Chapter 3.

Natural Hazards, Mitigation, and Adaptation

This chapter puts emphasis on the following lessons:

 Lesson A. Geologic Processes and Hazards

 Lesson B. Hydrometeorological Phenomena and Hazards
 Lesson C. Marine and Coastal Processes and their Effects

Content Standards:
The learners demonstrate the understanding of:

 the different hazards caused by geological processes (earthquakes, volcanic

eruptions, and landslides ).
 the different hazards caused by hydrometeorological phenomena ( tropical cyclones,
monsoons, floods, and tornadoes or ipoipo)
 the different hazards caused by coastal processes (waves, tides, sea-level changes,
crustal movement, and storm surges)

Performance Standards:
The learners shall be able to :

1. Conduct a survey to assess the possible geologic hazards that your community may

experience. (Note: Select this performance standard if your school is in an area near

faultlines, volcanoes, and steep slopes.)

2. Conduct a survey or design a study to assess the possible hydrometeorological hazards

that your community may experience.

Learning Competencies:
The learners:
a. describe various natural hazards (caused by geologic, hydrometeorological, marine
and coastal processes) that may happen in the event of these processes and hazards
b. using hazard maps, identify areas prone to these
c. give practical ways of coping with these hazards
d. cite ways to mitigate the impact of the disaster
e. suggest ways to help lessen the occurrence of these hazards in your community
f. identify areas in your community prone to these hazards
 g. cite ways to prevent or mitigate the impact of land development, waste disposal, and
construction of structures on control coastal processes

BIG IDEA 3
Natural hazards are events that occur as part of the natural cycles of Earth and may cause potential
damage
Avalancheto a community. An event that causes widespread losses (human, economic, and environmental) and
disrupts the normal functioning of a community called a disaster.

What is a hazard?
A natural hazard is a natural phenomenon that can potentially trigger a disaster. This
includes earthquakes, mud-slides, floods, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis, drought. These physical
events need not necessarily result in disaster
What is a disaster?
A disaster is a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society involving
widespread human, material, economic or environmental losses and impacts, exceeding the
ability of the community to cope using own resources.
What does risk mean?
The product of hazards over which we have no control. It combines the likelihood or
probability of a disaster happening and the negative effects that result if the disaster is happening
which are increased by vulnerabilities (characteristics/circumstances that make one susceptible to
damaging effects of a hazard),and decreased by capacities (combination of strengths, attitudes and
resources).

3.1 Geologic Hazards

A geologic hazard is one of several types of adverse geologic conditions capable of causing
damage or loss of property and life. These hazards consist of sudden phenomena and slow
phenomena:
Sudden phenomena include:

 avalanches (snow, rock, or air & snow) and its runout

 earthquakes and earthquake-triggered phenomena such as tsunamis
 forest fires (espec. in Mediterranean areas) leading to deforestation
 geomagnetic storms
 ice jams on rivers or glacial lake outburst floods below a glacier
 landslide (lateral displacement of earth materials on a slope or hillside)
 mudflows (avalanche-like muddy flow of soft/wet soil and sediment materials, narrow
landslides)
 pyroclastic flows
 rock falls, rock slides, (rock avalanche) and debris flows
 torrents (flash floods, rapid floods or heavy current creeks with irregular course)
 volcanic eruptions, lahars and ash falls.
Gradual or slow phenomena include:
 alluvial fans (e.g. at the exit of canyons or side valleys)
 caldera development (volcanoes)

 geyser deposits
 ground settlement due to consolidation of compressible soils or due to collapseable soils
ground subsidence, sags and sinkholes
 liquefaction (settlement of the ground in areas underlain by loose saturated sand/silt during
an earthquake event)
 sand dune migration
 shoreline and stream erosion
 thermal springs
Sometime the hazard is instigated by man through the careless location of developments or
construction in which the conditions were not taken into account.

Avalanche
An avalanche occurs when a large snow (or rock) mass slides
down a mountainside. An avalanche is an example of a gravity
current consisting of granular material. In an avalanche, lots of
material or mixtures of different types of material fall or slide
rapidly under the force of gravity. Avalanches are often
classified by the size or severity of consequences resulting from
the event.

