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Fracture

Abstract:
Most alloys contain second phases which lose cohesion with the matrix or
fracture and the voids so formed grow as dislocations flow into them.
Coalescence of the voids forms a continuous fracture surface followed by failure
of the remaining annulus of material usually on plane at 45° to the tension axis.
The central fracture surface consists of numerous cup-like depressions generally
called dimples. The shape of the dimples is strongly influenced by the direction of
major stresses-circular in pure tension and parabolic under shear

Ductile fracture

A pure and inclusion free metal can elongate under tension to give approx. 100%
RA and a point fracture, Fig. 1. Most alloys contain second phases which lose
cohesion with the matrix or fracture and the voids so formed grow as dislocations
flow into them. Coalescence of the voids forms a continuous fracture surface
followed by failure of the remaining annulus of material usually on plane at 45°
to the tension axis. The central fracture surface consists of numerous cup-like
depressions generally called dimples. The shape of the dimples is strongly
influenced by the direction of major stresses-circular in pure tension and
parabolic under shear. Dimple size depends largely on the number of inclusion
sites. Fig. 2a shows typical dimples.

Figure 1. (a) Stages in ductile fracture from inclusions

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(b) Fracture toughness n thickness

Some important features of ductile fracture can be summarised as follows:

• Pure metals and solid solutions that are relatively free from second phase
particles (including impurity particles) are usually more ductile than strong
two-phase alloys.
• The local stress required for whole nucleation at particles depends on their
resistance to cracking and the strength of their bond with the matrix.
• The local stress generated at the particles depends on the flow strength of
the alloy, the applied strain and the shape and size of the particles.
• Growth of the holes, so that they coalesce to form a macroscopic fracture,
depends on the applied stresses being tensile. Much higher ductilities are
achieved in compressive straining.

In cleavage fracture the material fails along well defined crystallographic planes
within the grain but the crack path is affected by grain boundaries and inclusions.
Basically a cleavage fracture surface contains large smooth areas separated by
cleavage steps and feathers, river markings and cleavage tongues which are the
direct result of crack path disturbances-Fig. 2b.

Intercrystalline fracture is characterized by separation of the grains to reveal a

surface composed of grain boundary facets, Fig. 2c. This type of fracture is found
in stress-corrosion, creep hot tearing and hydrogen embrittlement.

Fatigue fractures are characterized by striations (Fig. 2d) representing the extent
of crack propagation under each cycle of loading.

a) Dimples in a ductile fracture of mild b) Cleavage patterns in HS steel

steel (x5000) fracture (x12000)

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c) Intergranular fracture in low alloy d) Fatigue striations in Nimonic 80A

steel (x1500) (x7000)(A.Strang)
Figure 2. Fracture in Scanning electron micrographs

Compound stresses and brittle fracture

The failure of some American all-welded ships during the Second World War has
stimulated much work on the causes of brittle fracture in steel. In the tensile test
plastic deformation involves shearing slip along crystal planes within the crystals,
but in the presence of tension of equal magnitude in each principal direction,
shearing stresses are absent, plastic deformation is prevented and a brittle
fracture occurs as soon as the cohesive strength of the material is exceeded.
Equal triaxial tension stresses do not arise frequently in practice, but it is
common to find a triaxial tension superimposed on a unidirectional tension, and if
the margin between cohesive strength and plastic yield strength is small, a brittle
fracture may occur in a material ordinarily considered highly ductile. Compound
stresses arise in a weld in very thick plate and in a tube under internal pressure
and an axial tension.

This is shown in Fig. 3 with cohesive stress-strain curves, B, N, and F. If the two
curves intersect at Y, brittle fracture occurs preceded by plastic deformation,
which decreases as the cohesive strength curve becomes lower with respect to
the yield stress-strain curve. Orowan has shown that if the yield stress is denoted
by Y, the strength for brittle fracture by B (both Y and B depend on the plastic
strain), and the initial value of Y (for strain = 0) by Y0 we have the following
relation:

• The material is brittle if B < Y0;

• The material is ductile but notch-brittle if Y0 < B < 3Y0
• The material is not notch-brittle if 3Y < B.

The factor 3 takes into account the stress increase at a notch. Whether the
material is notch-brittle or not depends on the very small margin between B and
3Y.

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Figure 3. (a) Yield and cohesive stress curves

(b) Slow notch bend test
(c) Effect of temperature on the Izod value of mild steel

Carbon steel is an exceptional material, because 3Y and B are so close, and this
is the reason why the results of Izod tests seem to be so erratic, and why notch
brittleness is so sensitive to slight variations of composition, previous treatment
and temperature.

