performing maintenance (OSHA
2011c).
• The leg of an employee was caught by the moving ram of a baler at the
Tonghua Materials Recovery Facility in Salinas, California (OSHA 2013b).
The employee was hospitalized and treated for a fractured leg, and
Cal/OSHA cited the facility for multiple violations, including violations
related to moving machinery/equipment (OSHA 2013b).
Health and safety violations from these and other incidents described
hazards including insufficient lockout/tagout procedures to protect workers
cleaning heavy machinery, falling objects injuring workers, vehicle operation
hazards, and a lack of protective gear.
Because OSHA investigates so few workplaces in the first place, this may be
the tip of the iceberg in terms of actual incidents. Additionally, frequent reliance
on temporary workers and staffing agencies means that injuries are likely under-
reported.
Occupational healthy and safety studies and interviews found additional

common hazards:
• In interviews, recycling workers reported injuries such as fingers caught in

machinery, needle sticks, being struck by flying objects, and cuts from sharp
materials. Workers also reported a range of er-gonomic risks in their work.
• 70% of recycling workers in a 2013 survey experienced an injury or illness
from job exposures (Jamison 2013). The most common injuries identified
were musculoskeletal disorders such as injuries to the back and knees
(reported by 57% of workers), and scrapes and cuts (reported by 43% of
workers).
• Another survey of recycling workers found health risks including dust, noise
and smell, exposure to hazardous materials, facility hygiene, cuts, falls,
repetitive motion, and stress (Espino and Kissinger 2011). Dust was the most
frequent concern identified. Workers said that despite wearing a protective
mask, it was difficult to breathe because of the amount of dust in the air. Stress
was another major concern, and workers described “constant pressure from
supervisors to work fast so as to not get fired.” Workers also described
opening large bags passing by on the conveyer belt, even though they couldn’t
85
see the contents of the bags before opening them to prepare themselves for
possible hazards (Espino and Kissinger 2011).
• A study of temporary worker conditions in Massachusetts found MRF workers
who had not been informed that vaccinations were required or that workers
directly employed by the recycling company underwent routine medical
examinations (Freeman and Gonos 2009).
5.3 What makes recycling dangerous?

The occupational health and safety analysis below looks systematically
at MRF work, and describes the major hazards found in Material Recovery
Facilities. These hazards can be mitigated by careful facility and work station
design, proper equipment, comprehensive health and safety plans, thorough
training, and implementation of systems that include workers in managing
health and safety.
The top nine hazards recycling workers face:
1. Risk of being struck by vehicles, falling bales, or materials
Material Recovery Facilities are dynamic work environments. Trucks,

forklifts, front-end loaders, and other types of vehicles are continuously used to
deliver unsorted materials, move materials to different positions, and move
heavy bales. Falling materials are another hazard in MRFs. Bales of recently
compacted plastic, aluminum, or paper can weigh as much as 2,000 pounds and
can shift or fall, crushing workers below. The majority of injuries for the
combined waste and recycling sectors between 2003 and 2009 resulted from
contact with objects and equipment (NIOSH/CDC 2012). OSHA fatality data
shows that eight MRF recycling workers died on the job between 2011-2013
from being struck by vehicles or crushed by falling bales or other objects
(OSHA 2015a, OSHA 2015b, OSHA 2012a, OSHA 2012e).
2. Working with moving machinery
Contaminants such as plastic bags can jam the sorting lines and other
heavy sorting machinery. The steps required to remove contaminants from
machinery, such as climbing inside to cut off plastic bags, place the employee at
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risk if OSHA Lockout/Tagout (LO/TO) training or procedures are lacking.
Machine guarding rules and the OSHA LO/TO standards provide clear protocols
to protect workers who operate, maintain, or work adjacent to moving
machinery such as compactors, conveyer belts, and sorting machinery. These
rules and protocols require that machinery be de-energized (and not able to be
turned on) while a worker is cleaning, servicing, or adjusting the machinery.
Workers need training and sufficient time to complete tasks in order to comply
with these protocols.
3. Exposure to dangerous materials
Materials Recovery Facility work is inherently unpredictable. Recycling

