Rusty Myers 2018.05.

09
Senior Metrology Engineer
 TOPICS COVERED

• Overview of VNA Operation

• Calibration Basics
• 1 – Port Cal
• 2 – Port Cal
• Calibration Advancements
• Calibration in the Real World
• Measurement Challenges
• Application examples
• Wrap-up

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 2

H O W D O E S I T W O R K ? W H AT D O E S I T M E A S U R E ?

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 3

F O RWAR D 

Source

Port-1 Port-2
a1 b2

b1 DUT
a2

Incident Reflected Transmitted Reflected

a0 b0 b3 a3

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 4

  REVERSE

Source

Port-1 Port-2
a1’ b2’
b1’ DUT
a2’

Reflected Transmitted Reflected Incident

a0’ b0’ b3’ a3’

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 5

 S - PA R A M E T E R D E F I N E D ( 2 - P O R T )

a1 S21 b2
• a1 = incident wave at port-1
• a2 = incident wave at port-2
S11 S22
• b1 = reflected/transmitted wave at port-1
• b2 = reflected/transmitted wave at port-2 b1 S12 a2

ALL ARE COMPLEX (VECTOR) QUANTITIES b1  a1S11  a2 S12

(1)
b2  a1S21  a2 S22
 b1   S11 S12   a1 
b    S    (2)
 2   21 S22   a2 

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 6

S Y S T E M AT I C E R R O R S Frequency

a0 = k1 * a1 + δ b0 = k2*b1 + r
b3 = k3*b2 + x a3 = k4*a2 + m ≠ 0
Frequency Response

a0 b0 b3 a3
Crosstalk

LEAKAGE
b1 b2
DUT
Frequency a1 a2

Source Load
Mismatch Mismatch
Frequency Response

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 7

 CHARACTERIZING ERROR TERMS

• Calibration for systematic errors • Doesn’t help with random errors

• Errors are Vector Quantities • Noise
• Quantities must be Invariant • Connector repeatability
• Vary with Frequency • Cable Deviations
• System can measure these errors • Hardware drift
• Temperature drift

Minimized
• Systematic Errors Removed • Errors Remaining After Calibration
• Port Match • Noise and Residuals
• Directivity • Receiver Linearity
• Tracking • Drift and Stability
• Main Leakage Paths • Connector Repeatability
• Lower Level Leakage Paths

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 8

1-PORT

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 9

BEST KNOWN ERROR MODEL

e10
Ref a

m 
b m e00 a
e11
a
Test b
e e  e01
 m  e00  10 10 a
1  e11  a
(  m  e00 )(1  e11  a )  e10e01  a e00 = directivity
 m  e00  e11  a (  m  e00 )  e10e01  a e11 = source match

 m  e00  e11  a  m  ( e10e01  e11e00 ) a (3) e10e01 = reflection tracking

 m  A a  B  C  a  m
where A  e10e01  e11e00 ; B  e00 ; C   e11

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 10

N E E D 3 E Q U AT I O N S F O R 3 U N K N O W N S

Algebraic form
m1  a 1  b  c m11
m2  a 2  b  c m22 (4)
m3  a 3  b  c m33
Matrix form

     m1 1   a    m1 
    
     m 2  2   b     m 2  (5)
       c    
  m3 3     m3 

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 11

A K A “ C A L I B R AT I N G ”

• Want to determine Three Unknown Error terms

• Have 3 equations
• Need 3 KNOWN devices to measure
• Devices need to be distinct – not the same
• Characteristics must be known

Short Load Open

• This will define the Reference Plane
• Center = 0
• Radius = 1

• Measure 3 devices - Short, Open, Load

• Solve 3 equations for 3 unknowns

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 12

 HOW ARE THEY KNOWN?
Transmission Line

ZC ; Delay ; Loss ZT

• Calibration Constant Model • Very Compact Model

• Offset Impedance, Offset Loss, Offset Delay • Errors due to fit of polynomial
• Polynomial Coefficients for Open & Short • Errors due to device variations
• Frequency Range • Load is modeled as =0
• Nominal Characterization Data • Eliminates Fit Error
• Databased • Errors due to device variations
• Load is modeled as  =0
• Actual Measured Data • Least Errors
• Characterized Device • Data tied to single device (SN)
• Actual Data for Load

