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Protective
Relaying
8 - Transformer Protection · H. J. Li
5 - lnstrument Transformers for Relaying ·
W. A. Elmore
l. Introduction . 8-1
l. lntroduction . 5-1 11. Magnetizing I nrush . 8-2
Il. Currcnt Transformers . 5-1 III. DifferentiaI Relays for Transf'orrner
Protection . 8-4
IIJ. Voltage Transformers and Coupling
Capacitance Voltage Transformcrs ..... 5-11 IV. General Gu.idelines for Transformer
Differential Relaying . 8-8
V. Sample Checks for Applying
6 - Generator Protection · W. A. Elmore Transformer Differential Relays ..... 8-10
l. Introduction . 6-1 VI. Typical Applications of Transformer
JI. Fault Detection . 6-1 Differential Protection . 8-15
/
ii
Chaptcr I l. INTRODUCTION
A De,11•n Criterra
t Reliah11ity 11. CLASSIFICATJON OF RELA YS
2. Specd
3. Selcctivity versus Fcononucs
4. Sun plicity Relays can he dividcd into í'ive Iunctional ca tegoriev:
B. Faciors lnf'luencing Rclay Pcrtorrnunce
C'. Zones of Protecuon a. Protcctive Relays, which detect defectivo lines. dcfect ivc
IV. Applying Protecuve Rclays appuratus. or oihcr dangerous or intolerable conduions.
fhesc relays can euher irnuate or perrrut swilching or
A. Systern C'onfiguration simply providc an alarrn.
B. Existing Syst ern Protection and Proccdures
C. Degree of Protection Require d
D. Fault Study h. Moniloring Relays, which vcrify conditions on l hc power
1 . Máximum Loads. Transformer Data, and Imped- systern or in the protection systern. These relays in-
anees
elude Iault de tectors. alarm uníts, channel-rnonitoring
V. Relays and Application Data rclays, synchronism verification, anti network phasing.
Power syst crn condit ions that do not involve opening
A. Switchboard Relays
circuir breakers during Iaults can he monitored by veri-
B. Rack-Mounted Relays
l'icalion relays.
VI. Circuir Brcaker Control
c. Programming Relays, which evrablish or detect electrical
sequen ces. Programrning relays are used for reclosing
and synclu onizing.
In addition to thcsc Iuncuonal catcgories, rclays may be diately available lo handle intolerable system conditions
clussified by input, operating principie or structure, :111d and avoid serious outages and damage. Thus, t he true op-
performance charactensnc eruting life ol these relays can be on thc order of ,1 few soc-
onds, eve n lhough they are connectcd in a sysle m Ior many
a. Input
years. In practice, t he rclays opcratc fur more during test-
• ( urrent
ing and maintenance than in response lo adverse service
• Volt age
condiuons,
• Power
• Pressu re
In lhcory, a relay system should be a ble to respond to the
• 1 rcqucncy
iní'init y of abnorrnahucs thal can possihly occur within Lhc
• 1 emperature
power systern. In pracuce, thc rclay cnginecr must urrivc
• rlow
ata comprornise hased on thc tour l'actors that inrluence
• Vibration.
tJIIY rclay applicution:
h Operaung Prmcrple or Sl ructure
• Pcrcentage a. Econormcs initial, operut ing, and rnaintenance.
• Mulu-rest raint
h. Available measures oí fault or trouhles faull magni-
• Product
tudes and location ol curren! transformers and voltage
• Solid statc
l ransforrners.
• l- lect rornecharucal
• Thermal. c. Operaling practices conformity lo vtandards and ac-
c. Performance Characteristic cepted practices: ensuring efficient system operation.
• Distance
d. Previous cxperíence-chistory anti anticipation of t he
• Directionul-overcurrent
typcs of trouhlc hkely lo he encountcrcd wrthin thc sys-
• lnverse time
tem.
• Definite time
• Undervoltage The third and Iourth considerations are perhaps better ex-
• Ground or phase pressed as the "personality of lhe system and lhe relay en-
• lligh- or slow-speed gineer."
• Phase comparison
• Dírectional comparison Since il is sirnply not feasible to designa protectivc rclay-
• Scgregated phase. ing systern capa ble of handling any potenual problem, com-
pro mises must be made. In general, only those problcrns
The ahove classifications ami definitions are hased on the which, according lo past e xperience , are lil,.. cly lo occur,
ANSI Standard C 37.90 (IE:H 313). receive primary considcration. Naturally , thís makes rclay-
1ng somewhat of an arl. Oíl fercnl relay engineers will, us-
mg sound logic, dcsign significanlly tlifforcnt protecllvc
111. PROTECTIVE RELA YING SYSTEMS ANO THEIR syslt!ms f<>r esscntially the sarnc power systcm. As a rcsull,
DESIGN there is liltle standard1¿at1on m protect1ve rclaying. Not
only may lhc typc of relay1ng system v.iry, hul so will lhc
Technicially, most relays are small systems within thern- exlcnt of lhe protect1ve coveragc. roo much protccllon 1s
selvcs, Throughout this book , howevcr, thc tcrrn syst ems almost as hadas too ltlllt!
will he used to indicate a combination of reluys of lile same
or different types. Properly speaking, the prol cctive rclay- Nonethcless. proteclive relaying is a highly specializcd
ing systern includes circuit breakers as well as rclays. Re- tcchnology rcqu1nng an m-depth understand 1ng of the
lays anti circuit brcakers must function together ; thcrc is power system as a whole. The relay engineer must know
little 01 no valué in applying one without the ot hcr. not only thc technology of the abnormal, but have a basic
understanding of ali the system componcnts and their o p-
Protcctive relays or systerns are not required to Iunction eral ion in the system. Relaymg, then, is a "vertical" spe-
d .rrmg normal power systern operation, hul musl be im me- cialily requiring a "horiwntal" viewpoint. This horizont:il,
1-3
or total systern, concept of relaying includes Iault protec- erat ion in response Lo systern trouble, while securíly is the
tion and the performance of the protection systern during ability of the systern lo avoid misoperatton between faulls.
abnorrnal system operation such as severe overloads, gen- Unfortunutely , these two aspects of reliability tend to
erauon deficiency, out-of-step condittons, and so torlh. Al- countcr one another. mcreasrng security tcnds to decrcase
though these ureas are vilally importunt lo the relay engi- dependabilíty and vice versa. In general, howcver , modcrn
necr, his concern has not always been fully appreciated or rcluying systerns are highly rchable and provrde prucucal
shared by his colleagues. For this reusen, close and con- com prom ise bet ween security and dependubility ,
unucd cornrnunication betwcen the planrung, relay dcsign,
and operation departments is essent ial. Frequenl reviews Protecuve relay systerns must perform correctly undcr ad-
of protcctivc systems should be mandatory, since powcr verse systcm and environrnental conditions. Rcgardlcss o í
systerns grow and operaling conditions change. whether other systerns are momentarily blinded during this
pcriod, thc relays musí perform accurately and dcpcndably.
t\ cornplex relaying systern may resull from poor systern They rnust euher opcrate 111 response to troublc in thcir as-
design or thc econormc need to use fewer circuit breakcrs, signcd arca or block correctly if the trouble is outside thcrr
Considerable savings can be reulized by usmg fewer circuit designated arca.
brcakers anda more complex relay system. Such systems
usually involve design compromises requiring careful evalu- Dependubility can be checked relatively easily in the labora-
atíon if acceptable protection is to be maintained. tory or dunng installation by simulated tests or staged
faults. Securily, on the other hand, is much more d1fficult
111.A. Design Criteria to check. A true test of system security would have to
measure response to an almost infi111te variety of potential
The applicat ion logic of protective relays divides the power transients and counterleit trouble indications in the power
systern into severa) zones, each requiring its own group of system and its environment. A secure system is usually the
relays, resull of a good background in design c.:ombined with ex-
tensive miniature power system testing, and can only be
In ali cases, the five design criteria listed below are common confirmed in the power system itself and its environment.
to any well-designed and efficient protective systern or sys-
tem segment III.A.2. Speed
Systern reliability consists of two elernents dependability rngh speed rclays offcr grcater service continuity by reduc-
and sccurity. Dependabilrty ts the certamty of corrcct op- ing faull damagc and hazards to personncl. Thcse rclays
1-4
C,rcu,t Breoker
Transíorrner connections are particularly irnportunt For
• ZoreB ground relaymg, the location ol the ground sources must
also be known.
.
CT f()( Zone B
IV.B. Existing System Protection and Procedur es
b) l1v!' Tank and Breakers W11h Separare Current Transformcrs Thc cxrst ing prot cctrve cquiprnent and the rcasons Ior the
on One s.oe Only
desired changets) should be outlined Ditficulues with thc
Figure 1 ·2 The Principie of Overlapping Protection Around a prescnt relaying systern are a valuablc guidc to im prove
Circuit Breaker ments. New installations should be so specífied. As new re-
(
lay systerns will often be required to opera te with or utilize
parts of the exisling relaying, details on these existing sys-
IV. APPL YING PROTECTIVE RELA YS terns are important.
The Iirst step in apply ing protecuvc relays is to state the Whcrcver possible , changes m systern protection should
protectlon problern accurately , Although developing a conform with existing operat ing procedures and practices,
clear, accurate statement of the problem can often be thc Exceptions to standard procedures tend to increase the
mosl difficult par!, the lime spent will pay dividends par- risk of personnel error and may disrupt the etficient opera-
licularly when assistance from others is desired. lnforma- tion of lhe systern. Anticipated systcrn expansio ns can also
tion on the following associated or supporting arcas is nec- grcatly influcnce the choice of protect ion.
ess:iry.