Brittle fracture is characterized by the very small amount of work absorbed and
by a crystalline appearance of the surfaces of fracture, often with a chevron
pattern pointing to the origin of fracture, due to the formation of discontinuous
cleavage cracks which join up (Fig. 4). It can occur at a low stress of 75-120 MPa
with great suddenness; the velocity of crack propagation is probably not far from
that of sound in the material in this type of fracture plastic deformation is very
small, and the crack need not open up considerably in order to propagate, as is
necessary with a ductile failure.

Figure 4. Steel brittle fracture surface with chevron markings. Micrograph shows
discontinuous cracks ahead of main crack

The work required to propagate a crack is given by Griffith`s formula:

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(1)

where:
σ = tensile stress required to propagate a crack of length c

γ = surface energy of fracture faces

E = Young`s modulus

Orowan modified the Griffith theory to include a plastic strain energy factor, p,
since some plastic flow is always found near the fracture surface:

(2)

When the temperature is above the brittle-ductile transition temperature, p is

large and the stress, σ, required to make the crack grow will also be large. Below
the transition temperature the metal is brittle and p will be smaller. The stress
necessary to cause crack growth, therefore, will be reduced. The reason for the
increasing speed of crack propagation, once a crack has started, is clear from
both Griffith`s and Orowan`s equations: as the crack grows in length, the stress
required for propagation continually decreases.

Fracture Toughness

Abstract:
Materials develop plastic strains as the yield stress is exceeded in the region near
the crack tip. The amount of plastic deformation is restricted by the surrounding
material, which remains elastic. The size of this plastic zone is dependent on the
stress conditions of the body.

Plastic Zone Size

Materials develop plastic strains as the yield stress is exceeded in the region near
the crack tip (see Fig. 1). The amount of plastic deformation is restricted by the
surrounding material, which remains elastic. The size of this plastic zone is
dependent on the stress conditions of the body.

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Figure 1. Yielding near crack tip.

Plane stress and plane strain conditions. In a thin body, the stress through
the thickness (σz) cannot vary appreciably due to the thin section. Because there
can be no stresses normal to a free surface, σz = 0 throughout the section and a
biaxial state of stress results. This is termed a plane stress condition (see Fig. 2).

Figure 2. Plane stress and plane strain conditions

In a thick body, the material is constrained in the z direction due to the thickness
of the cross section and εz = 0, resulting in a plane strain condition. Due to
Poisson`s effect, a stress, σz, is developed in the z direction. Maximum constraint
conditions exist in the plane strain condition, and consequently the plastic zone
size is smaller than that developed under plane stress conditions.

Monotonic plastic zone size. The plastic zone sizes under monotonic loading
have been estimated to be

plane stress

(1)

plane strain

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where r is defined as shown in Fig. 3.

Figure 3. Monotonic plastic zone size

Cyclic plastic zone size. The reversed or cyclic plastic zone size is four times
smaller than the comparable monotonic value. As the nominal tensile load is
reduced, the plastic region near the crack tip is put into compression by the
surrounding elastic body. As shown in Fig. 4, the change in stress at the crack tip
due to the reversed loading is twice the value of the yield stress.

Equation 2 become

plane stress
(2)

plane strain

The cyclic plastic zone size is smaller than the monotonic and more characteristic
of a plane strain state even in thin plates. Thus LEFM concepts can often be used
in the analysis of fatigue crack growth problems even in materials that exhibit
considerable amounts of ductility. The basic assumption that the plastic zone size
is small in relationship to the crack and the cracked body usually remains valid.

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Figure 4. Reversed plastic zone size

Fracture Toughness
As the stress intensity factor reaches a critical value (Kc), unstable fracture
occurs. This critical value of the stress intensity factor is known as the fracture
toughness of the material. The fracture toughness can be considered the limiting
value of stress intensity just as the yield stress might be considered the limiting
value of applied stress.

The fracture toughness varies with specimen thickness until limiting conditions
(maximum constraint) are reached. Recall that maximum constraint conditions
occur in the plane strain state.

The plane strain fracture toughness, KIc is dependent on specimen geometry and
metallurgical factors. ASTM Designation E-399, Standard Method of Test for Plane
Strain Fracture Toughness of Metallic Materials, sets forth accepted procedures
for determining this value.

It is often difficult to perform a valid test for KIc. For example, a valid test using a
thin plate of high toughness material often cannot be performed. Rather the
value, Kc at the given conditions is obtained.

The fracture toughness depends on both temperature and the specimen

thickness. The following example shows the importance of the fracture toughness
in designing against unstable fracture.