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 13

SHORT – OPEN - LOAD

SHORT

TEST PORT OPEN ~180° from Short

LOAD (Fixed)

SLIDING LOAD

Better Accuracy – Improves Directivity

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 14

SHORT – SHORT - LOAD

Flat
Short

l Shim +
Flat
= Offset ~180° from
Short Short Flat Short
4

Fixed
Test Port Load

l Shim +
Fixed
=
Offset
Load Load
4

Better Accuracy – Improves Directivity

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 15
 PRIMARY OR TRANSFER

• Primary Standards
• Calculable from physical properties
• Directly traceable through physical properties
• Used in highest level (primary) calibrations in Metrology Labs
• Examples - Short, Air-Line

• Transfer Standards
• Measured Electrically with respect to Primary Standards
• Examples - Loads, Sliding Loads, Open*, Electronic Calibration Modules

*Open with a simple shielded center conductor is calculable.

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 16

M E A S U R E M O R E T H A N 3 S TA N D A R D S

Over-determined Matrix form

 1 1  m1 1    m1  • Improves accuracy

 1  m2  2   a    m2  • Eliminates Frequency
 2    Band Transitions
 3  
1  m3 3   b    m3 
      • Used in Ecal
     c    
  n 1  mn n    mn 

  *  E    M 
  *   *  E     *  M 
*T *T
Least Squares (6)
 E     
1
*   *   *  M 
*T *T

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 17

2-PORT

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 18

1 2 T E R M E R R O R M O D E L - F O R W A R DFORWARD MODEL

e30
DUT
Port - 1 Port - 2
a1 b2
a0 b3
1 S21 e10-32
e00 e11 S11 S22 e22e
e10e01 S12
b0
b1 a2

e00 = Directivity
b0 S11 - e22e S
e11 = Port-1 Source Match S11M = = e00 + (e10e01) (7)
a0 1 - e11S11 - e22eS22 + e11e22e S
(e10e01) = Reflection Tracking
b3 S21
(e10-32) = Transmission Tracking S21M = = e30 + (e10-32) (8)
a0 1 - e11S11 - e22eS22 + e11e22e S
e22e = Port-2 Input Match (Load Match)
e30 = Leakage

6 Forward Error Terms Shown, also 6 in Reverse

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 19

STEPS FOR 2-PORT CAL

Calibration
STEP 1: Calibrate Port-1 using One-Port procedure

Solve for e11, e00, & (e10e01), Calculate (e10e01) from e

STEP 2: Connect Z0 terminations to Ports 1 & 2

Measure S21M gives e30 directly

STEP 3: Connect Ports 1 & 2 together (assume perfect THRU)

S11M - e00
e22e = Perfect THRU ≡ S11 = S22 = 0, S21 = S12 = 1
S11Me11 - e
Beware of imperfect test port connectors.

e10e32 = (S21M - e30)(1 - e11e22e)

Use the same process for the reverse model

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 20

L E A K A G E A N D S W I T C H T E R M S D E T E R M I N E D S E P A R AT E LY

a0 b0

a0 a1
X
b0 Error b1
Adapter
Perfect
DUT
Reflectometer
Imperfect Y
Switch a3 Error a2
Adapter
b3 b2

a3 b3 8 Error Terms

To remove the effects of an imperfect switch, use the procedure described later.