IV.C. Degree of Protection Required
a. System configuralion
f
To determine the degree ol protecuon required , the general
b. l:.xisting systcms protcction and ils tlifticullies type of pro tecuon being considered should be outlined. lo·
gether with the systern condiuons or operaung provcdures
c. Existing operating procetlures and practices; possiblc and pracuccs lhal will intluence the final choice. These
future expansions dala will provide answers to the t ollow ing typc, ot ques-
uons. Is pilot , high-speed , rnedrum-, or slow-speed reluying
d. l)cgree ot prolcclion rcquirctl rcquircd? Is sunult aneous tnpping ol ali breakcrs ola
( transmission linc desired? Is instanlaneous reclosing
e. Faull stutly nccdcd?
g Yoltage lransformcr locat1ons, connections, and ralios An adequatc fault study is nccessary m almost ali relay ap-
plications. Three-phase faults , hne-t o-ground Iaults, and
h lmpcdan1..e of the lines antl transformcrs. lme-end faults should ali be includcd in che study. Lme-end
1-6
Iault " data die important in cuses whcrc onc brcaker muy can be convenienlly removed fnr testing and mnintenance.
opérate ahead of another. For ground-relaymg, the fault The case rs usually mounted llush and is permanently
study should include zero sequence voltage and negative wired to the mput and control circuits. In the Westing-
sequcnce currents und voltages. These quantities are casily house Flcxitest cuse, the electrical connections are made
obtained during the course of a fault study and are oftcn through srnall, Iront-accessíblc, knife-blade switches. A
extremely useful rn solving a díf'Iicult relaying problem typical switchboard relay is shown 111 ¡..1gure 1-3, us cor-
responding internnl schernatic is shown 111 figure 1-4.
IV.E. Maxlmum Loads, Transformer Data, und lmpedonccs Whilc the example shown is an clcctromechanical relay, u
numbcr of sctidstate relays are in the Flexitest case tor
Máximum louds, current and potenhal transformer connec- switchboard mountmg.
tions, ralios and locauons are required Cor proper relay ap-
plicallun. Muximum loads should be consisten! wllh the
faull data, and should be bascd on the sume systern condi
tions. Líne and lransformer irnpedances should also be
known. Phase sequence should be specrned 11 three-line
connection drawings are lnvolved.
Obvious'y, not ali the above data are necessary In every ap-
plication. lt is desirable, however, to at least revíew the
systern with respect to the above points and, wherever ap-
plicable to compile necessary data.
V. RELAYS ANO APPLICATION DATA Figure 1-3: A Typicel Switchboerd Type Reley !Th• CR Oirectlonel
Time Overcurrent Reley !87) In The Flexlteat Ca1e.)
10 10 10 10
...-CoseTes,
,•c;:;,i;=--....c...=...1.._ Choss,s Operored Sw,tch
Sharting Switch
_......._ Term,not
@)
r
ano Polority
' 9t
o
b
Nego11ve
F'= ~""
Power Transformar
Bank Neutral the ac line voltage. When the relay contacts close, the en-
o b e crgy 111 thc capacitor is sufticient to trip the breakcr. Line
Phasors for 100~
P F Curren! in "v CRC ,
+:)( °----=.] voltage cannot be used directly smce, of course , rt may not
Tr,ppong Direction
be available during fault conduions.
Vob
'\ :ºAf'Ho
PHc ...,~vbc Altcrnalively, the senes trip method ~an be used in stutions
not equipped with a stanon battcry (Figure 1-7). Whcn lhc
lc}(S¡b
¡ PHb
rnagnitude of the fault currenl ex ceeds the relay
current , the fault current is diverted through thc
pickup
tnp coil
Veo
Figure 1 6· Typical Ac Schematic for a Swítchboard Mounted by thc open contact CS. The interna! schematic of lhis
Relay. (The Connections are for The CR Phase and CRC Co-type relay is shown m Figure 1-8. Note that three sep-
Ground Directional Time Overcurrent Relay of
Figure 1-3.J arate ac-type trip coils are required
1-8
~·
which many small cornponents are mounted on printed
circuit boards (Figure 1·9). Srnce these relays lnvolve more
e complex and sophisticated circuitry, different levels of in·
~2 f Pt-ose o
íormation are required to understand their operation.
logic diagram will provide the understanding ot lhe basic
A
}-,
1-10 is a logre diagrarn for the SBFU solid-state relay shown
in Figure 1·9 Figure 1·10 also íncludes the externa! de
schernatic, makíng this figure the rough equivalenl ol Fi&·
ure 1-6. Toe ac circutts are shown in Figure J .J 1, which is
,---
II
l
0
o
o J o o o o
o o o o
0 0
o
ChOssis()pero,ed
Shor1,nqs... ,1ch
2
8 © Term,nol
Front V1ew
Note·
t enmoals 1 and 8 are lO be Jumped at Rclay Case
Figure 1·8: lnternal Schematic of The CO Circuit Opening T,me Figure 1-9. A Typical Rack Type Relay. (The SBFU Statíc Circuit
Overcurrent Relay. Breaker Fa,lure Relay (621.
1-9
A><,•,~---+---dcSLClQly
dcT,,p
Su,c¡e Copoct10f S..,pp1y
JI
1 8
6 1
.......--~-+<
Con be Thyr,ctor
osonOphon 1
11
Chon,, Power Supply Module
~r:
1
GrOúnO ~ - --+ ;i;\l)IIS To letm<nol 4
Ali C,rcu,1 Boords 1
A"·c¡o, ,e, '":o "Ttfm.nCJ 1
AII Crcu1r Boaros
1
L_ --- -- - m
~¡cl3
3
~----+<•~------< lc:2 B
L__ - __J
Te,'m1nol
BIOc• ,-----------TP
Ground Overcurrent Module
1{ iq!i.::---1
: ~ ,______, ?p ,....j
L_ _L_~
Bloc--¡-Cl
! 1 1
~
!.'
~
L Qj
~
g
!
u
o
i{
i{ 1
1
1
'-------
Note:
*A Relay Output Module can be Substrtuted
to Prov,de a Control Output lor Tr,pp,ng
Figure 1-10· A Typical Log1c Diagram and Externa! de Schematic for a Solid State Relay. (The Connections are for The
SBFU Static Breaker Failure Relay of Figure 1-9.)
1-10
r ----¡.¡,
1
1
1
1
1
R4 R!>
1
C2
1,
Z2
Movn1edonF,on1 Bloc•
Secondoty I "'"1(!1of Modu>e I TP
OI Bockup la i-~~-+~-+--+-----+-~+-~+-~
Retoys
SI
R2
J R3
10
52·1 ~Re1oy Tem11no1 Btock
9
______________ ...J
L-----
b) Module Board Schematac
O•ode
01 10 07 7
~0801_!>_ 2
._
o b e ~ Po1en110~
1ionsm,ssool1ne (01Trons!ormerl
.._ 51
Rl3 - 1
1
Figure 1-11. Typicel Ac Schemetic for e Reck Type Reley. (The Rl2 1
Connections ere for The SBFU Stetic Circuit Breaker
Fellure Relay of Figure 1-9.)
.._
....
Resistor
R1 -- 1
,._ R2 R3
- 2
R11 1
,_ R4
- 1
¡_
Rf> RS R7
RB
- 2
1
- R9
R10 - 1
1
.__
- - --
1 r1n11s.1or
01 1
i--
02 ·- 1
Zenet 01ode
Z1 1
22 1
- ,_ -
'- -
• Style •nd Aeterence Column,
Omitted in Thi1 Typteal Eaample
Prolechve Reloys
IOIT
ToReclos,ng
Circu,ts
When Used 52C ~520
l52T
520 52b
Chapter 2 l. INTRODUCTION
11. Phasors
111. Polarity in Relay Circuits In relaying, phasors and phasor diagrarns are used both to
aid in applying and connecting relays and for analysis of re-
A. Polarity of Transformers
B. Polarity of Protective Relays lay operations after faults.
C. Characteristics of Directional Relays
1. Cylinder-Type Directional Unit Phasor diagrarns rnust be accompanied by a circuit diagram.
2. Ground Directional Unit
3. Watt-Type Directional Unit lf not, then such a circuir diagram must be obvious or as-
D. Connections of Directional Units to Three-Phase sumed in order to interpret the phasor diagram. The phasor
Power Systems diagram shows only the magnitude and relative phase angle
IV. Faults on Power Systerns of the currents and voltages, while the circuit diagram shows
only the location, direction, and polarity of the currents
A. Fault Types and Causes and voltages. These distinctions are important. Confusion
B. Characteristics of Faults
generally results when the circuit diagrarn is omitted, or
1. Fault Angles
2. Systern Grounding when the two diagrams are combined.
3. Fault Resistance
4. Distortion of Phases during Faults There are several systcms and many variations of phasor
V. Symmetrical Cornponents notation in use. The systern outlined below is used in ali
Westinghouse rclay diagrams.