sorting workers are required to visually inspect and sort different categories of
recyclable materials. Unlike a factory or manufacturing setting, where upstream
inputs are known, the recycling stream is influenced by the misconceptions or
errors of millions of consumers who place inappropriate and potentially
dangerous objects or substances into the municipal recycling stream. Recycling
workers have to quickly identify hazards as they pass by on the sort line and
respond appropriately to the hazard. Workers interviewed for this projecti
reported having contact with the following hazards while working on the sorting
lines:
• Used hypodermic needles/syringes discarded incorrectly by individuals

who use them for home medication or by intravenous drug users; often these
arrive in glass jars which are crushed during material transfer.
• Laceration hazards from nails, sharp metal, broken glass, and wood
shards.
• Dead and rotting animals, such as squirrels, cats, and dogs, which had
climbed into the bins in search of food scraps and later died.
“There are dead animals. Squirrels, cats and dogs. They climb in the bins
looking for food and can’t get out.”
• Hazardous chemicals such as household solvents, mercury-containing

thermometers, industrial solvent containers, motor oil, open or leaking
containers of hazardous household cleaners, batteries with hazardous
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components such as lead or cadmium, fluorescent bulbs, and printer toners.
Workers said that they were shown safety videos but did not have any formal
training for hazardous waste management.
• Biohazards such as rotting food waste, used diapers,pet feces, and

everyday garbage present infectious disease risks.
• Respiratory hazards from the inhalation of dusts, potentially infectious

aerosols, chemical vapors, and from the inhalation of odor-masking mists used
in some MRFs.
4. Working in awkward postures all day
MRF workers who sort material from a fixed-paced conveyor belt work
in awkward postures that lead to work-related musculoskeletal disorders, such
as repetitive stress injuries of the back, shoulder, knees, hands, and fingers.
Even in the best circumstances, their backs are bent in a forward angle for hours
at a time. The conveyor belts are at a fixed height and do not accommodate the
height and reach of short workers without an ability to adjust the platforms they
stand on. One study found that workers below 5’ 4” (~1.64 m) were at a distinct
disadvantage in working the sorting lines.
With arms extended, shoulders reaching, hands constantly clasping

objects that are moving at a set pace on a vibrating conveyor belt, many workers
are twisting, reaching or jumping to toss or place materials into the proper bin or
chute. In one study most of the physical complaints of MRF workers were
associated with the awkward physical postures.
The number of workers positioned on a sorting line, sorting line speed,

and width of the conveyer belt contribute greatly to the frequency, intensity, and
severity of awkward and repetitive postures on the line. 9 During interviews,
some workers described how they had created their own personal hand tools
(sticks with bent nails or hooks) to assist them with line sorting jobs and to
attempt to relieve the stress of continuous forward reaching. Handmade tools
like this indicate that the height and width of conveyer belts and other machines
are not well designed.
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“When I started working as sorter over 10 years ago, they had eight people on a
sorting line, now there are only four, but the company expects us to work as if
there are eight people on the line.”
5. Dealing with extreme temperatures and fatigue
Recycling workers are exposed to outdoor temperatures by working in

close proximity to the massive, open facility doors that trucks use to deliver
materials. Extreme cold is a risk factor for back, shoulder, knee, hand and wrist
injuries and can contribute to a loss of manual precision and dexterity, a big
problem for a job that relies on grasping and sorting a new object every few
seconds. Extreme heat conditions contribute to fatigue, fatigue-related cognitive
effects, heat exhaustion, and possibly heat stroke. The fixed pace of conveyor
belts limits the ease and frequency with which workers can take breaks to
rehydrate or warm up. Moreover, the use of needed personal protective gear can
become intolerable in the heat resulting in additional exposures. Overheated
workers might remove the gear to breathe, which leaves them unprotected.
Planning for and preparing against temperature extremes and fatigue are
essential parts of a good safety program.
“The doors open with the truck delivery. I wear two pairs of pants, two jackets,
but the cold just comes right in … My fingers are always red from the cold.”
6. Respiratory hazards: Dust and other airborne contaminants
Dust is created by nearly every phase of the material recovery process