Lahar
A lahar is a type of natural event closely related to
a volcanic eruption, and involves a large amount of
material originating from an eruption of a glaciated
volcano, including mud from the melted ice, rock,
and ash sliding down the side of the volcano at a rapid
pace. These flows can destroy entire towns in seconds
and kill thousands of people, and form flood basalt. This
Fig. 3.1c lahar during the Mt. Pinatubo Eruption
is based on natural events.

Landslide
A landslide is a mass displacement of sediment, usually down a slope.
 Sinkholes
A sinkhole is a localized depression in the surface
topography, usually caused by the collapse of a
subterranean structure such as a cave. Although rare,
large sinkholes that develop suddenly in populated
areas can lead to the collapse of buildings and other
structures.

Fig. 3.1d Sinkhole in Negros Oriental

Volcanic eruption

A volcanic eruption is the point in which a volcano is active and

releases its power, and the eruptions come in many forms. They
range from daily small eruptions which occur in places
like Kilauea in Hawaii, to megacolossal eruptions (where the
volcano expels at least 1,000 cubic kilometers of material).
Some eruptions form pyroclastic flows, which are high- Fig. 3.1e Mt. Mayon in 1984
temperature clouds of ash and steam that can travel down
mountainsides at speed exceeding an airliner like the ones that happened in Mt. Mayon.
Earthquake
Fig. 3.1a Avalanche in Colorado, USA

An earthquake is a phenomenon that results from a

sudden release of stored energy that radiates seismic
waves. At the Earth's surface, earthquakes may manifest
with a shaking or displacement of the ground; when
the earthquake occurs on the seafloor, the resulting
displacement of water can sometimes result in
a tsunami. Most of the world's earthquakes (90%, and
Fig. 3.1b Earthquake in Bohol
81% of the largest) take place in the 40,000-km-long,
horseshoe-shaped zone called the circum-Pacific seismic
belt, also known as the Pacific Ring of Fire, which for the most part bounds the Pacific Plate. Many
earthquakes happen each day, few of which are large enough to cause significant damage.

Earthquakes and volcanoes occur most commonly at the collision zone between tectonic
plates. Earthquakes represent a particularly severe threat due to the irregular time intervals
between events, lack of adequate forecasting, and the hazards associated with these:

- Ground shaking is a direct hazard to any structure located near the earthquake's center.
Structural failure takes many human lives in densely populated areas.
- Faulting, or breaches of the surface material, occurs as the separation of bedrock along lines of
weakness.

- Landslides occur because of ground shaking in areas having relatively steep topography and
poor slope stability.

- Liquefaction of gently sloping unconsolidated material can be triggered by ground shaking.

Flows and lateral spreads (liquefaction phenomena) are among the most destructive geologic
hazards.

- Subsidence or surface depressions result from the settling of loose or unconsolidated sediment.
Subsidence occurs in waterlogged soils, fill, alluvium, and other materials that are prone to settle.

- Tsunamis or seismic sea waves, usually generated by

seismic activity under the ocean floor, cause flooding in
coastal areas and can affect areas thousands of kilometers
from the earthquake center.

Fig. 3.1f Tsunamis in Japan

Hydrometeorological Hazards

A hydrometeorological process or phenomenon of atmospheric, hydrological or

oceanographic nature that may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage,
loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental damage.

Hydrometeorological hazards include tropical cyclones (also known as typhoons and

hurricanes), thunderstorms, hailstorms, tornados, blizzards, heavy snowfall, coastal storm
surges, floods including flash floods, drought, heatwaves and cold spells. Hydrometeorological
conditions also can be a factor in other hazards such as landslides, wildland fires, locust plagues,
epidemics, and in the transport and dispersal of toxic substances and volcanic eruption material.