A. Basic Concepts
8. Sequences in a Three-Phase Power System
C. Sequence lmpedances 11.A. Circuit Diagram Notation for Current and Flux
1. Synchronous Machinery
2. Transforrners The reference direction for the current or flux can be lndi-
3. Transmission Lines
D. Sequence Networks cated by: ( 1) an identified directional arrow in the circuit
E. Sequence Network Connections and Voltages diagrarn, as shown in Figure 2-1; or (2) the double subscript
F. Network Connections for Fault and General Unbal- method, such as lab' defined as the current flowing from
anees
G. Sequence Network Reduction terminal "a" to terminal "b," as in Figure 2-2.
H. Exarnple of Fault Calculation on a Loop-Type
Power System In ali cases, the clirectional arrow or the clouble subscript
I. Phase Shifts through Transformer Banks
indicares the actual or assumed direction of curren! (or
J. Fault Evaluations
flux) flow through the circuit during the positive half-cycle
VI. Symrnetrical Components and Relaying of the ac wave.
2-2
l :
icd d As with ali vector quantities, phasors must be referred to
e
sorne reference frame. The most usual reference frame con·
o
lob
e
j
f
b
sists of the axis of real quantities (x) and the axis of imagi-
nary quantities (y), as shown in Figure 2-3. The axes are
fixed in the plane, and the phasors rotate, since they are
sinusoidal quantities. (The convention for positive rotation
!+--vcd=Ye1-----l
is counterclockwise.) The phasor diagram therefore repre-
Figure 2-2: Reference Circuit Diagram lllustrating Doubte sents the various phasors at any given common instant of
Subscript Notation. (Current Arrows Not Required but
are Usually Shown in Practica.)
time.
c. lf double subscript notation is used, the order of the For reference and revíew, the various forms, for represen ta-
subscripts indicates the actual or assumed direction of l ion of point P in Figure 2-3 are as follows:
2-3
Rectan- Expo- E
gular
Forrn
Complex
Form
nential
Form
Polar
Form
Phasor
Form
I ¡o¡ -02 (2-8)
lt é is a phasor, then e is its conjugare. Thus, if The product of a phasor times its conjugate is.
é =a+ jb
e= a - jb
a= l /2 (é + e) (2-4)
jb = 112 cé - e) (2-5)
Circuit Oiagram
ground are different, usually quite significan ti y.
Vtx:
l'l,05()1
/ Genero 10,
o
Ro101,on
e
o
n Neul•OI
PhHOr Oiegrem
G<ound
Figure 2·6 Open Type Phasor Oiagram for The Basic Elements
(Resi~tor. Reactor 11nd Capacitor) Connected in Series.
a) C1rcu11 D,agram
In e Symmetrical or
Balanced Syatem
Vab Van Vbn
Vbc Vbn Ven
Vea Ven Van
Figure 2,6 Alternate Closed Type Phasor D,agrem for The Boslc
Corcuit of Figure 2 6
•
.o
the point of junction of a group (3 for three-phase) of
equal non-reactive resístances if connected at their free
ends to the appropriate main terrninals or lines of the sys-
tem." This neutral point should not be grounded when de·
terming the neutral.
Current Transformer L,near Coupler
The polarity mdications shown in Figures 2-9 and 2-1 O ap- 111.B. Polarity of Protective Rclays
ply for both current and potential transformers, or for any
type of transformer with either subtractive or additive po- Polarity is always associated with dlrectional-type relay
larity, units, such as those indicating the direction of powcr flow.
Othcr protective relays, such as distance typcs, may also
have polarity markings associated with their opcration. Re-
lay polarity is indicated on the schernatic or wiring día-
+ +
grams by a smalJ + mark above ornear the terminal sym-
--+lp bol or relay winding, together with a note indicating its
meaning. Two such marks are necessary: one mark alone
Pnmory Secondary
has no meaning.
a) Subtract,ve Polanty
Typical polarity markings for a directional unit are shown
in Figure 2-11. In this example, the markings indicate thal
-+lp the relay will close its contacts when the voltage drop frorn
Secondory polarity to non-polarity in the voltage coil has a specified
Pnmory
-+Is relatíon with the current Oow from polarity to non-polarity
in the current coil. Of course, regardless of polarity, the
b) Add111ve Polanty
levels rnust be above the relay pickup quantlties for the re·
Figure 2,9: Polarity and Circuit Oiagram for Trensformers. lay to operate.
2-6
Contoc1
Closmg Zone Cc,t,toc·
1
Ze,o Torque une
Open,ng Zone
Vol roge
Tronsformers
o
b
e
#1 ,n #3
30º Delta Stor
a) Available Ouantities Conn. 60° 60°
e Conn. Conn.
2
Conneetion Unit Phase A Phase B Phase e Maximum
Type 1 V 1 V 1 V Torque When i
c5
1 30º Watt la Vae lb Vba le Veb l lags 30° O'
.s'
a.
2 60º· l::. Watt la·lb Vae lb·le Vba le·la Veb l lags 60° a.
Note: O+) Connections and Phasor Diagrams for Phase "a" are·
Io 310
~ abe
-10 L,ne
b) Available Connections Figure 2-16: Directional Unit Connections (Phase "a" Only) for
Five Types of Connections plus The Ground
Figure 2-15: Direetional Element Connections. Directional Relay Connections.
2-8
Mechanical Wrnd
• 23 to 69 kV: 45° to 75° lag
Snow or ice
('ontammation
• 69 to 230 kV 60° to 80° lag
Therrnal Overcurrent
Overvoltage
• 230 k V and up 75º to 85° lag
2-9
At these voltage levels, the currents for pilase faults will Sirnilarly ,
have the angles shown where the line impedance predorni-
nates. lf the transformer anti generation impcdance pre- V cg = V en + V ng
dominates, the fault angles will be higher. Systerns with
cables can have lower anglcs if the cable impedance is a or
large part of the total impedance to the fault.
V ng =V cg -V en (2-13)
IV.B.2. System Grounding
and
Systern grounding significantly affects both the magnitude
and angle of ground faulls. There are three classes of
grounding: ungrouridcd (isolated neutral), irnpedancc
groundcd (resistance or reactance), and ef'Iectively or
grounded (neutral solidly grounded). An ungrounded sys-
tem is still connected to ground through the natural shunt V = V ag -V an (2-14)
ng
capacitancc, as illustrated in Figure 2-18, and Figures 11-1
and 11-2 (Chapter 11 ). In addition to load, small (usually By fundamental def'initions,
negligible) charging currents flow normally.
(2-15)
o
V ag + V bg + V cg = 3V O (2-34)
Subtracting lquat ion (2- l 5) Irorn (2-34) and su bst itu I ing
(2-12), (2-13), and (2-14):
V ag - V an + vb g - vb n + V cg - V en = 3 Vº (2-1 6)
e&;;...--"-'-'-'-;:;.....-=
V
ng
+ V ng + V
ng
= 3V O
Normal Balanced Conditions Phase "a" Grounded
Figure 2·18: Voltage Plot far a Salid Phase "'a""·to·Ground Fault on (2- l 7)
an Ungroundod System.
Vbg
V bg = V bn + V ng c-...:::.._ ..;;;..,...,.D
A knowledge of symmelrical componenls is important In the following discussion, the subscript I will identify
both in making a study and in understanding the data ob- the positive sequence compcnent , the subscript 2 the riega-
tained from lhe computar or de board. ll is also exlrcmely tíve sequence component, and the subscript O the zero se-
valuable in analy zing faults and relay operations. A nurn- quence componen t. For example, V 31 is the positive se-
ber of protective relays are based on symmetrical cornpo- quence component of phase-a voltage, Vb2 is thc negativo
nents, so thc method must be underslood in order to ap- sequence componenl of phase-b voltage, and VcO is tite
ply these relays successfully. zero sequen ce componenl of phase-c voltage. A 11 cornpo-
nents are phasor quantilies, rotaling counterclockwise.
In short, lhe method of syrnmetrical components is onc of
lhe rclay erigineer's most powerful technical tools. While Since the three phasors in any set are always equal in rnag-
the method and malhematics are quite simple, the practica! nitude, the three sets can be cxpressed in terms of onc
value líes in the ability to think and visualize in syrnrnetri- phasor. For convenience, the phase-a phasor will be used.
cal components. This skill requires practice and experi- Thus,
ence.
a3 = 1/360°
= l~ (2-21)
1 +a+ a2 = O
a) Positive b) Negative e) Zero
(2-22)
Figure 2-21: Sequence Components of Voltages.
2-12
or v
Quantities V 1, V 2, 0, i 1, i2, i0, etc. can always be as-
sumed to be the phase-a components. Note that the b and
a2- I =y'3~ e components always exist, as indicated by Equation
(2-23) (2-18).
a- 1 =y'3/1soº
Equations (2-29), (2-30), and (2-31) can be sol ved to yield
or the sequence components for a general set of three-phase
phasors.
1-a=v'3/-3o0
(2-24) . . . 2.
VI = 1 /3 (V 3 + a V b + a V e)
and (2-32)
ÍI = l/3(i a +ar b +:i2i)e
or
(2-25)
v2 = 1/3 (Va+ a2~\ + «v c)
and (2-33)
i2 = 1/3 (Ía + u2ib + aÍc)
Any three-phase systcrn of phasors will always be the surn
of the three componen ts:
ancl (2-34)
(2-26)
. . . .
Vb = Vb 1 + V b2 + V bO
A sequence component cannot exist in only one phase. lf
2. . . any sequcncc cornponent exists by measurernent or calcula-
=a Va¡+aYa2+VaO (2-27)
tion in one phase, it cxists in a/l three phascs, as shown in
Equation (2-18) and Figure 2-21.
Since pilase a has been chosen as a reference , the sub- Assurning that the sequence component sets can exist in a
scripts may be dropped for convenience. Thus, three-phase power system, severa! important rclations exist.
Evcrywhere in the balanced or syrnmetrical part of the sys-
. . . . tem, ( l) positive seq uence currents produce only positive
V3 =V1 +V2 +V0
and (2-29) scquence voltage drcps, (2) negative sequence currents pro-
duce only negative sequence voltage drops, and (3) zero se-
quence currents produce only zero sequence voltage drops.
. 2. . .