and may contain minute particles of plastics and glass, biohazards, toxic
substances, and other respiratory irritants. Dust hazards can be especially hard to
mitigate in high heat because even the best-fitting and properly assigned
respirator can become too physically uncomfortable to wear for extended
periods of time. Animal feces, rotting food and organic waste that are
mistakenly placed in recycling bins may expose workers to biological hazards.
Biological toxins that become airborne through dust are called “bioaerosols.”
Endotoxins are a type of bioaerosol known to cause serious respiratory illness
and health effects in workers who are exposed to them. Numerous studies of
composting, recycling and garbage workers have documented the exposures and
illnesses associated with inhaling endotoxins. The same rotting food and waste
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are also found in MRFs, albeit at lower levels. Formal scientific studies of
endotoxin and bioaerosol exposures in MRFs are lacking; the presence of
unrelenting rotting food odors and dust, however, suggests that a precautionary
approach is warranted that would recognize and control for bioaerosol exposures.
7. Exposure to noise and vibration
Continuous noise exposure can contribute to physical and psychological

stress and hearing loss, reduce productivity and contribute to workplace
accidents and injuries by making it difficult to communicate and to hear warning
signals. In a study of recycling facilities, recorded noise levels exceeded levels
determined safe by federal standards. Occupational noise exposure is also
associated with hearing loss, tinnitus, insomnia, increased blood pressure, and a
long list of stress related hormonal changes and health effects.
8. Slips, trips, and falls
Unsafe conditions can contribute to slips, trips, and falls which may
result in a variety of injuries. Unsafe conditions may include spills, obstacles,
floor mats, slippery floors, moving from a wet to a dry surface, uneven or
unlevel floors, inadequate footwear, lack of handrails, and poor lighting.
9. Occupational stress and other hazards
A large and growing body of scientific research has documented the

negative health effects of job stress (APA 2015, Schnall et al 2009, NIOSH
2002). For MRF workers, sources of job stress can include
➢ fear of injury or illness from uncontrolled hazards,

➢ the inability to communicate safety concerns with supervisors due to
language barriers,
➢ fear of asking questions if job status is contingent or temporary,
➢ threats or harassment from co-workers or supervisors,
➢ production quotas, and
➢ line speed (Jamison 2011, Espino and Kissinger 2011, worker
interviews).
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5.4 Materials Recovery Facility Guidelines
Operators should have a clear understanding of the materials coming into
their facilities for processing. This includes the type of material, the volume and
delivery times as well as levels of potential contamination and required output.
Design & Operations
The primary aim of Safety in Design is to identify and manage risks.

Safety in Design is a process that integrates hazard identification and risk
assessment methods early in the design process, to eliminate, isolate or
minimize the risks of injury to those who will construct, operate, maintain,
decommission and demolish the asset.
The opportunity to eliminate a hazard in the early design stages by

involving decision makers and considering the life cycle of the project is
invaluable.
PROSECUTIONS:
• An employee lost his arm whilst operating a baling machine which baled plastic
and metal for recycling. After noticing an item of a different grade of plastic, the
worker attempted to retrieve it from the baling machine but caught his sleeve,
leading to his arm being crushed as the baler operated. The company was fined
$40,000 and ordered to pay reparation of $50,000.
• A forklift operator was fatally injured after being crushed by bales of paper, each
weighing more than half a ton. An investigation by the Department of Labour
found that the company’s stacking procedures for recycled paper were at fault.
The company did not have a code of practice for stacking, despite employee
concerns about the height of stacks. The stack that fell was leaning dangerously
and at seven bales high, was higher than Department of Labour guidelines allow.
The employee was found face down, two and a half metres from the forklift he
had been using. The machine was in reverse gear with its engine still switched on.
It was unclear what the employee had been doing at the time of the accident.
However, the Department of Labour concluded that the employee might have
survived if he had followed basic safety procedures and stayed inside the
protective cage of his machine. The company was fined $35,000 and ordered to
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pay reparations of $40,000 to the family, in addition to $20,000 the company has
already2 tendered. It has since introduced detailed safe stacking guidelines.
Activities involved with Materials Recovery Facilities:
• Site access is usually via a weighbridge.