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 21

P R E PA R E F L O W G R A P H S T O S O LV E

a0 a1
a0
e10
[ Tx ]
e00 X Error Adapter e11 DUT

e01 b1
b0 a1
b0 b1 S11

TM -> S12 [ TD ] S21

a3 a2 S22
a3 b2
e23 a2

e33 Y Error Adapter e22

[ Ty ]
e32
b3
b3 b2

MEASURED ACTUAL
1
Tm   Tx TD  Ty  ; TD   Tx  Tm  Ty  1

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 22

S U B S T I T U T E S - PA R A M E T E R S I N T O T - PA R M E T E R S

a0 e10 a1 b2 e32 b3

e00 2-port
e11 e22 e33
DUT

a2 a3
b0 e01 b1 e23
[ X ] [D ] [Y ]

 1  e10e01  e00e11 e00  e32e23  e22e33 e22 

Tm    
e11  TD  
e33 1 
 e10e32   1 
NOTE - Only 7 error terms need to be determined

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 23

C O R R E C T S E P A R AT E LY F O R 8 - T E R M M O D E L

Source

Port-1 Port-2
a1 b2

b1 DUT
a2

Incident Reflected Transmitted Reflected

a0 b0 b3 a3

Measure Switch in both positions to remove systematic effects

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 24

 W H AT I S S O G O O D A B O U T I T ?

• Mathematically elegant model

• Cascading of T matrices
• Matrix equations can be expanded/contracted/manipulated
• Matrix form allows simultaneous solution of all unknowns
• 12-term model is limited by algebraic nature
• Unknowns solved sequentially

• Enabled many advanced VNA calibration methods

• Self-calibration techniques – TRL / LRL
• Unknown Thru calibration model
• QSOLT calibration model
• Many other cal methods…

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 25

BETTER SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEMS

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 26

 TRL
Port 1 Port 2

• Thru:
Thru
• S12 = S21 defined equal to 1 at 0°
• S11 and S22 defined to be zero Port 1 Port 2

• Reflect:
• Must be the same on each port Reflect Reflect
• || need not be known Port 1 Port 2
•  must be known within 1/4λ
• Line:
• Z0 of the line establishes ref Z
• Line insertion phase ≠ Thru Line
• Usable BW for THRU/LINE pair <8:1 Port 1 Port 2
• I.E. (stop freq)/(start freq) <8
• S21 of line need not be known

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 27

 LRL Port 1 Port 2

• Thru LINE:
Thru LINE
• S12 and S21 must be defined
• S11 and S22 defined to be zero Port 1 Port 2

• Reflect:
• Must be the same on each port Reflect Reflect
• || need not be known Port 1 Port 2
•  must be known within 1/4λ
• Delay LINE:
• Z0 of the line establishes ref Z; MUST = Thru LINE
Delay LINE
• Delay insertion phase ≠ Thru
• Usable BW for Thru/Delay pair <8:1 Port 1 Port 2
• I.E. (stop freq)/(start freq) <8
• S21 of LINE need not be known
• Must have similar propagation properties as Thru LINE

ModernNetwork
NetworkAnalyzer
AnalyzerCalibration
CalibrationBasics
Techniques 28
 WHY ARE THEY SPECIAL?

• Minimal knowledge of calibration standards required

• Physically perfect standards are assumed
• Facilitates Primary Calibration
• Accuracy directly related to cal standard attributes
• More accurate than SOLT
• Requires very few standards
• Simple to implement in WG – only 2 devices needed
• Works great for on-wafer calibrations
• LRL can be used effectively for non-insertable
• LRL used in lieu of TRL when short line lengths are not manufacturable – IE high frequencies

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 29

 THINGS TO BE CAREFUL ABOUT

• Poorly defined and/or constructed standards

• Physically perfect standards are assumed
• Thru line and delay line characteristics are different
• Connectors are part of the transmission line structure
• Reflect standards not equal
• Higher order, leaky modes in transmission line structure
• Inadequate phase margin between thru and delay lines
• Poor contact, connector repeatability
• Coaxial beadless airlines can be challenging to connect

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 30

8-TERM ERROR MODEL

a0 e10 a1 b2 e32

e00 Unknown
e11 e22 e33
Thru

b0 e01 b1 a2 e23
[X ] [U ] [Y ]

• An Unknown Thru calibration consists of:

M = X * U * Y
• One port calibration on each port [X] & [Y]
• Unknown thru connection [U]
U = X-1 * Y-1 * M
• Solve for Unknown Thru [U]