Vb=a v1 +aV2+v0 A balanced or syrnmetrical power systern is one in which
and (2-30) the voltages generated by the rotating rnachinery are equal
. 2· . . in phase and 120° displaced, and the impedances in the
lb= a I¡ + aT2 + 'o
three phases are equal in magnitude.
zero sequence voltage drops; and (3) zero sequence currents For system-fault calculations, tbe negative sequence reac-
produce positive, negative, and zero sequence voltage drops. tance is generally assumed to equal the subtransient Xd"
reactance. The flow of negative sequence current of oppo-
Since three-phase power systems are presumed to be bal- site phase rotation through the machine appears as a dou-
anced up to the point of a fault or un balance, no interac- ble frequency component. As a result, the average of the
tion among the three sequence sets is considered up to that direct-axis subtransient reactance under the poles and be-
point. Each set can be treated separately. Sorne un balance tween the poles gives a good approximation of negative se-
does exist in practice, usually as a result of the non- quence reactance. Hence, in a salient pole machine, x2 is
transposition of the busses and line conductors. Conse- sJightly different from Xd"; but in a round rotor machine,
quently , the impedances of the three phases are not the x2 equals Xd ':
sarne, and sorne interaction will occur among the three
phases, This effect is usually negJected since the error in- The zero sequence reactance is less than the others, so that
troduced is generally less than the error inzolved in deter- a machine is never grounded solidly.
mining the system constants.
The armature winding resístance is small enough to be neg-
V.C. Sequence lmpedances lected in calculating short-circuit currents. This resistance
is, however, important in determining the de time constants
Quantities z1, z2, and z0 are the system impedances to of an asymrnetrical short-circuit current.
the flow of positive , negative, and zero sequence currents,
respectively. Except in the area of a fault or general un- Typical reactance values for synchronous machinery are
balance, each sequence impedance is considered to be the available from the manufacturer or from handbooks.
same in aJJ three phases of the symmetrical system. A brief
review of these quantities is given below for synchronous V .C.2. Transformers
machinery, transformers, and transmission Unes.
The positive and negative sequence reactances of ali trans-
formers are identicaJ. Values are available from the manu-
V.C.I. Synchronous Machinery facturer or from tables. The zero sequence reactance is
either equal to the other two sequence reactances or infi-
Toree different reactance values are specified. In positive nite except for three-phase, core-type transformers. In ef-
sequence, Xd" indicates the subtransient reactance, Xd' fect, the magnetic circuit design of the latter units gives
the transient reactance, and Xd the synchronous reactance. them the effect of additional closed delta winding. The re-
These direct-axis values are necessary for calculating the sistance of the windings is very small and is neglected in
short-circuit current value at different times after the short short-circuit calcula tions.
circuit occurs. Since the subtransient reactance valúes give
the highest initial current value, they are generally used in Toe sequence circuits for a nurnber of transformer banks
systern short-circuit calculations for relay application. The are shown in Figure 2-22. The impedances indicated are
transient reactance value is used for stability consideration. the equivalen! leakage impedances between the windings
involved. For two-winding transformers, the total leakage
The unsaturated synchronous reactance is used for sus- impedance ZLH is measured from the L winding, with the
tained fault-current calculations since the voltage is re- H winding short circuited. ZHL is measured from the H
duced below saturation during fauJts near the unit. Since winding, with the L winding shorted. Except for a 1: 1
generators are operated slightly saturated, the sustained transformer ratio, the impedances have different values in
fault current will be less than the maximum load current ohms. On a per-unit basis, however , Zu¡ equals ZHL' The
unless the voltage regulators boost the field during a sus- equivalent primary Zl-1 and secondary Z L leakage irnped-
tained fault. anees are one-half ZHL or ZLH'
2-14
Three Phese Zero Sequence Posltlve or Three Phase Zero Sequence Positiva or
Connectlon Clrcult Negativa Connectlon Clrcuit Neg•tlve
Sequence Sequence
L H L H
• ~L& ~~ ~i. 8
L H L H
b ~~ 3ZnH
~i.
3JL~
~12=
L H L H
e ~
~-= o+ ~
-e-
L H L H
e
d ~ ~
~~
i?l;,4;}
L H L H
3Zn1..
• 21,. \ 3Zn~ ZH
~
L H L H
t
~& ~
+o -
~
-~
e
L H L H
g ~i.
~~
L H
L~H
h
~\~ +o o+ ~
Figure 2-22: Equiv•lent Po,ltiva. Neg•tive and Zero Sequence Circult1 for Soma Common and Theoretical Connections tor Two and Three
Wlndlng Trensformera.
For three-winding and autotransformer banks, there are On a common k V A base, the cquivalent star leakage imped-
thrce leakage impedances: anees are obtained from the following equations:
The zero seq uence irnpedance is always different from the Figure 2·23: The Positiva Sequence Network for The Typlcal
positive and negative sequence impedances. lt is a loop irn- System Shown.
Zero sequence mutual impedancc rcsulting from paralleled Figure 2-24: The Negativa Sequence Network for The Typical
System Shown.
lines can be in the order of SO to 70 percent of the zero se-
quence self-irnpedance. This mutual impedancc is bccom-
ing an increaslngíy important factor as more lines are
crowded into common rights-of-way.
connections for various types of cornmon faults are shown For a phase-a-to-ground fault, the three networks are con-
in Figures 2-27 through 2-30. Frorn the three-phase dia- nectcd in series (Figure 2-28). Figure 2-29 illustrates a
grarns of the fault area, the sequence network connections phase-b-c-to-ground fault and its sequence network ínter-
representing the faults can be derived. These diagrarns do connection; the phase-b-to-phase-c fault and its seq uence
not show fault impedance and fault studies do not include connections are shown in Figure 2-30.
this effect except in very rare cases. The single-sequence
lmpedance Z 1, z2, z0 (practically equivalent to X¡, x2,
X0) shown in the figures is the net irnpedancc between the Foull
neutral bus and the selected fault location based on zero No o
load. Ali generated voltages (Van) are equal and in pilase. b
e
Z2 Zo ! ! !
laF IbF lcF
F2 + Fo
Foull
N1 l In The Foull:
1l
o
!von b Vbg•Vcg•O
e
+ ÍoF'Q
VF + + +
IoF IbF lcF
1_11 Z¡
• • 22
F1 In The Foull: Io=-T¡ -,-,
Z2+Zo
• • Von VonfVbn+Vcn;O
lo•!,; •
Z1 loF+ ibF+ ÍcF'º Figure 2-29: The Double Phase-to-Ground Fault and its Sequence
Network Connections.
Figure 2-27: The Three Phase Fault and its Sequence Network
Connections.
Foult
T
N2 o
b
r-i 1t
Foulf e
N¡
.l Von o Z2 ¡ ! !
+ b F2 laF lbF
lcF
e +
LI¡ Z1
+ + + tnThe Foulf:
.,--- - K F\
>-N2
IaF lbF lcF •
I1:-I2•
. v,J,,
.--.-- Vbn•Vcn
l_¡ Z2
••
In The Foult:
Z1+Z2
ioF•O
.,--- -.
+ 12 ibF•-icF
F2
V0g•O
>-No
IbFªlcF•O
VoF + Zo
Figure 2-30: The Pheae-to-Phase Fault and its Sequence
Connections.
LIº
' Fo
Since the íhree-phase fault is syrnmetrical, sy mmetrical A fundamental study of both series and shunt unbalances
components are not required for this calculation. However, was made by E. L. Harder in 1937. The shunt un balances
since the positive sequence network represents the systern, summarized in Figure 2-31 are taken from Harder's study.
the network can be connected as shown in Figure 2-27 to Note that ali the faults shown in Figures 2-27 through 2-30
represent the fault. are also represented in Figure 2-31.
2-J 8
p n
N n
l~~n l~o on n
l~o
on n n
Za/3
·m
al el el g) i) k)
1:~n 1:0 on
g
p n
1:~n 1 l~o on l
n N
l~~n 1 l~o On On o n
b) d) fl h) j)
Note:
a) Balanced load or three-line-10-ground fault w,th ,mpedances g) A hne to hne fault through ,mpedance
b) A three-lone-10-ground fault h) A nne-to-nne fault
el A three·phase fault ,) A two-kne-tc-qround fault w,th ,mpedance
di A shunt crrcuit open 1) A two llne to ground fault
el A line-10-ground fault through an ,mpedance k) A tnree-nne-to-qround fault w1th ,mpedance ,n phase a
II A line·to·ground fault 1) Unbalanced load or lhree·hne-10-ground fault w,th ,mpedance
Figure 2-31: Sequence Network lnterconnectiona for Shunt Belenced and Unbalanced Conditiona.
In Figure 2-3 1, the en tire symmetrical power system up to topmost box for each series condition represent the area
a point, x, of the shunt connection is represented by a rec- under study, from point x on the diágrams left to point y
tangular box. lnside the topmost box for each shunt con- on the right. The power system represented by the box is
dition is a four-Jine representation of the shunt to be con- open between x and y to insert the círcuits shown ínside
nected to the systern at point x. The three lower boxes for the box. Points x and y can be any distance apart, as long
each shunt condition are the positive, negative, and zero se- as there is no tap or other systern connection between
quence representation of the shunt. them. The positive, negative , and zero sequence representa-
tions of the top box are shown in the three boxes below it.