• Recyclable materials are dropped off by a variety of collection trucks, or bulk
delivery.
• Materials are generally delivered to a single point and transferred to a
conveyor system in preparation for sorting.
• Materials are sorted using a combination of conveyors which feed into baling
machines or stockpiles. One method of separating items is by personnel
removing materials as they travel along a conveyor system; other methods
include combinations of automated separation including optical, magnetic,
eddy current, and air assisted automated separation technology.
• Once materials are sorted and where applicable, baled, they are likely to be
stored on site to await transport off site. In the case of bulk re-usable materials,
goods may be moved around the site to meet storage needs of the facility.
Hazards
There is a wide range of hazards associated with the operation of
MRFs that include but are not limited to:
• Stationary and mobile plant and equipment, which may include balers, conveyors,
compactors, forklifts, excavators, tractors or loaders and trucks.
• Processing materials through a MRF creates various hazards such as a dusty
working environment from paper, cardboard and glass and sharp edges arising
from steel can lids, broken glass, and plastic.
• A MRF may receive a range of contaminated and non-recyclable materials which
includes; hazardous substances, dangerous goods, sharps, animal and
medical/veterinary waste and general refuse.
• Poor ergonomics considering conveyor heights and width, conveyor speed,
sorting station setup and workflow.
• Environmental health hazards such as noise, fumes, exhaust, dust, and lighting.
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• Site traffic management including delivery, site vehicle movements, material
load-out and reversing vehicles.
• Pedestrian and vehicle interaction created by site traffic, including the risks of
customer and operator delivery, material load-out and reversing vehicles.
• Manual handling such as repetitive sorting, lifting, twisting movements while
sorting.
• Stacking and storage requirements for bales, or pallets (maximum height)
stability.
• Fire, as the result of combustible materials including clothing, paper, and
cardboard, plastics, ashes.
• Poor housekeeping including lack of cleanliness, spillage of materials off
conveyors, residual detritus, slippery surfaces, poor organization of materials,
clutter.
• Unprotected edges such as stairways, pits or raised tipping platforms and
negotiating obstacles and terrain. Walking through and around stockpiles and
baled material, uneven surfaces, pits or tunnels may create a significant slip, trip
or fall risk.
• Actions or behaviors of visitors including customers, contractors, commercial
operators, tour groups, and children.
• Pests including birds, cats, wasps, and rodents.
• Magnets and eddy current have a very high magnetic current that can have a
harmful effect on pacemakers.
• Conveyor speeds greater than 10 meters per minute can lead to motion sickness-
like symptoms in operators working perpendicular to the belt.
• Unprotected edges when cleaning, modifying and maintaining plant and
equipment.
• Working in confined or restricted spaces.
• Use of compressed air and high-pressure water.
ACTION POINT: All hazards must be identified, assessed and recorded.

Employees should be reminded regularly of all relevant hazards and the
controls in place.
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ACTION POINT: Implementing or addressing the following measures will
help employers meet legal and good practice requirements:
Plant & Equipment

• Stationary and mobile plant and equipment should be used for the purposes for
which it was designed and users must be licensed, trained and authorized to
operate specific plant; all equipment should be maintained in accordance with
manufacturer’s recommendations. Operating procedures should describe the
safe and correct use of the plant or equipment.
• Guarding, interlocking systems, Lock Out and Tag Out procedures, warning
beacons and sirens should all be considered as appropriate hazard controls for
plant and machinery at a MRF, e.g. conveyors and baling machines.
• Permit system for repairs and maintenance e.g. hot work, confined/restricted
spaces.
• Methods for protecting workers while working at heights which may include
scaffolding/handrails work positioning systems, fall restraint or arrest systems.
• Training and Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) for staff using compressed
air should be provided.
• Signage and information, pre-employment health assessments, induction and
training is to be provided to ensure all persons on site are aware of the existence
of magnetic, eddy current and optical sorting plant that could adversely affect
health or medical conditions.
Manual Handling
• Workers who are required to handle materials and/or waste should have
appropriate vaccinations to protect against the risk of infection. Appropriate
PPE must be provided to minimize the risk of exposure to noise, dust, sharps,
medical waste and other identified hazards.
• Adherence to correct manual handling practices is essential in minimizing the risks
to operators. Repetitive movements, lifting or moving items, twisting movements,
and overreaching should be managed through the implementation of suitable
controls. These might include the use of mechanical lifting devices, sorting
station setup, manual handling training, and PPE.
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• Sorting stations, conveyors, and benches should be designed and organized to
ensure they allow enough space to perform the tasks and should also be of a
suitable height and width for each worker.
• Activities should be reviewed in terms of their impact on each other to ensure
workflow does not create additional hazards. Workflow and sort area setup
should also be considered. Conveyor speed should be managed to reduce
potential harm due to repetition and motion sickness.
Housekeeping and Site Management