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 31

 AKA SOLR

• Systematic errors of all test ports (directivity, source match, reflection tracking) can be completely
characterized – 6 terms
• “Unknown thru” calibration standard: (7th term)
• Must be reciprocal (Sij = Sji)
• Phase known to within a quarter wavelength
• Insertion loss < 40 dB
• VNA signal-path switch errors can be quantified (same as TRL)
• Requires dual reflectometers on all ports
(e.g., a 2-port 4-receiver VNA) OR
• Switch error characterization (2-tier calibration)

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 32

USING A KEYSIGHT PNA

1. Do a 1-port calibration on port 1 (e00, e11, e10e01)

2. Do a 1-port calibration on port 2 (e22, e33, e32e23)

3. Connect adapter (unknown thru) to ports 1 and 2 (e10e32)

4. Measure unknown thru

5. Confirm estimated electrical

delay of unknown thru

Unknown thru

Unknown Thru calibration steps are

just like a “flush thru” 2-port cal and
just as simple to do! 1-port calibrations

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 33

8-TERM ERROR MODEL

a0 e10 a1 b2 e32

e00 Known
e11 e22 e33
Adapter

b0 e01 b1 a2 e23
[X ] [A ] [Y ]

• A QSOLT calibration consists of

TM  TX * TA * TY
• One port calibration on a single port [X]
• Known thru connection [A] TY  TA 1 * TX 1 * TM
• Solve for other port [Y]

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 34

 USING ON KEYSIGHT PNA

• Perform 1-port cal

• Can be any port
• IE, Short, Open, Load on Port 1
• Connect Known Thru
• IE, insertable thru Port 1 to Port 2
Error terms
• Can connect to multiple ports derived for
• Must be insertable Connect Ports to connected ports
complete Calibration
• QSOLT can be less accurate on derived port

2-PORT Short Connect 1-Port Cal

CALIBRATION PLANE devices to Port 1
Open
(or can be Port 2)
Load

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 35

 ECAL

• Electronic Calibration Standards are Transfer Standards

• Characteristics measured relative to primary or other transfer standards

• Ecal Advantages
• Simple to use – Just connect and Start Calibration
• Avoid human error of connecting wrong devices
• Much faster than connecting multiple standards
• Minimize cable movements

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 36

C O N T I N U I N G T O E X PA N D

N469XD Series - New

Performance

2-port, 18 / 26.5 / 40 / 50 / 67 GHz

N469XA/B Series
8509X Series N443X Series
2-port, 3 / 7.5 / 9 GHz 4-port, 13.5 / 18 / 20 GHz

N775XA Series
2-port, 4 / 6.5 / 9 / 14 / 18 / 26.5 GHz

3 GHz 20 GHz 67 GHz

Max Frequency
Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 37
 K E Y F E AT U R E S

• Precision 2-port Microwave ECal with Keysight branding

• Wide frequency coverage - 6 frequency models up to 67 GHz

• Specified down to DC with new DC options for all frequency breaks

• Fast, easy, and accurate full two-port calibration
• Supports in-family connector mix – Type-N, 7 mm, 3.5 mm, 2.92 mm, 2.4 mm, and 1.85 mm
• Supported VNA platforms includes – FieldFox, PXI VNA, ENA, and PNA
Model Number Connector Type Frequency Coverage
N4690D Type-N (female or male or mix) DC / 300 kHz - 18 GHz
N4691D 3.5 mm (female or male or mix) DC / 300 kHz - 26.5 GHz
N4692D 2.92 mm (female or male or mix) DC / 10 MHz - 40 GHz
N4693D 2.4 mm (female or male or mix) DC / 10 MHz - 50 GHz
N4694D 1.85 mm (female or male or mix) DC / 10 MHz – 67 GHz
N4696D 7 mm DC / 300 kHz – 18 GHz

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 38

 D E C I S I O N FAC TO R S

• Accuracy Required – What am I measuring?

• Skill level needed?
• How long does it take to calibrate?
• How often do I change configurations?
• Connector type on DUT?
• IE – 3.5mm, 2.4mm, etc
• Media – Coax? Waveguide? On-Wafer?
• Insertable / non-insertable?
• $$’s – What’s My Budget?