The sequence connections for the series unbalances, such
as open phases and un balance series impedances, are shown The diagrams shown in Figures 2-31 and 2-32, particularly
in Figure 2-32. As before, these diagrams are taken from those of Figure 2-32, are useful both for visualizing and cal-
E. L. Harder's study. Here again, the diagrams inside the culating the conditions for open phases and unbalances.
2-19
·~·
Zo Zo
00 00
ºº zb ººb ºº
r ~g::==:gb
00
s » ~i Zn
bO-"Mr----00
ce oc X
no no zb on
Zn
e:
N
~~---+-,
o
N
"' '--!!--+-,--~
al el el gl il kl
00----00 oo--/---oo o o 00
X g g y X ~~~g y X ~~~g y X bo----o
co----o
n n n n n no
I~ on on on
l~o--º-"-oyI on on
Zo-Zb
~---~ 3
on on
bl dl f) hl jl n)
Note:
a) Equal ,mpedances in three phases
b) Normal conditions ,¡ Phase o open. 1mpedances "' b, c. and neutral
el Neutral open JI PhAse a open
d) Any three or four pnases open. kl lmpedance ,n phase a
el Phases b and e open. 1mpodancos ,n pnases a and neutral 11 Equal ,mpedances ,n b and e pnases. and neutral
11 Pnases b and e open m) Equal rmpedances ,n b and e pnases
gl Phases a and neutral open. ,mpcdance ,n b and e n) Equal ,mpedances ,n b and e pnases. neutral open
hl Phases a and neutral open o) lmcadances in pnase a and neutral
Figure 2·32: Sequence Network lnterconnection, lor SerlH B•l•nced •nd Unb•l•nced Conditlon,.
Simultaneous faults require two sets of interconnections Figure 2-33a, for exarnple, represents an open phase-a con-
fram either Figures 2-31 or 2-32-or both. As shown in ductor with a sirnultaneous f'ault to ground on the x side.
Figure 2-33, ideal or perfect trsnsformers can be used to The scquence networks are connected for the open con-
isolate the two restrictions. Perfect transformers are 100 ductor according to Figure 2-32j, with three 1: 1 perf'ect
percent efficicnt and have ratios of 1: 1, 1 .a, 1 :a2, and so transforrners to provide the restrictions required by Figure
on. 2-31 f. The manual calculations required, which involve the
solution of simultaneous equations, are quite tedious.
lt is sometirnes necessary to use two transformers as shown
in Figure 2-33 (f). In this case the first transformer, ratios
1 :rj30°, l :ej30° and 1: 1 represent the star-delta trans- V.G. Sequence Network Reduction
former and the second transformer with ratios 1 :a2, 1 .a,
1: 1 represents the b-to-neutral fault. These can be re- When manual calculations are performed, the complete
placed by an equívalent transformer with ratios 1 :e-j 150°, systern networks (Figures 2-23, 2-24, and 2-25) are reduced
1 :ejl SOº and 1: l. to the single impedance values of Figures 2-27 through 2-30.
2-20
oo--/-o
X gºa§º g y b b y X
ºº
g:J
00--00
b o-/ -<>b y
n n ~::::::l ~~ no
co--oc
no--on
p n
n,
y z y
N n
n
z y
Iº º' r
on
n n
e) el l. 1
• gD
co
n
X g~
o~
0
o ºº y
~c:11~g
n e b o~n
n
y
b) d) f)
Note:
di Phase a·to·ground lault at •anda b pnase to·ground laull at v
a) One phase open and a tault to ground el A b to e tault at • and b phase open t to v
b} Phase a open and a b phase to ground tault 11 Phase a to neutral fault a1 • phase b·to neutral fault on other sice ol
el Pha~e a open and c-phase-to neutral tault srar-deua transformer bank at v • rs 1aken as the reference oo.m
To simplify this reduction, with negligible effect on the Using these assurnptions, the positive sequencc network can
valúes, the following basic assurnptions are made: be drawn with a single-source voltage, Van, connected to
the generator impedances by a bus.
• Ali generated voltages are equal and in phase
lf voltages are different, the Thevenin theorem and super-
• Ali resistance is neglected, or the reactance of machines position must be used to reduce the network and calculate
and transformers is added directly with line impedances faults. Note that, for the series unbalances of Figure 2-32,
a difference in voltage-veither magnitude, phase angle, or
• Ali shunt reactances are neglected, including loads, charg- both-is required for current to flow. No current can exist
ing, and magnetizing reactances if the voltages across an open phase are equal and in phase.
• All mutual reactances are neglected, except on parallel The single-sequence impedances, Z 1, z2, and z0, of Fig-
lines. ures 2-27 through 2-30, will be different for each fault lo-
2-21
cation. Each fault location therefore requires a different rent and the voltages at each bus or node. The phase cur-
,. network reduction. During the network reduction, the rents are read directly for three-phase faults, which involve
distribution of currents in the various branches should be only the positive sequence network (Figure 2-27). For
í calculated, both as a check and to determine the current single-phase-to-ground faults, 310 is required for relays,
flow through the relays involved in a fault. These distribu- Since X equals x2 and from the single-phase-to-ground
1
tion factors are calculated with the assumption that I per- fault in Figure 2-28,
unit curren! flows in these single-sequence impedances.
l.5Van
(2-36)
Network reduction calcuJations are illustrated in Figures
z1 + z0
2-34, 2-35, and 2-36. In these figures, X 1, x2, and x0 are
the impedances between the neutral bus and fault f9r a 2
fault at bus G; I ¡ R• I ¡ L' I2R, 12L' 'oa- IOL are the per-
unit distribution factors. 11, 12, & 10 are ali assumed equal In other words, the zero sequence network is set at l /2
to 1.0 percent value and the driving voltage is rnultiplied by 1.5.
'1
X2L: X2GR+XrR sidered are maximum and mínimum generation, selected
l2L¡ l2R¡ X2R : X2Gs + Xrs + X1GH lines out-of-service, and line-end faults where the adjacent
X2L X2R X2R x2 = X2R X2L
I2L • X2L + X2R = X2R +X2L breaker is open. This information allows the correct relay
F2
X2L types and settings to be selected in a mínimum amount of
ho l2R• X2L + X2R
F2 time for the entire power system.
No Where: No
t
a. Obtain a complete single-line diagram for the en tire sys-
loL¡ loR¡ XoL: XoGR+ Xrn tem, including generators, transformers, and transmis-
XoL XoR XoR • Xrs+XooH
XoR X - XoL XoR sion lines, along with the positive negative and zero se-
IoL: XOL +XoR
Fo
11.0
XoL
IOR= ~+XOR
)= o - XoL +XoR quence impedances for each componen!.
Fo
b. Prepare from the system diagram a single-line impedance
Figure 2-36: Network Reduction for The Zero Sequence Network diagram for the positive, negative, and zero sequence
for a Fault at Bus "G" in Figure 2·25.
networks.
When using the de or ac network analyzer, or calculating c. Reduce the impedance values of aU network branches
board, the positive and zero sequence networks are set up to a common base. Values may be expressed as a per-
with physical circuits scaled to the real systern values. Each centage on a common kVA base, oras ohms impedance
branch current can be measured, as well as the total cur- on a common voltage base.
2-22
9
.> ,
J8 }O
e. Interconnect the networks to represent the fault in- J// JlO ""-, .... J40 Bus O
volved, and calcula te the total fault current at the fau1t. BusS Foult
-.0301 Bus E -.2842
F¡ {ocor,on
J28 J18 1.0
f. Determine the current distribution and voltages as re-
- .2537 Bus R -.2537
quired in the system. Total fault current is seldom of
Figure 2-38: The Positive Sequence Network for The System of
use as relays generally see a fraction of that -current ex- Figure 2-37.
cept for radial circuits.
-.0491 Foult
- .0491 '
System '\ \ Fo
"-:ocot,on
J60 \ J52 1.0
For the typical loop systern shown in Figure 2-37, the gen- -.0053 BusR -.1403
erator units at stations D, S, or E could each be combina- Figure 2-39: The Zero Sequence Network for The System of
Figure 2-37.
tions of severa! machines. Alternately, they could repre-
sent the equivalent of a complex system up to the bus. Ali
of the irnpedances have been reduced to a common base, as To perform this sample calculation of a phase-to-ground
indicated in the diagram. The positive sequence net work fault on the bus at station D, the networks must be reduced
for this systern is shown in Figure 2-38, the zero sequence to a single reactance value between the neutral bus and the
network in Figure 2-39. The negative sequence network is fault point. Of the severa! delta loops, at least one must be
equal to Figure 2-38, except that Van is not present. converted to wye-equivalent in order to reduce the net-
works. After choosing one loop, arbitrarily, the equivalcnt
X, Y, Z branches for the equívalent wye are dotted in as
shown in Figures 2-38 and 2-39.
=j 10.84 = j 0.72
Figure 2-37: Single Lin• Oiagram for a Typical Loop Type Power y = 28 X 10 y =6 X 60
System. 1 62 O 75
2-23
.4716 .5284 .2594 .7406 The fractions written above the equations are the distribu-
44.52 X 49.87 56.8 X 162.2 tion factors for the parallel circuits. These factors are ex-
94.39 219.0 pressed as the ratio of each term in the numerator and the
denominator. Determining these factors provides a conven-
= j 23.52 = j 42.07 ient check on the caJculations, since the sum of the two
(
fractions must be 1.0.
Currents in the fault are calculated for each phase as follows: v2 = o - .6297 xj .24
= -j .O l 09 p.u. (692.24 V)
= 6.66 p.u.
or
=3493.66Ampal IIOkV (2-29) = j .6869 p.u, (43,624.01 V)
= .8661 -j .3598
=O (2-31)
Frorn equation 2-29, 2-30, and 2-31, 13, lb and le can calcu- = .8489 /210º + .1511 /150º-j .0109
lated for each branch. These are recordcd in Figure 2-42.
=-.7352-j .4245-.1309+j .0756-j .0109
Next, the sequence and phase voltagcs at each bus are de-
tcrmined as in Figure 2-26. ll is convenient to calcula te
= - .8661 - .3598
the voltages in per-unit valúes, sincc thc impedances listed
in Figure 2-37 are in percent, rather than ohrns.