Blizzard
A blizzard is a severe winter stormer icy and windy conditions characterized by low temperature,
strong wind and heavy snow.
Drought
Scientists warn that global warming and climate change may result in more extensive droughts in
coming years. These extensive droughts are likely to occur within the African continent due to its
very low precipitation levels and high climate.Hailstorm
A hailstorm is a natural hazard where a thunderstorm produces numerous hailstones which
damage the location in which they fall. Hailstorms can be especially devastating to farm fields,
ruining crops and damaging equipment.
Heat wave
A heat wave is a hazard characterized by heat which is considered extreme and unusual in the
area in which it occurs. Heat waves are rare and require specific combinations of weather events
to take place, and may include temperature inversions, katabatic winds, or other phenomena.
There is potential for longer-term events causing global warming, including stadial events (the
opposite to glacial "ice age" events), or through human-induced climatic warming.
Tropical Cyclone
Hurricane, tropical cyclone, and typhoon are different names for
the same phenomenon: a cyclonic storm system that forms over
the oceans. It is caused by evaporated water that comes off of
the ocean and becomes a storm. The Coriolis effect causes the
storms to spin.74 mph (119 km/h). Hurricane is used for these
phenomena in the Atlantic and eastern Pacific Oceans, tropical
cyclone in the Indian, and typhoon in the western Pacific.
Tornado
Fig. 3.1f Aftermath of Typhoon Yolanda
A tornado is a natural
disaster resulting from
a thunderstorm. Tornadoes are violent, rotating
columns of air which can blow at speeds between
50 mph (80 km/h) and 300 mph (480 km/h), and possibly
higher. Tornadoes can occur one at a time, or can occur
in large tornado outbreaks associated with supercells or
in other large areas of thunderstorm
Fig. 3.1g A tornado in Legazpi City
development. Waterspouts are tornadoes occurring over
tropical waters in light rain conditions.
Climate change
Climate change is a long-term hazard which can increase or decrease the risk of other weather
hazards, and also directly endangers property due to sea level rise and biological organisms due
to habitat destruction.
Geomagnetic storm
Geomagnetic storms can disrupt or damage
technological infrastructure, and disorient species
with magnetoception.
Water spout
A tornado formed over water.
Fig. 3.1h Tornado water sprout
Flooding

Two types of flooding can be distinguished: (1) land-borne floods, or river flooding, caused by
excessive run-off brought on by heavy rains, and (2) sea-borne floods, or coastal flooding, caused
by storm surges, often exacerbated by storm run-off from the upper watershed. Tsunamis are a
special type of sea-borne flood.

a. Coastal flooding

Storm surges are an abnormal rise in sea water

level associated with hurricanes and other storms at sea.
Surges result from strong on-shore winds and/or intense
low pressure cells and ocean storms. Water level is
controlled by wind, atmospheric pressure, existing
astronomical tide, waves and swell, local coastal
topography and bathymetry, and the storm's proximity
to the coast.

Most often, destruction by storm surge is attributable to:

Fig. 3.1i Storm surge in Manila Bay
- Wave impact and the physical shock on objects
associated with the passing of the wave front.

- Hydrostatic/dynamic forces and the effects of water lifting and carrying objects. The most
significant damage often results from the direct impact of waves on fixed structures. Indirect
impacts include flooding and undermining of major infrastructure such as highways and
railroads.

Flooding of deltas and other low-lying coastal areas is exacerbated by the influence of tidal action,
storm waves, and frequent channel shifts.

b. River flooding

Land-borne floods occur when the capacity of stream channels to conduct water is
exceeded and water overflows banks. Floods are natural phenomena, and may be expected to
occur at irregular intervals on all stream and rivers. Settlement of floodplain areas is a major cause
of flood damage.

Some Coastal Marine Processes and their Effects

Marine processes are those associated with the action of waves.