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Fracture Mechanics

Abstract:
Fracture mechanics approaches require that an initial crack size be known or
assumed. For components with imperfections or defects (such as welding
porosities, inclusions and casting defects, etc.) an initial crack size may be
known. Alternatively, for an estimate of the total fatigue life of a defect-free
material, fracture mechanics approaches can be used to determine propagation.
Strain-life approaches may then be used to determine initiation life, with the total
life being the sum of these two estimates.

The fatigue life of a component is made up of initiation and propagation stages.

This is illustrated schematically in Fig. 1

Figure 1.Initiation and propagation portions of fatigue life

The size of the crack at the transition from initiation to propagation is usually
unknown and often depends on the point of view of the analyst and the size of
the component being analyzed. For example, for a researcher equipped with
microscopic equipment it may be on the order of a crystal imperfection,
dislocation, or a 0,1 mm-crack, while to the inspector in the field it may be the
smallest crack that is readily detectable with nondestructive inspection
equipment.

Nevertheless, the distinction between the initiation life and propagation life is
important. At low strain amplitudes up to 90% of the life may be taken up with
initiation, while at high amplitudes the majority of the fatigue life may be spent
propagating a crack. Fracture mechanics approaches are used to estimate the
propagation life.

Fracture mechanics approaches require that an initial crack size be known or

assumed. For components with imperfections or defects (such as welding
porosities, inclusions and casting defects, etc.) an initial crack size may be
known. Alternatively, for an estimate of the total fatigue life of a defect-free

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material, fracture mechanics approaches can be used to determine propagation.

Strain-life approaches may then be used to determine initiation life, with the total
life being the sum of these two estimates.

Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics Background

Linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) principles are used to relate the stress
magnitude and distribution near the crack tip to:

Remote stresses applied to the cracked component

The crack size and shape
The material properties of the cracked component

Historical Overview
In the 1920s, Griffith formulated the concept that a crack in a component will
propagate if the total energy of the system is lowered with crack propagation.
That is, if the change in elastic strain energy due to crack extension is larger than
the energy required to create new crack surfaces, crack propagation will occur.

Griffith`s theory was developed for brittle materials. In the 1940s, Irwin
extended the theory for ductile materials.

He postulated that the energy due to plastic deformation must be added to the
surface energy associated with the creation of new crack surfaces. He recognized
that for ductile materials, the surface energy term is often negligible compared to
the energy associated with plastic deformation. Further, he defined a quantity, G,
the strain energy release rate or "crack driving force," which is the total energy
absorbed during cracking per unit increase in crack length and per unit thickness.

In the mid-1950s, Irwin made another significant contribution. He showed that

the local stresses near the crack tip are of the general form

(1)

where r and θ are cylindrical coordinates of a point with respect to the crack tip
(see Fig. 2) and K is the stress intensity factor. He further showed that the
energy approach (the "G" approach above) is equivalent to the stress intensity
approach and that crack propagation occurs when a critical strain energy release
rate, G, (or in terms of a critical stress intensity, Kc) is achieved.

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Figure 2.Location of local stresses near a crack tip in cylindrical

coordinates

LEFM Assumptions
Linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) is based on the application of the theory
of elasticity to bodies containing cracks or defects. The assumptions used in
elasticity are also inherent in the theory of LEFM: small displacements and
general linearity between stresses and strains.

The general form of the LEFM equations is given in Eq. 1. As seen, a singularity
exists such that as r, the distance from the crack tip, tends toward zero, the
stresses go to infinity. Since materials plastically deform as the yield stress is
exceeded, a plastic zone will form near the crack tip. The basis of LEFM remains
valid, though, if this region of plasticity remains small in relation to the overall
dimensions of the crack and cracked body.

Loading Modes

There are generally three modes of loading, which involve different crack surface
displacements (see Fig. 3). The three modes are:

Mode 1: opening or tensile mode (the crack faces are pulled apart)

Mode 2: sliding or in-plane shear (the crack surfaces slide over each other)

tearing or anti-plane shear (the crack surfaces move parallel to the

Mode 3:
leading edge of the crack and relative to each other)

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The following discussion deals with Mode 1 since this is the predominant loading
mode in most engineering applications. Similar treatments can readily be
extended to Modes 2 and 3.

Figure 3. Three loading modes

Stress Intensity Factor

The stress intensity factor, K, which was introduced in Eq. 1, defines the
magnitude of the local stresses around the crack tip. This factor depends on
loading, crack size, crack shape, and geometric boundaries, with the general
form given by

(2)

where:

σ = remote stress applied to component (not to be confused with the

local stresses, σij, in Eq. 1)
a = crack length
f (a/w) = correction factor that depends on specimen and crack
geometry

Figure 4 gives the stress intensity relationships for a few of the more common
loading conditions. Stress intensity factors for a single loading mode can be
added algebraically. Consequently, stress intensity factors for complex loading
conditions of the same mode can be determined from the superposition of
simpler results, such as those readily obtainable from handbooks.