= .9379 /202.56° p.u. (59,564.65 V)
110,000 V =j 1.0 - j .4 l O 1
= 63,508.53 V v2=0-l.0253xj.40
Frorn Figure 2-41; first, the sequence and phase voltages are
calculated al bus S:
= -j .4101 p.u. (26,044.85 V)
= .8661 - j .2697 Finally , the sequence and pilase voltages are calculatcd at
bus R:
= .9071 /- 17 .30º p.u. (57 ,608.59 V)
= .9502 /-24.30º p.u. (60,345.80 V) The sequence voltages calculated above, as shown in Fig-
ure 2-41, complete the analysis of the single-phase-to-
ve= .8421 /210º + .1579 /1soº -j .0490 ground fault at bus D in the systern of Figure 2-37. Ali the
distributed current and voltage values for the system are
= -.7293 -j .4211 - .1367 + j .0790 -j .4090 displayed in Figure 2-42.
2-27
-" _,,.,.--
E]
StahonR
47163
. Load
~-~.-~{'
Vo•23.155~º
Vb•56,580H3.59°
+ 157.21 + 157.21 + 157.21 V0•0
Vb•:17,6091-17.30°
Vc•57,6091197.3º $1011000
--
$10ll()O$
Gtnerotor Vo'43,624!29º b Gene,oto,
Vb•:19,5651-22.:16º b e
Vc•59,5651202.!>6º e 754.28 o
-- --
o b e -132.07
597.07
-289.28
-132.07
-¿
405.85
~
-
72435
--
-289.28
310,10.51
3Jo•490.14
ro20.2i'
-rull
~-267.15
f 2831.97
190.osf
.(
•
- -- ---
405.85
127.28 719.10
-267.15 ¡ 3493.65
. . ,-.-,. r
22.13 -273.78
-
2213 -273.78
310, 111.54
V0• 40,341Wº b
Vb•60.346~
Vc•60,346~ e
t f -295.91
Note: -295.91 f 591.82
Fault Values are ,n Amperes and Volts at l l O KV
s,nce x1 = x2 I\
'a = ,, + '2 + 'o - 21, + 'o
S101ionE
In the fault calculations for the system shown in Figure -lb -le
b B
2-37, the phase shifts through the wye-delta transformer
banks were not considered. In this exarnple, only a l 10-kV -le -1c Tums RohO • T
e
systcm fault, with its currents and voltages, was involved. Vol1ogeRot,o• ~
H1ghS1de LowS,de
The effect of the phase shift through the transformer banks o A
n 'KVo
,Í3KVA
could not, howcver, have been neglected if currents and KV0
Neu1ro~ C~Neu1rot N,-
voltages were required for the opposite side of the power KVA
e b B N,J3n
transformers.
Theoretically, the positive and negative sequence irnped- Figure 2-43: Connections and Phasors for an ANSI Standard
Power Transformar Bank With The WYE Connection
ance and the equivalent circuits for power transformers are on The High Side (V8n Leads VAN by 30°).
the same for ali connections of the banks. Actually , how-
ever, these quantities are shifted when they pass through a
(2-37)
wye-delta- or delta-wye-connected bank. The na ture of
this phase shift is described below.
(2-38)
If the transformer bank is wye-connected on the high volt-
age side, as shown in Figure 2-43, the general eq uations for All quantities are line-to-neutral valúes, with the lower-
one phase are: case subscripts representing high-side quantities and the
2-28
= n-/JV A2 /-30°
= NV A2 /-30° (2-45)
=n(l-a)Ial
=n(l-a2)vAl
-la _IA
o A
= n../fv Al /30°
_lb -le
b 8
== NV Al /30º (2-41) Turns Ro1,o•~
_ le
e -le e vouoqe Ra1,o • ~
H1ghS1de LowS,de N• !)
(2-42) :./3
A
o KVo./3
n•-- KVA
Neu1,a1-Vb A_.-Neulrol KVa
N•-KVA
e e e
Ne xt , only negative sequence quantities are applied to
Figure 2-44: Connections and Phasors for an ANSI Standard
Equations (2-37) and (2-38): Power Transformer Bank With The DELTA
Connection on The High Side IVan Leads VAN by
30°).
1A2 = n Oa2 - 1c2)
(2-44)
l.-1.':J
1 2
=-(1-a)V
n a2
(2-49)
V
(2-50)
=~/3oº (2-55)
N
V 32 = NV A2 /-30º (2-56)
1
1
al
= Al
N
ÓOº IAJ = Nlal /-30º
V
1 val= NV Alboº V =~/-30°
=- () - a) 1 A2 Al N
n
1
J = A2 /-30º 1A2 = Nla2ÓOº
a2 N
V
V32 = NV A2/-30º V = A2~
A2 N
(2-53)
*The lower-case subscripts are high-sidc quantities. and thc capital
(2-54) lettcr subscripts low-side quantities.
With a ground Iault , current exists not onJy in the fauJted This is illustrated by a voltage plot for various faults on a
phase a but also in the unfaulted b and e phases. The rea- simple systcm (Figure 2-45 ). For sirnplicity , assurne Z I
son is apparcnt , since lb equals •c• which equaJs -11 plus 10, z z
equals 2 equals 0. During Iaults, the voltage inside the
when X equals x2. The positive and zero sequcnce dis- generators does not change unless the fault persists long
1
tribution factors on any loop systern wiIJ be different. Con- enough for the regulators to increasc the field. No voltage
sequently , the positive, negative, and zero sequence currents change should occur in high or medium speed rclaying.
will not add up tolero in the unfaulted phases. On a radial
systern (one with a source at one end only for both thc
<] Y+
8-1 t-r~---F~-ul
-!
positivo and zero sequence), the threc network distribution
factors will ali be equal to one. For a phase-a-to-ground
fault on thcsc circuits, lb equals le, which cquals O.
1 1
1
The reason for recording 310, rather than the faulted phasc
current, can be secn from Figure 2-42. In most circuits,
there is a significant differencc between the 13 and 310 cur-
rents in any loop network. In a radial system, however, •a
is equal to 310 and ground relays operare on 310.
Olher phase faults shown in Figure 2-20 are characterized Figures 2-46 and 2-47 offer a final look al sequence currents
by the relative collapse of two of thc phase-to-neutral volt- and voltages for faults. Note that thc positive sequence cur-
ages, compared to the relatively normal third phase-to- rents and voltages, shown in the left-hand colurnns of the
neutral voltage, Two of the phase currents havo a large lag- two figures, havc approximatcly thc sarne phase relations
ging mercase. for all types of faults. This column represents Lite condi-
tions in the generator. At the fault are various non-
l·or a singlc-phase-to-ground fault, on the other hand, 011e symmctrical currents and voltages, as shown in the far right-
pilase-to-neutral voltage is collapsed relative to lhe olher hand colurnn. The ncgative and , sornetimes, the zero se-
two phases, Slmilarly, one phase current has a large lagging q uence q uantities pro vide thc transi tion bel ween the sym-
mercase relatlve to the other t wo. metrical lefl-hand colurnn and the non-symrnetrical right-
hund column. These quantities rotate and chango lo pro-
W1th wyc-deltu transforrners between thc f'ault and Lhe duce the non-symmetrical, or unbalanced, quantity when
measurement poínt, the positive sequcncc quantities shift added to the positivc scquence.
30° in one direction, and the negative sequence quantities
shift 30° in lhe opposite dlrection. As a result, a phase-to- Thcsc phasors can be constructed casily by rernernbcring
ground fault on one side of a bank has the appearance of a which rault quantity should be mínimum or maximum. ln
nhase-to-phuse fault en thc other side and vice versa. a phase e-a fault, f'or examplc, phasc-b currcnt will be small.
:ro
Sequence Currenta Vol ta ges Voltages
- Curren ta Curren ta Currents
--
a.b.c ;:1 Zero 01
a.b.c
- __
C1r
._ b¡
O¡
c1 b¡
--
Foult
---
--
__ ,_ ): --- J:: e/~
.>:
a,b
C1r c1 b1 c2 02
l,b
º' b2 +-{º? -
X [.,
b1
--- C2 I>
b,c
):
e.e
--
C1r 01 º2 +-{C2
] --
c1
---
b1 b2 c2
,_
-c
-
,_ b¡ b2 o•O
C1r
e.a.
c1
): b1 02
): ~ ~b
e.e, 01 c2
- - --
.,,
c~o f-
b1 02
e/.
º1 b2
- ---- a,b,G
c,Xb1
.. .r:
e-o C2 ....t...02
1.b,G C¡r
ºo,bo,co ºº' bo,co
--b=O
º' b2 ··<°2
ª2
oo,bo,ca
b1 C2
b.c.G
º1
c,Ab, b2...l...c2
t
cj o=O
rb•c•O
b,c.G C1r O¡ º2 •.(2 +
- f-
b¡ bz C2
oo,bo,co
---.:
o0,b0,c0
- - - c,a,G
e, J..:º'b1 02)...~
~
ºo,bo,co o•c•~b
Clr
-a
c,a,G o, c2+-{~
"
c'--.o
X
o•O
~rº 2 +
b¡ C2Y.b2
- º2
oo,bo,co
-
b=O a.G
c1 b1 02 ºo,ba,Co
c~b
c,r
b=c=O
c,r
_.
,)',.o
a,G O¡
b¡ C2
Y. 02 ªo,bo,co
-
º2>- ¡
1-
e-e=O
b,G ): b2
c2 "
o/
b,G o, C1 b1
c2
b¡ --
;:
b2 oo,bo,co
0o,ba,co
02 Y.C2
e.o C1r
b¡
o, C2>-
o2
bz '\
Oo,bo,Co
e\ o=b= o c.G
c1 b1 b2
~
c=O (b
Figure2-46: Soquence Currents for Various Faults. Figure 2-47: Sequence Voltagos for Various Faults.