Erosion
 Erosion refers to the wearing away of the land surface and removal of materials by river
and sea water, ice and wind. There are four main processes of erosion along the coast. These are
hydraulic action, abrasion and corrasion, attrition and solution.
Hydraulic action
Waves breaking at the foot of a cliff force air in cracks to be compressed. Loose rocks are
dislodged and removed. When the wave retreats the compressed air rushes out of the crack and
can further weaken faults in the cliff face.
Abrasion
Abrasion is the sandpaper effect of loose rocks being
scraped along bare rock. It often smooths and polishes the rock.
Corrasion
Corrasion is when rock caught up in surging waves are
hurled at a cliff face – causing it to be chipped and gauged.
Attrition
Attrition is when rocks carried by seawater collide –
gradually making them smaller and smoother.
Transportation
Transportation is movement of sediment by the action Fig. 3.1g Breaking of Rocks due to Attrition

of waves.
Traction
Traction involves the rolling of large and heavy rocks
along the seabed.
Saltation
Saltation involves smaller material being bounced along
the seabed.
Suspension
Suspension is when lighter sediment is suspended within
the water. This often discolours the water close to the shore.
Fig. 3.1h Cl;iff moves inland as it gets eroded
Solution
Sediment that has dissolved completely will be
transported in solution.

The Philippines has suffered from an inexhaustible number of deadly typhoons,

earthquakes, volcano eruptions and other natural disasters. This is due to its location along the
Ring of Fire, or typhoon belt – a large Pacific Ocean region where many of Earth’s volcanic
eruptions and earthquakes occur.
Annually, approximately 80 typhoons develop above tropical waters, of which 19 enter
the Philippine region and six to nine make landfall, according to the Joint Typhoon Warning
Center(JTWC).

The Philippines is in fact the country most exposed to tropical storms in the world. Violent
tropical storms, such as the latest Haiyan typhoon, can generate 10 times as much energy as the
Hiroshima atomic bomb. The hazard Map tells all the hazards risk, Philippines has to cope year after year.
How do we mitigate and adapt to these???
Mitigation refers to actions taken to prevent or reduce the risk to life, property, social and
economic activities, and natural resources from natural hazards. Awareness, education,
preparedness, and prediction and warning systems can reduce the disruptive impacts of a natural
disaster on communities. Mitigation measures such as adoption of zoning, land-use practices,
and building codes are needed, however, to prevent or reduce actual damage from hazards.
Avoiding development in landslide- and flood-prone areas through planning and zoning
ordinances, for example, may save money in construction and reduce the loss of life and damage
to property and natural resources. Post disaster studies continue to confirm the fundamental fact
that community investment in mitigation pays direct dividends when a disaster occurs.

Some Important Terminologies to get by:

Prevention: outright avoidance of the adverse affects of hazards / disasters
Mitigation: the process of lessoning or limiting the adverse affects of hazards / disasters
Preparedness: knowledge and capacities to effectively anticipate, respond to and recover from
impacts of likely hazard
Risk Reduction: practice of reducing risks through systematic efforts to analyze and manage the
causal factors of disasters, including through reduced exposure, lessened vulnerability,
improved preparedness
Response: provision of emergency services to save lives, meet needs

Philippines, by nature of its geographic location, is

vulnerable to many natural hazards.

The Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction and

Management Act of 2010, an act for :
1. Strengthening the Philippine Disaster Management
System
2. Providing for the National Disaster Risk Reduction
and Management Framework and
3. Institutionalizing the National Disaster Risk
Reduction and Management Plan, Appropriating funds therefore and for Other Purposes
The Republic Act 10121 of 27 may 2010 repealed Presidential Decree (PD) 1566 in 1976.

Why do we need to have a new law?

PD 1566:
• Assumes that disasters cannot be avoided
• Most plans were on the provision of relief goods & infra like dike & flood control
systems (reactive)
• Government response was focused on disaster response
RA 10121:
  Transforms & reforms the way we deal with disasters that impact of disasters can be
reduced by addressing the root cause of disaster risks
 from disaster response to risk reduction
 emphasis on strengthening peoples’ capacity to absorb stress
 Proactive and developmental approach in managing disaster

Appropriate disaster prevention,

mitigation, preparedness and
response builds on people’s
capacities and tackles the causes of
vulnerability.

How do the concepts of

vulnerability and capacity apply to
education?