• A suitable site traffic management plan should be developed to ensure the safe
passage of vehicles and pedestrians around the site. This should address hazards
associated with ALL vehicle movements on site, including mobile plant.
Operators should consider the use of a spotter or points-person for reversing
vehicles, or vehicles raising their hoists. Management of speed, traffic flow, and
pedestrian movements should all be considered. Clear separation of mobile plant
and pedestrians should be designed into the site layout.
• Items that are stacked or stored should follow an appropriate storage plan which
includes details on maximum bale heights and stability of stored items and
stockpiles.
• MRF operators should ensure housekeeping practices are implemented to
maintain a safe workplace. This includes keeping walkways and access ways
clear, safe storage of materials to avoid stockpiles spilling out of storage bays,
cleaning up spills immediately after they occur and keeping emergency exits and
emergency equipment clear of stored items and debris. Care should be taken to
avoid the accumulation of potentially flammable dust generated by the handling
and processing of paper and cardboard.
• Appropriate PPE must be provided to minimize the risk of exposure to noise,
fumes, dust, sharps, irritants, medical waste and other identified hazards.
• Site security and fencing should be in place to prevent unauthorized access and
scavenging. There should be clear rules around scavenging of materials to
prevent harm to site visitors and staff.
95
• Pest eradication plans and systems should be in place.
Visitors to site
• MRFs should have contractor management systems in place including induction,
hazard identification, accident reporting, contractor monitoring and emergency
evacuation.
• Visitors should be accompanied at all times.
• Commercial operators should be directed and monitored to ensure safe behavior
and assisted where necessary.
• Specific plans should be developed to manage tour groups.
Materials Acceptance
• MRFs should have procedures for the identification, handling, and disposal of
noncomplying materials. Clear guidance and training should be provided to site
workers on identification and handling of materials outside of the scope of their
material acceptance criteria.
• Systems to identify and control combustible materials for example paper,
cardboard and plastic should be implemented. This might include training of
staff, the provision of fire prevention and fire fighting equipment and emergency
plans.
• Materials should not be stacked outside against the wall of the building.
• Monitored alarm system and internal sprinkler systems should also be
considered.
• Personal Protective Equipment must be issued where hazards have been unable
to be eliminated or isolated. Employees must be required to use the equipment
and employers must provide training in the use of any PPE supplied
Lock Out procedures for vehicles and equipment used at Materials Recovery
Facilities
➢ Lock Out instructions for each piece of equipment and vehicle
must be provided to enable activities to be conducted safely
and power to moving parts must always be locked out.
96
➢ Ensure requirements around Lock Out procedures form part of
Induction training for new employees to the place of work.
Situations requiring Lock Out may include:

➢ Repairing any mechanical malfunctions or breakdowns affecting the
safe operation of plant or equipment.
➢ Regular maintenance and inspections of all pieces of plant, equipment,
and vehicles.
➢ Specific inspection and testing of all safety interlocks, switches and
other protective devices to ensure that devices have not been disabled
or bypassed.
IMPORTANT: If safety devices are bypassed or damaged, the piece of

equipment or vehicle should not be used until they are fully functional.
Cleaning, maintenance, modifications, and repair
➢ Before any cleaning maintenance, modification or repair of plant or equipment

is undertaken, full Lock Out procedures should be used.
➢ Maintenance should be undertaken at frequent and scheduled times.
➢ Operating instructions should be available setting out the use, cleaning, and care
of the unit or components, including after modifications have been made.
➢ Modifications should only be carried out by trained and competent personnel.
➢ Operating instructions should include precautionary notices associated with the
reconstruction or modification.
➢ Hazard assessments must be conducted and recorded relating to any
modifications.
➢ Methods for protecting workers while working at heights which may include,
scaffolding/handrails work positioning systems, fall restraint or arrest systems.
IMPORTANT: Modifications may include change in plant, equipment,

materials process or tasks.
97
Training
Examples of methods to ensure that employees receive appropriate
training include:
➢ Provision of clear, concise and safe Standard Operating Procedures