Assumes z1 = z2 = z0 Assumes z, = Z2 Z3 =
2-32
Thus, Ib2 will tend to be opposite lb!. Since phase-b volt- Table 2-111
age will be relatively uncollapsed, Vbl and vb2 will tend Lo Protecuve Relays Using Symmet.11c1l CompOnent Quant1t1u íor thelr Operacion
be in phase. After one sequence phasor is established, lhe
Device Bu,c R•l1y Sequence "
othcrs can be dcrived from Equation (2-18) and Figure No. Apphc1tion Types Qu1nl1l1es U•ed
2-21.
SO, SI Ground ovcrcuncnt CO. SI, SI 1. S(.'. KC
'o
S9 Grountl voltaac rv sv
i
VO
VI. SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS ANO RELAYING t,7 Ground duectional CRC CRP, CRD, CRQ 10 w,11110
overcurrent IR(' IRP IRD, IRQ ••
or v010
Sincc ground relays operare from zero sequence quanlilies, 1..R(, 1..RP KRD, 1..RQf
SRGU,SRQU
ali ground relay types use syrnrnetrical cornponents. A or v 21 !
number of oí her protective rclays use cornbinalions of Lhc cwc·. rwr. ('WP-1
J2 Ground product lol or 'o· VO
sequence quantities, as surnmarized in Table 2-11 l. overcurrent
(3V0) volt age filler is provided by the wye-groundcd- 78 l'h••• Jnd ground 11(8 K111+K010
brokcn-dcttu connccuon Ior a potcnual lrnnsformer oran p,lot
l'OQ
'2
-
detcvuon
.......__
Chaptcr 3 l. INTROOUCTION
A. Zero Sequence Networks Three t ypes of magnetic auractíon units are in common use:
B. Composite Sequence Current Nctworks plunger (solcnoid); clapper; and polar. The plunger unil,
C. Sequence Voltage Networks shown in Figure 3-1, is typically used in SC, SV, and ITH
IV. Solid-State Units rclays; the clapper-type unit (Figure 3-2) in SG, AR, ICS,
IIT, and MG relays ; and Lhe polar-type unit (Figure 3-3) in
A. Semiconductor Components HCB, HU, and PM rclays.
l. Diode
2. Zener Diode
3. Four-Layer Oiode 11.A.I. Plunger Units
4. Tunnel Diode
S. Varistors, Thermistors, Sensitors Plunger units have cylindrical coils with an externa! rnag-
6. Transistor
7. Thyristor nctic structure anda center plunger, When lhe current or
8. Uni-junction Transistor
B. Solid-State Logic Units C. Auxiliary Units
1. Basic Principies 1. Annunciator Circuits
2. Logic Unit Representation 2. Coordinating and Loop Logic Tirners
C. Principal Logic Units 3. Toggle or Latching Circuits
l. ANO Unit 4. lsolator and Buffer Circuits
2. OR Unit a. Input lsolalor
3. NOT Unit b. Output lsolator
4. N Unit c. Input Buffer
S. NOR Unit d. Output Buffer
6. NANO Unit 5. Power Supply and Regulator Circuits
7. Tlme-Delay Units
VI. In tegrated Circuits
V. Basic Logic Circuits
A. Operational Amplifier
A. Fault-Sensing and Data Processing Units B. Basic Operational Amplifier Units
1. Magnitude Comparison 1. lnverting Amplifiers
a. Fixed Reference 2. Non-inverting Amplifiers
b. Variable Reference 3. Adders
2. Phase Angle Comparison 4. Subtractors
a. Block-Block
5. lntegrator and Simple Low Pass Filters
b. Coincident Time (Ring Modulator) 6. Differentiator and Simple High Pass Filters
B. Amplification Units
7. Phase Shifl Units
l. Breaker Trip CoiJ lnitiator 8. Leve! Oetectors
9. Active Filters
3-2
voltage a pplied to the coil exceeds t he pickup value, the The more cornplex plunger unit shown in Figure 3- lb is
plunger moves upward to operate a set of contacts. The used asan instantaneous over- or undercurrent or voltage
force, F, req uired to rnove the plunger is proportional to unit. An adjustable flux shunt permits more precise set tings
the squarc of the current in the coi l. over t he nominal f'our-to-one pickup range. This unit is
relatively independent of frequency, operating on de, 25·
The plunger unit's operating characterist ics are largely de· or 60-Hz nominal frequency. lt is availahle in high and low
termined by the plunger shape, the interna! core, lhe rnag- drop-out versions.
netic stru cture, the coil design , and thc magnelic shunts.
11.A.2. Clapper Units
Plunger units are instantaneous in that no delay is purposcly
introduced. Ty pical operating times are Sto SO ms, with Clapper unils have a U-shaped magnetic frarne with a rnov-
t he longer times occur ring near the threshold values of able armature across the open cnd. The ar muturc is hinged
pickup. al one side and spring-restrained al t he other. When the as·
sociat ed ctcctrical coil is energizccl, thc arma tu re movcs
The unit shown in Figure 3-1 a is used as a high drop-out in· towards the magnetic core. opening or closing a set of con·
stantancous ovcrcurrent unit. The stecl plunger floats in an tacts with a torque pro portional to the squarc of the coil
nir gap provided by a non-magnct ic ring in the ccnter of the currcnt. The pickup an d drop-out values of clupper units
magnctic corc. When thc coi! is cnergized, the plunger as- are less accurate than t hosc of plunger units, Clupper units
scrnbly moves upward, carrying a silver disc which bridges are primarily applicd as auxiliary or go/no-go units.
thrcc stationary contacts (only two are shown). /1. helical
spring ahsorhs t he ac plunger vihrat ions, producing good Four clappcr units are shown in Figure 3-2. Thosc sho wn
con tact action. Thc air gap provides a ratio of drop-out to in Figures 3-2a and 3·2h havc thc samc general design, but
pickup of 90 pcrcen t or greater overa two-to-one pickup thc first is for de service and the second for ac operalion.
range. The pickup rango can be varied from a two-t o-one In hoth units, upward movcrncnt of lhc ar maturc rclcascs a
lo a four-l'o-onc rango by lhc adjusting coro scrcw. When targct , which drops to provide a visual inclication of opera-
t he pickup range is increuscd lo Iour-to-one, lhc drop-out tion. (The target rnust be reset manually.) The de l('S unit
ratio will de crease to a pprox i rnately 4 S pcrccn t. (Figure 3·2a) is commonly uscd to provide a seal-in around
the main proteclive rclay contacts. The ac I IT unit (Pigurc
Oltlcr rclays are cquippcd with similar units: an instanta- 3-2b) operatcs asan instant:ineous ovcrcurrenl or instunta·
ncous trip attachmcnt for de operation anti a contactor neous trip unil. lts adjustablc corc providcs pickup adjust-
switch for de operation. No longcr manufacturcd, these ment overa nominal four-to-one range.
units do not have an intcrnal air gap and, consequently,
havc a low drop-out ratio. Thc SG-MG clapper unils (Figure 3·2c) provide a wide rangc
of contact mulliplicr auxiliaries: the SG has provisions for
t--r'-1i:N~:-==I----P1unger
11'<-,,..::::,,,,---Contocts
r.'----Ad1us1ob1e
Flux Shunl
W ¡~;__-- Interno! Core
•• (al (bl
Mogne,,c
-~rome
Mo,nSr,ng
Co,I
Cote--..¡..¡¡.;;;...µ.,
Mognetic
Frome
Logloop_@
~Mov,nq
Comoct
Dpst
Reversible
Mov,ng Contoct
Armoture
Ad¡ushn<;¡
sc,ew
Mognet,c
Frome
Figure 3-2
four contacts (lwo make and two break), and the MG will structure polarizes Lhe armature-gap potes, as shown. Two
accept six. The AR clapper unit (Figure 3·2d) operares in non-rnagnetic spacers, located at the rear of the magnetic
2 lo 4 ms, with four contacts suitable for breaker tripping. frame, are bridged by two adjustable magnetíc shunts. This
arrangernent cnables the magnetic flux paths to be adjusted
11.A.3. Polar Units for pickup and contact action. Wilh balanced air gaps (Fig-
ure 3-3a), the flux paths are as shown and the armature will
Polar units (Figure 3-3) operate from direcl current applied float in the center with t he coil deenergized. With the gaps
to a coi! wound around the hinged arrnature in the center of unbalanced (Figure 3-3b), sorne of the flux is shunted
lhe magnetic structure, A permanent rnagnet a cross the through the ar mature , The resulting polarization holds the
3-4
armature against one pole with the coil deenergized. The The operating equation of the polar unit is
coil is arranged so that its rnagnetic axis is in line with the
arrnature, and at righl angle to the permanent magnet axis. K
Current in the coil magnetizas thc armature either north or K
11 op
- K21
r
=-2
1/)
(3-1)
south, increasing or decreasing any prior polarization of the
armature. lf, as shown in Figure 3-3b, the magnetic shunt
where K I and K2 are adjusted by the magnetic shunts; K3
adjustment normally rnakes the armature a north pole, it
is a design constant; 1/) is the perrnanent magnetic flux· 1
will rnove to thc right. Direct current in the operating coil, . . ' op
is the operatíng current; and Ir is the restraint current in
which tends to make thc contact end a south pole, will over-
millia rnperes.
come this tendency and the contact will move to the left.
Dcpending on design and adjustments, this polarizmg action
11.B. Magnetic lnduction Units
can be gradual or quick. The left gap adjustment (Figure
3-3b) controls the pickup value ; the righl gap adjustmcnt
There are t wo general types of magnelic induction units:
controls the reset current value.
induction disc and cylinder units. The induction disc unit
(Figure 3-4) is typically used in CO, CV, CR, IRV, IRD,
CW, CA, and CM relays. The cylinder unit (Figure 3-6) is
used in KD-line, KC, KDXG, KF, KRD, KRC, and KRP
relays.