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 39

 MECHANICAL KITS AND ECAL

• Mechanical Kits
COAX • Increase Skill and Time for better Accuracy
TRL - LRL
• WG TRL is simpler
Skill Level

Cal Time
• Ecal
SOLT (SL)
• Lower Skill and Time regardless of Accuracy
WG
TRL - LRL
SOLT (FL)
Ecal Ecal
Econ Prec

Accuracy

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 40

R E A L C A L I B R AT I O N I S S U E S

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 41

 T O U G H A P P L I C AT I O N S

• Non-insertable devices

• Fixed port positions

• Physically looooooong DUTs

• Port orientations that are not in-line

• Multiport devices
• No ideal thru and many many connections

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 42

PORTS DON’T CONNECT

• Simple defined Thru (loss, delay)

• Swap equal adapters
• Use characterized thru (S-parameters known)
• Perform adapter removal calibration
• Add adapters after cal, then, during measurement…
• Use port extensions
• Embed or de-embed adapters (S-parameters known)

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 43

 N O N - I N S E R TA B L E T H R U ’ S

•Simple Defined Thru Loss

• Doesn’t account for adapter match
• Errors can be large at higher frequencies Delay

•Swap equal adapters Cal Thru

• Need phase matched adapters of different sexes (e.g., f-f, m-f)

• Errors from loss and match differences of adapters
Cal Ports and Measure
•Use characterized thru
• Multi-step process – multiple calibrations
• Need a non-insertable cal to measure [S] [S]

•Perform adapter removal cal

2-port cal #1

• Accurate but many steps in calibration (two 2-port cal’s)

• Additional connector repeatability and cable movements
2-port cal #2
•Add adapters after cal, then, during measurement…
• Port extensions – doesn’t remove adapter mismatch effects
• De-embed adapters (S-parameters known) – similar to characterized thru

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 44

 B E AT S T H E T R A D I T I O N A L M E T H O D S

• Easy to use - simple as an insertable thru Cal

• Cal each port – Mechanical Kit or Ecal
• Connect each port using unknown thru
• Ecal can be the unknown thru
• In most case the DUT can be unknown thru

• Avoids compromises of traditional methods

• Minimizes cable movement
• Minimizes connector repeatability
• Doesn’t require pre-characterized hardware

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 45

UNKNOWN THRU CONTINUES TO SHINE

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 46

T H E O L D W AY

CABLE MOVEMENT

DUT
2-PORT
CALIBRATION PLANE 2-PORT
CALIBRATION PLANE

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 47

 Cable Movement Drift Error

0.00

-0.02

-0.04

-0.06

-0.08
Good Cable
dB

-0.10
Bad Cable
-0.12

-0.14

-0.16

-0.18

-0.20
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00
Frequency

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 48

USING UNKNOWN THRU

Unknown thru
DUT
1-PORT 2-PORT
CALIBRATION PLANES CALIBRATION PLANES

No cable movement!

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 49

T H E O L D W AY

CABLE MOVEMENT

DUT
2-PORT
CALIBRATION PLANE 2-PORT
CALIBRATION PLANE

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 50

USING UNKNOWN THRU

DUT
Unknown thru
1-PORT 2-PORT
CALIBRATION PLANES CALIBRATION PLANES
No cable movement!
Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 51
USING UNKNOWN THRU

A B A B
1-PORT
CALIBRATION PLANES
DUT
C C

ANY RECIPROCOL 3-PORT

3-PORT THRU DEVICE

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 52

USING UNKNOWN THRU

Port 1 Port 2
Different connector
on each port 1-port calibrations, ECal or mechanical

Port 3 Port N

Port 1 Port 2

Finish multiport cal Only N-1

using unknown thru’s Thru’s required!