(SOPs) including vehicle checklists and corrective action follow up.
➢ Induction and regular in house training courses and refresher sessions.
➢ Specific health and safety training, e.g. driver training, Lock Out Tag
Out (LOTO) and manual handling.
➢ Toolbox meetings discussing safe and correct operational practices.
Retention of appropriate training records, along with details of training

providers and any refresher requirements, is strongly recommended.
98
Table 1/5 Additional hazards for Material Recovery Facilities
Work Activity or Area Hazards Describe Harm that Could Significant Eliminate? Control Measures
Occur Hazard?
(Yes/No) Isolate?
Minimise?
Combustible materials Fire/Heat • Fatality Yes Isolate • Fire warning and protection systems.
• Serious Harm Minimise • Identification, storage and segregation
procedure.
• Burns and Scalds
• Training.
Site hazards Environmental Health • Serious Harm Yes Isolation • Extraction systems.
Hazards e.g. dust,
Minimise • Misting systems.
biological, fumes,
noise, vibration • Health monitoring.
• Environmental monitoring.
• PPE.
• Rubber vibration mats for workstations.
Manual handling • Serious Harm Yes Minimise • Mechanical lifting devices.

• Strains / Sprains • Training.
• PPE.
Pests • Infection No Minimise • Bait stations.

• Building maintenance programme.
• Bird wires.
• Removal of birds’ nests.
Poor housekeeping • Serious Harm Yes Minimise • Keep walkways/stairways / access ways
clear of debris.
• Safe storage of items.
99
Occur Hazard?
(Yes/No) Isolate?
Minimise?
• Spill Procedures.
• Workplace Inspections.
Site traffic • Fatality Yes Isolate • Traffic Management Plan.

• Serious Harm Minimise • Speed limits.
• Road markings / cones / barriers.
• Signage & direction.
Slips, trips and falls • Serious Harm Yes Isolate • Fall protection and/or restraint
systems.
Minimise
• Anti slip treads on stairs.
• Don’t walk on recyclable and waste
materials.
• Guards and handrails.
• Clean liquid spillage from baling areas.
Tour groups • Serious Harm Yes Isolate / • Site introduction.

Minimise
• Site rules.
• Isolate tour groups from operational
areas.
• PPE where appropriate.
• Full time escort.
• Adult/guardian/child ratios.
100
Occur Hazard?
(Yes/No) Isolate?
Minimise?
Visitors including • Fatality Yes Minimise • Contractor management systems.

children and
• Serious Harm • Accompany visitors.
contractors
• Direction, monitoring and assistance
for customers.
Sorting Handling recyclables • Serious Harm Yes Eliminate • Automated sorting.

and sharp objects Minimise
• Minimise handling frequency in work
process.
• Vaccinations.
• PPE.
Poor ergonomics • Discomfort, Pain & No Minimise • Workstation assessment.

Injury
• Workstation setup (height, width).
• Anti-Fatigue Mats.
• PPE.
• Conveyor speed control.
• Early reporting procedures.
Hazardous substance • Serious Harm Yes Isolate • Identification and shut down
and dangerous goods procedures.
Minimise
• Segregation of incompatible substances.
• Trained operators.
• Approved handlers.
• Emergency procedures.
101
Occur Hazard?
(Yes/No) Isolate?
Minimise?
• Emergency PPE available.
• Handling, storage and disposal

procedures.
Use, maintenance and cleaning Mobile plant, for • Fatality Yes Isolate • Risk assess to determine if elimination of
of mobile plant. example forklifts, hazards possible.
• Serious Harm Minimise
loaders, excavators
• Separate mobile plant from pedestrians.
• Alarms, lighting and beacons.
• Lock Out Tag Out.

• Scheduled preventative maintenance.
• Pre start check.
• Licenced, trained, authorised and

competent operators.
• Operating procedures.
• Signs and labels.
Use, maintenance and cleaning Stationary plant and • Fatality Yes Eliminate • Risk assess to determine if elimination of
of plant and equipment. equipment, for hazards possible.
• Serious Harm Isolate
example balers or
• Guards, interlocks, emergency stops,
conveyors
Minimise
alarms.
• Lock Out Tag Out.
• Scheduled preventative maintenance.
• Pre start check.