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Figure 4. Stress intensity factor for

(a) Center-cracked plate loaded in tension,
(b) Edge-cracked plate loaded in tension,
(c) Double-edge-cracked plate loaded in tension
(d) Cracked beam in pure bending

Fatigue crack growth

Abstract:
The aircraft industry has leaded the effort to understand and predict fatigue crack
growth. They have developed the safe-life or fail-safe design approach. In this
method, a component is designed in a way that if a crack forms, it will not grow
to a critical size between specified inspection intervals. Thus, by knowing the
material growth rate characteristics and with regular inspections, a cracked
component may be kept in service for an extended useful life.

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The major share of the fatigue life of the component may be taken up in the
propagation of crack. By applying fracture mechanics principles it is possible to
predict the number of cycles spent in growing a crack to some specified length or
to final failure.

The aircraft industry has leaded the effort to understand and predict fatigue crack
growth. They have developed the safe-life or fail-safe design approach. In this
method, a component is designed in a way that if a crack forms, it will not grow
to a critical size between specified inspection intervals. Thus, by knowing the
material growth rate characteristics and with regular inspections, a cracked
component may be kept in service for an extended useful life. This concept is
shown schematically in Fig. 1.

Figure 1. Extended service life of a cracked component

Fatigue Crack Growth Curves

Typical constant amplitude crack propagation data are shown in Fig. 2. The crack
length, a, is plotted versus the corresponding number of cycles, N, at which the
crack was measured.

Figure 2. Constant amplitude crack growth data

As shown, most of the life of the component is spent while the crack length is
relatively small. In addition, the crack growth rate increases with increased
applied stress.

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The crack growth rate, da/dN, is obtained by taking the derivative of the above
crack length, a, versus cycles, N, curve. Two generally accepted numerical
approaches for obtaining this derivative are the spline fitting method and the
incremental polynomial method. These methods are explained in detail in many
numerical methods textbooks. Values of log da/dN can then be plotted versus
log ∆K, for a given crack length, using the equation

(1)

where ∆σ is the remote stress applied to the component as shown in Fig. 3.

Figure 3. Remote stress range

A plot of log da/dN versus log ∆Κ,

∆Κ a sigmoidal curve, is shown in Fig. 4. This
curve may be divided into three regions. At low stress intensities, Region I,
cracking behavior is associated with threshold, ∆Kth, effects. In the mid-region,
Region II, the curve is essentially linear. Many structures operate in this region.
Finally, in the Region III, at high ∆K values, crack growth rates are extremely
high and little fatigue life is involved.

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Figure 4. Three regions of crack growth rate curve

Region II

Most of the current applications of LEFM concepts to describe crack growth

behavior are associated with Region II. In this region the slope of the log da/dN
versus log ∆K curve is approximately linear and lies roughly between 10-6 and 10-
3
in/cycle. Many curve fits to this region have been suggested. The Paris
equation, which was proposed in the early 1960s, is the most widely accepted. In
this equation
(2)

where C and m are material constants and ∆K is the stress intensity range Kmax
- Kmin.

Values of the exponent, m, are usually between 3 and 4. These range from 2,3
to 6,7 with a sample average of m = 3,5. In addition, tests may be performed.
ASTM E647 sets guidelines for these tests.

The crack growth life, in terms of cycles to failure, may be calculated using Eq.
(2). The relation may be generally described by

Thus, cycles to failure, Nf, may be calculated as

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(3)

where ai is the initial crack length and af is the final (critical) crack length. Using
the Paris formulation,

(4)

Because ∆K is a function of the crack length and a correction factor that is

dependent on crack length [see Eq. (1)], the integration above must often be
solved numerically. As a first approximation, the correction factor can be
calculated at the initial crack length and Eq. (4) can be evaluated in closed form.

As an example of closed form integration, fatigue life calculations for a small

edge-crack in a large plate are performed below. In this case the correction
factor, f(g) does not vary with crack length. The stress intensity factor range is

(5)

Substituting into the Paris equation yields

(6)

Separating variables and integrating (for m<>2) gives

(7)

Before this equation may be solved, the final crack size, af, must be evaluated.
This may be done using as follows:

(8)

For more complicated formulations of ∆K, where the correction factor varies with
the crack length, a, iterative procedures may be required to solve for af in Eq.
(8).

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It is important to note that the fatigue-life estimation is strongly dependent on

ai, and generally not sensitive to af (when ai«af). Large changes in af result in
small changes of Nf as shown schematically in Fig. 5.

Figure 5. Effect of final crack size on life

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