Within education systems, what

kinds of vulnerabilities typically
exist?

What capacities exist that could

enable education to continue with minimum disruption?

How can education be used as a vehicle for increasing capacities to reduce vulnerability
to disaster?

Education in every disaster response (+ preparedness)

• Education can be life-saving and life-sustaining during disasters

• Education is a right, even in an emergency, and key to life with dignity

• Education is what children/parents ask for during disasters

• Quality, relevant education contributes to development, economic growth, peace,

stability and good governance
PREVENTION, AND MANAGEMENT OF GEOLOGIC HAZARDS

What Should I Do Before, During, And After An Earthquake?

What to Do Before an Earthquake

 Make sure you have a fire extinguisher, first aid kit, a battery-powered radio, a
flashlight, and extra batteries at home.
 Learn first aid.
 Learn how to turn off the gas, water, and electricity.
 Make up a plan of where to meet your family after an earthquake.
 Don't leave heavy objects on shelves (they'll fall during a quake).
 Anchor heavy furniture, cupboards, and appliances to the walls or floor.
 Learn the earthquake plan at your school or workplace.
What to Do During an Earthquake
 Stay calm! If you're indoors, stay inside. If you're outside, stay outside.
 If you're indoors, stand against a wall near the center of the building, stand in a
doorway, or crawl under heavy furniture (a desk or table). Stay away from windows
and outside doors.
 If you're outdoors, stay in the open away from power lines or anything that might fall.
Stay away from buildings (stuff might fall off the building or the building could fall on
you).
 Don't use matches, candles, or any flame. Broken gas lines and fire don't mix.
 If you're in a car, stop the car and stay inside the car until the earthquake stops.
 Don't use elevators (they'll probably get stuck anyway).
What to Do After an Earthquake
 Check yourself and others for injuries. Provide first aid for anyone who needs it.
 Check water, gas, and electric lines for damage. If any are damaged, shut off the valves.
Check for the smell of gas. If you smell it, open all the windows and doors, leave
immediately, and report it to the authorities (use someone else's phone).
 Turn on the radio. Don't use the phone unless it's an emergency.
 Stay out of damaged buildings.
 Be careful around broken glass and debris. Wear boots or sturdy shoes to keep from
cutting your feet.
 Be careful of chimneys (they may fall on you).
 Stay away from beaches. Tsunamis and seiches sometimes hit after the ground has
stopped shaking.
 Stay away from damaged areas.
 If you're at school or work, follow the emergency plan or the instructions of the person
in charge.
 Expect aftershocks.
What to do during a flood?

Listen to the radio or television for information.

– Be aware that flash flooding can occur. If there is any possibility of a flash flood, move
immediately to higher ground. Do not wait for instructions to move.
– Be aware of streams, drainage channels, canyons, and other areas known to flood suddenly.
Flash floods can occur in these areas with or without such typical warnings as rain clouds or
heavy rain.

If you must prepare to evacuate, you should do the following:

– Secure your home. If you have time, bring in outdoor furniture. Move essential items to an
upper floor.
– Turn off utilities at the main switches or valves if instructed to do so. Disconnect electrical
appliances. Do not touch electrical equipment if you are wet or standing in water.

If you have to leave your home, remember these evacuation tips:

– Do not walk through moving water. Six inches of moving water can make you fall. If you have
to walk in water, walk where the water is not moving. Use a stick to check the firmness of the
ground in front of you.
– Do not drive into flooded areas. If floodwaters rise around your car, abandon the car and
move to higher ground if you can do so safely. You and the vehicle can be quickly swept away.

The following are important points to remember when driving in flood conditions:

– Six inches of water will reach the bottom of most passenger cars and cause loss of control and
possible stalling.
– A foot of water will float many vehicles.
– Two feet of rushing water can carry away most vehicles including sport utility vehicles
(SUV’s) and pick-ups.

There is no perfect execution of disaster management plans because no geologic event can
be accurately predicted. However, the impacts of disasters may be reduced or managed through
public awareness and preparedness.