• Trained, authorised and competent
operators.
102
Occur Hazard?
(Yes/No) Isolate?
Minimise?
• Operating procedures.
• Signs and labels.
• scaffolding/handrails work positioning

systems, fall restraint or arrest systems.
103
6. Conclusions
• One of the major injury threats in recycling facilities is the presence of dangerous
materials. Many things make their way into the recycling line that do not belong
there. Workers must sort through hazardous waste, sometimes including dead
animals, used needles, dirty diapers, rotten food, shards of glass, poisonous
chemicals and other noxious items.
• Recycling industry workers are on the front lines of the sorting process. When
consumers are irresponsible, allowing incorrect items to go to recycling facilities,
workers bear the burden of dealing with these items and removing them from the
system. Contact with unsafe materials can cause injury and illness among
employees.
• Recycling equipment is often heavy and hazardous. Employees in recycling

facilities must work with forklifts, balers, front-end loaders and large conveyor
belts. Bales of sorted waste can weigh several tons and may fall on workers,
seriously disabling or killing them. If machinery malfunctions or is used
improperly, it can cause lethal injury. Compactors are especially dangerous. When
employees are trapped in these machines, they are crushed.
• Machines are important in the waste management industry, but no machine can
substitute for the skill and judgment of a recycling worker. Much of the sorting
process takes place by hand. This laborious task can cause fatigue, carpal tunnel
syndrome and injury from dangerous items. Workers stand at conveyor belts for
hours, sorting through mounds of discarded refuse and placing items into the
correct bins.
• Even with proper ergonomic training, employees often face repetitive stress
injuries and other disabilities from sorting materials on the recycling line.
According to an OSHA study conducted during 2013, more than two out of
three workers in recycling facilities had suffered a job-related illness or injury. 57
104
percent of these issues were musculoskeletal injuries, most often back injuries.
• Many recycling facilities are thoroughly unpleasant places to work. Employees

report excessive heat, cold, bad smells, toxic dust, poor hygiene and lack of
cleanliness in facilities. Protective masks are often not enough to keep dust out of
the airway. Working under time pressure in this environment can lead to health
problems and stress-related illnesses.
• Vibration and noise exposure are also dangerous threats on the recycling line.
Severe occupational noise can cause a number of physical problems, including
insomnia, hearing loss, cardiovascular disturbances, tinnitus and hormonal
imbalances in the blood. Workers in many facilities are unable to speak or hear
over the noise of the recycling machinery.
• Recycling plants rely more on short-term or agency workers as it is more difficult

to motivate people for such a repetitive job on a permanent basis. Many workers
in recycling and waste facilities are temporary employees also because companies
can save money by hiring temporary staff to sort through waste, but the price is
paid by the workers themselves. These workers are consistently lower paid and
less trained. OSHA studies show that safety training is often lacking in recycling
facilities because of the prevalence of contingent or short-term workers.
• Temporary workers are often told to perform hazardous tasks without proper
instruction. The risk of losing a temporary job is a powerful disincentive to speak
up when there are unsafe conditions in a facility. In some cases, workers will not
even seek medical attention because they do not want to draw criticism from their
employers
• There was felt to be a need to monitor line pickers in recycling plants without
relying on individual competence. The key issue is that those who are not suitably
competent should not be in charge of large expensive plant.
105
• In recycling plants, the aim is to get the product out, and the team needs to work
together to achieve this.
• The workforce is essentially self-selecting, as those susceptible to musculoskeletal

and other health problems would not be working in the industry. There is little
occupational health testing.
• Educational levels are becoming a major issue now in terms of basic skills, with
literacy being low on MRF picking lines.
• Standards of internal work environment are relatively good in expensive plant.

However, MRFs have traditionally been adapted from equipment produced for
other industries. Ergonomic considerations have also been lacking in the past.
MRFs have typically been incorporated into old (sometimes unsuitable) buildings
that are not high enough and may be enclosed on three sides. The situation is
improving in MRFs with the introduction of process engineering skills.
• In MRFs, recruitment and selection is based largely on whether workers turn up

and stick with the job.
• Training expenditure is generally low, although this will vary. Having the money
available is a key issue. In MRFs, there may be a tendency to do the minimum in
terms of training, as companies do not know whether workers will stay or not.
Companies will invest in people once they have established themselves and look
likely to stay.
• Graduate managers and supervisors were felt to be more receptive to health and
safety messages in general than the older workers who have always done it that
way in the past. However, there are significant barriers to graduates being
‘accepted’.
• Local authorities were not felt to be interested in worker welfare in the past, and
workers retain the view that employers are not interested in them. Nevertheless,
106
workers think that health and safety is something for their company to deal with,
not them. However, there tend to be responsible corporate structures now, and a
more positive safety culture is developing.
Recommendations
The recycling industry faces a serious safety crisis. Facilities can take action to
solve these problems and cut the risk of injury or death on the sorting line. Some
of the most important steps include the following:
▪ Thorough training of all employees, including temporary, contingent and part-