Port 3 Port N
Unknown thru’s (adapters)
Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 53
MIXING THRU TYPES

Port 1 Port 2
Straight Thru’s TRL on-wafer cal

Port 3 Port 4

and/or
Port 1 Port 2

Imperfect 180° thru’s

Port 3 Port 4
Unknown thru’s
Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 54
Q S O LT

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 55

SO MANY CONNECTIONS

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 56

 Q S O LT T O T H E R E S C U E

• Calibrate Port A with SOL

• Connect Port A to E
• Use QSOLT to calibrate Port E
• Repeat with Port A to F, A to G, and A to H
• Connect Port F to B
• Use QSOLT to calibrate Port B
• Repeat with Port G to C and Port H to D
C D
• All ports are calibrated with only N-1 connections A B
E F G H
• Recommend no more than 2 hops
• IE – A to F, then F to B = 2 hops FEMALE 3.5 mm test ports – 4X
• Can combine SOLR & QSOLT to minimize hops

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 57

 W H AT D I D I C O V E R T O D AY ?

• Calibration minimizes systematic Network Analyzer errors

• Mechanical kits or Ecal can do the job well
• Traditional 2-port methods may have pitfalls
• Unknown Thru is great in most situations
• QSOLT good alternative for multiple port configurations
• Can combine QSOLT and SOLR as needed
• Keysight VNA’s utilize all these great methods

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 58

REFERENCES

Basic Error Correction Theory

S. Rehnmark, “On the Calibration Process of Automatic Network Analyzer Systems,” IEEE Trans. on Microwave Theory and Techniques, April 1974, pp 457-458.
J. Fitzpatrick, “Error Models for Systems Measurement,” Microwave Journal, May 1978, pp 63-66.
Keysight Application Notes 1287-1, 1287-2, 1287-3
TRL and Self Calibration Techniques
G. F. Engen and C. A. Hoer, “Thru-Reflect-Line: An Improved Technique for Calibrating the Dual 6-Port Automatic Network Analyzer,” IEEE Trans. on Microwave Theory and Techniques, MTT-
27-12, Dec. 1979, pp 983 – 987.
H. J. Eul and B. Schiek, “A Generalized Theory and New Calibration Procedures for Network Analyzer Self-Calibration,” IEEE Trans. on Microwave Theory & Techniques, vol. 39, April 1991, pp
724-731.
8-Term Error Models
Kimmo J. Silvonen, “A General Approach to Network Analyzer Calibration,” IEEE Trans. on Microwave Theory & Techniques, Vol 40, April 1992.
Andrea Ferrero, Ferdinando Sanpietro and Umberto Pisani, “Accurate Coaxial Standard Verification by Multiport Vector Network Analyzer,” 1994 IEEE MTT-S Digest, pp 1365-1367.
Andrea Ferrero and Umberto Pisani, “Two-Port Network Analyzer Calibration Using an Unknown ‘Thru’,” IEEE Microwave and Guided Wave Letters, Vol. 2, No. 12, December 1992, pp 505-506.
Andrea Ferrero and Umberto Pisani, “QSOLT: A new Fast Calibration Algorithm for Two Port S Parameter Measurements,” 38th ARFTG Conference Digest, Winter 1991, pp 15-24.
H. J. Eul and B. Scheik, “Reducing the Number of Calibration Standards for Network Analyzer Calibration,” IEEE Trans. Instrumentation Measurement, vol 40, August 1991, pp 732-735.
Switch Terms
Roger B. Marks, “Formulations of the Basic Vector Network Analyzer Error Model Including Switch Terms,” 50th ARFTG Conference Digest, Fall 1997, pp 115-126.
Over-determined Solutions
D. Blackham, “Application of Weighted Least Squares to OSL Vector Error Correction,” 61st ARFTG Conference Digest, June 13th, 2003
M.J. Salter, N.M. Ridler, P.M. Harris, “Over-determined Calibration Schemes for RF Network Analysers Employing Generalized Distance Regression”, 62nd ARFTG Conference Digest, Dec.
2003
Calibration Standard Modeling
Keysight Application Note 1287-11, Specifying Calibration Standards and Kits for Agilent Vector Network Analyzers
K. Wong, “Characterization of Calibration Standards By Physical Parameters”, 39th ARFTG Conference Digest, Spring 1992, pp 53-62

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques 59

Modern Network Analyzer Calibration Techniques