time employees
▪ Close communication with staffing agencies
▪ Regular inspection of processing equipment in recycling plants
▪ Ergonomic best practices on the sorting line
▪ Sufficient staffing to avoid stress on individual workers
▪ Appropriate safety gear and protective clothing for all workers
When supervisors are willing to commit to higher standards and follow these
steps, people will be safer in recycling facilities.
Working in the recycling industry can be challenging. People who have been
injured in waste management facilities should consider speaking with a workers’
compensation attorney to discuss their rights.
107
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University Vasile Alecsandri of Bacau

Health and safety in recycling

Technological Educational Institute of Athens

As part of an Erasmus+ Exchange programme

In Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements of the Bachelor Degree in Industrial

Faculty of Machines Manufacturing Technologies

Supervisors: Prof.Dr.Eng. Maria Paralika (T.E.I of Athens, Greece)

Recycling is one of the fastest-growing job sectors within the waste-

Foremost, I want to thank the Erasmus+ Exchange Programme for

I would like to express my gratitude towards my family for the

It is my proud privilege to express my sincere thanks and deep sense of

2. Occupational Safety and Health ............................................................ 5

3. Solid Waste Management (SWM) ....................................................... 38

4. The recycling process and recycling technology ................................ 58

5. Measures of Occupational Health and Safety in Recycling Plants .. 80

6. Conclusions .......................................................................................... 104

Figure 3 Joint ILO/WHO Comittee's definition of occupational health .................................. 16

Figure 4 Waste Hierarchy ........................................................................................................ 49

Figure 5 Recycling rates in Europe by waste stream ............................................................... 59

Figure 6 Recycling rates comparison on 10 years by country ................................................. 61

Figure 7 Comparison of MRF Types ...................................................................................... 68

Figure 8 Typical Tipping Floor................................................................................................ 69

Figure 9 In-feed Conveyor ....................................................................................................... 70

Figure 10 Disk Screen .............................................................................................................. 71

Figure 11 Manual Fiber Sort Line ........................................................................................... 72

Figure 12 Material Bunkers ..................................................................................................... 73

Figure 13 Paper Baler .............................................................................................................. 73

Figure 14 Bag Breaker ............................................................................................................. 75

Figure 15 Rotating Trommel Screen........................................................................................ 76

Figure 16 Drum separator ........................................................................................................ 77

Figure 17 Eddy Current ........................................................................................................... 77

Figure 18 Optical Sorter........................................................................................................... 78

Figure 19 News reports describe recycling work tragedies ..................................................... 82

Recycling is a key component of modern waste reduction, and is the third

Health and safety at work is relevant to all branches of industry, but it is

1.2 Aim and objectives

• Assessing health and safety in the recycling industry, description of the

1.3 Scope of the study

1.5 Organisation of the chapters

• Chapter 3: Provides a summary of waste treatements, steps of Integrated Solid

Safety is the protection of people from physical injury. The borderline

Welfare is the provision of facilities to maintain the health and well-

Environmental protection is the arrangements to cover those activities

Accident at work is defined as a discrete occurrence in the course of

An occupational disease is a disorder resulting from the exercise of a

An occupational hazard is a hazard experienced in the workplace.

A risk is the chance or probability that a person will be harmed or

Risk assessment is the process where you:

When thinking about your risk assessment, remember:

➢ a hazard is anything that may cause harm, such as chemicals,

Hazard: Asbestos is a naturally-occurring, fibrous, heat-resistant

How can the risks be eliminated? By taking appropriate precautions

2.3 General aspects

These estimates are sufficient to demonstrate beyond any doubt that a

Figure 1 Accidents at work

Accidents at work and work-related ill-health have an impact on

Poor and hazardous working conditions affect several target groups.

• societal: public or collective funds, healthcare systems, insurance

2.4 Key principles in occupational health and safety

Clearly, some overlap exists among these general principles. For

It is increasingly recognized that the protection of life and health at work

The responsibilities of governments, employers and workers should be

Training is one of the most important tasks to be carried out by