~Disc
Keeper
(al lbl
0
+--r-Drsc
Figure 3·5: Phasora and Oporotions of Tho "E" Unit lnduction Oisc.
í
Is
Mo,nColl
-Elrcrromogr,er
18, obtuíncd by trunsf'ormcr action, passcs t hrough tltc two
uppei peles and produces flux <l>u· This flux, <l>u, Ilows
down thc right uppcr polc through the disc and up the left
upper pele. There is lime und spacc qundruturc bct wccn
thcse two fluxcs. Thc interaction of<l>u anti c/JL with the
MogncrPlugs flux es from t he cddy currcnts induccd in t he disc produces
(al The E" Un,t
clock wisc mot ion.
a djustu b le keeper (shunt j uarnps t he J1:,1. .. nd ll1dt1,11el1c Opei aung t or que ~ d tuncuon ot the product ot t he twu
plugs in the electromagnet control the degree of saturauon operating quantities and the cosine of the angle between
The spring tension, the damping magnet, and the magnetic them. The torque equation is
plugs allow separate ancJ relatively independent adjustrnent
of the unit's ínverse lime overcurrent characteristics, (3·2J
11.B.2. Cylinder Units where K ami i¡, are desrgn constarus. l I a nd 12 t he cur rerns
through the t wo coils; O 12 the angle between 11 and 12; and
The operatíon of a cylinder unu 1:. similar to thal of an in· Ks tite restraining spring torque. Different combinations of
duction motor with salient poles for the srator windings. input quantiues can be used for different applications, sys-
Shown in Figure 3-6, the basic unil used for retays has an tem voltages or currents, or network voltages.
inner sreet core at the center of the square electromagnet,
with a thin-walled aluminum cylmder rotating in the air gap 11.C. D'Arsonval Units
Cyhnder travel is limited lo a few degrees by the contact
and stops; a spiral spring provides reset torque. In uie D'Arsonval unu, shown in Figure 3-7, a 111agm:t11 ..
structure andan inncr perrnancnt magnet forma two-pole
!'
cylincJrical core. A rnoving coil loop in thc air gap is encr-
gized by direct current , which reucts with the air gap flux
to crea te rotauonal torque. Tite D' Arsonval unit operutes
on very low energy input, such as tltal availablc from de
shunts, brrdge net works, or recrified ac. The unit can also
be used as a de contaet-rnak ing rnilliarn meter.
II O Thermal Units
I
111. SEQUENCE NETWORKS
-
can provide a single-pitase out pul proport iona t co positivo,
-
negative, or zero sequen ce quantities. These net works, also
_..___
q
known as sequence ñlters, are widely used as fault sensors.
s
(-)
R1 Ro
Vr,
Zs
(+)
Xm
To Ope,OllllQ Unn
.
and switch s closed, is: (The drops from V F (+) to V F (-).]
~~~-----~~~·-··-··
1 1
Moun11ng Surfoce
··-
1
(3-3)
The nctwork shown in Figure 3-8 can be adapted for a vari- Varying Xm, R 1, R0, and the connectíons produces difter-
ety of single-phase outputs. V F is obtained from in pul cur- cnt output churacteristics. In sorne applications, the cur-
rents 13, lb, and le, with neutral (310) return. Using rents lb and le are interchanged , changing Equation (3-5) to
Thevenin's Theorem, these t hree-phase networks can be
reduced to a simple equivalent circuit , as shown in Figure
3·8b. VF is the open circuit voltagc at the out put , and Z
is the impedance looking back into the three-phase net-
3·1)
I'abte 3.1 •
--
Switch Switch Figure 3-8 VF reduces from:
Net work Type r s xm = Notes Equation to Equal
IICU Cornposne open do:.t:J R¡/V3 I nterchange (3-6) 2R111 +(R1 + 3R0)10
lb and le
HCB-1 and SKB UP,:11 du:.1:!J l .4óR l 01 JS shown \ 3-5) -0.211 + .46212 +
Composites " .191 ohrns (R¡ +3R0)10
With switch, closcd and switch sopen, (he zero sequeuce thJtl xbli-lVbyll lhefilteroulput,Vxy=Yp,1Sllie
response of Equat ions (3-5) and (3-6) is climinatcd. The phasor sum of t hcse t wo voltages.
zero sequence drop across R1 is 2/3R1 tao - l/3R1 (lbo +
lc0) =
O. The swit ches r and s are used in Figure 3-8 as a
convenicnce. ~ ....~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~o
~-+-~~~~~~~~~ ........ .._~~ .... ~~~~~b
Figure 3-1 O. By design , t he pitase angle of Z +R lags by Figure 3.9 Sequence Voltage Network.
giving an output V F; Figure 3-1 Ob conditions apply to posi- Oevce Symbol Bossc Chorocteristic
tive sequence with V F = O.
(+)
-
IF
This interchange of b and e leads in either the current or
llil Reverse
voltage networks offers a very convenient techniq ue for (al D1ode [F (·V) (V)
Forword
checking the networks. For exarnple, the negatíve sequence
~
nelwork should have no output on balanced power system t -IF ,n p.A
Junct,on
load but, by inter changing lhe b and e leads, it should pro-
(+)
duce fuU output on test. ¡.--y-.¡
.,.
-
(b) Zener Diode
¡.--v-..¡
.,..
Surge Suppressor
-
(Vol!Trop,
(e)
Zener Chpper,
Thyrectorl I
V
(+)
¡.--v-..¡
(d) 4 Laye, Diode
81
(a) Positive Sequence (b) Negative Sequence
Voltages Apphed
Is ih
Vottaqes Apphed
Figure 3-10: Phasor Díagrams for The Sequence Voltage Network v,b
of Figure 3.9 With "s" Closed and "r" Open.
T
IV.A.I. Diode
Figure J. 11 Semi Conductor Components and Their
Characteristics.
current rises very rapid ly , and the junction breaks down. trical characteristics. The difference, of course, is thal the
For either sustained forward voltages or voltages greater polarity of the de voltage and direction of current flow are
than the PIV, externa( impedances must be used lo lirnit lhe opposite in the two types.
current to within the diode's rated valúes.
NPN Type PNP Type
IV.A.2. Zener Diode Etectron Flow HoleFlow
e(Em1tter} ~ c(CoHectorl e(Em,1ter) ~ e( Col lector l
N p N p p
The Zener diode (Figure 3-11 b) differs frorn the diode de- -¡;-+
~ ~ ~
scribed above in having a sharp and reproducible reverse tib
breakdown voltage, called lhe Zener voltage. lf the curren! b(Bose} b(Bose)
is Limited to within rated values, the junct ion recovers its Vce Vce
(+} (+)
non-conducting characteristics when the reverse voltage falls
below lhe Zener value. For these reasons, Zener diodes are Ele<:lromechon1col Electromechan,col
Equ,volent Equ,volent
':rC'
used for surge protection and in circuits su bject to reverse le le le le
~ ~ e ~ ~ e
polarity.
1 ·~, 1
Where surges or transients are oscillating, or for positive and
negative peaks, thc back-to-back Zener (Figure 3-11 e) corn-
01
b
t,b'º
Ie
01
b
i,b'º
I
e
monly known as VoltTrap, Zener clipper , or Thyrector-
·~, t
provides effective surge suppression. The characteristics of le le
these diodes are essentially the sa me in both the forward
and reverse direction.
lb:¡
Ve
lo.. l -------!~
·1
[H• Hold,r,9 Currer.,
1 ~!, ,,.,vVt ln re la ying, normal logic is use d , and normal volt age rs 20 V
¡G2>lG1'•uv unless otherwise indicated. In addition,
rhree dit-
t here are
Bteolo. 1. , .. ,i;:, ferent logic conventions for the input/outpur
polarities, ln
-
-- - - ---
- ) positive logic, inputs and outputs are positive : in negative
logic, bot h inputs and out puts are negative , In mixed logíc,
inputs are either positive or negative ; outputs are usually
positive but could be negative. Relay systems normally use
posit ive logic, a lt houg h sorne elernents may use negative sig-
Fo, ,vU1d 61()<..,,,oll nal inputs or out put s, Transist ors, for exarnple, require neg-
at ive voltages on sorne ele ctrodes,
Figure 3·14: The lhyrostor a,,d hs Characterostics
po wer mdustr y and 111 !>UlHh,lalc 1day 1>y!>tc1w, 111 tite d uiverse logre, wrucn 1cp1c~cut~ ene 111v.:rs10n uf t he uul·
commercial/military system, t he type of functiun is inui- puts; that is, the zeros andones of the outputs are inter-
cated by the geometrical shape of t he symbol. In solid-srate changed. Since the effe ct of the interchange is similar tu
relaying, the narne of the logic function is simply wr itten in a compte mentary function in the binary systern, it is
a rectangle or block (Figure 3-16). Convention dictates that sornetimes called the cornplernent. The effect of the
inputs are shown on the left-han d side and outputs on the interchange is t he sarne as adding a NOT (negation) ele·
right-hand side. The symbols and terminology used comply ment to each output (Figure 3-l 9a). As will be seen la ter,
withlEEEStandard 91-1973(ANSI Standard Y32 14-1973) an inverse logic function may also be represented by an-
"Graphic Syrnbols for Logic Diagrarns." other function with a different designation.
Figure 3-16: Examplo of Log,c Symbol. c. combination logic, which cornprises normal, ínverse, and
negation logic functions. The example shown in Figure
W\Nr.: 11.:11,.iti.~ or m1x~ú \N:.i\we ,má ne~ative \011,ic are used, 3-l 9c is a Iunciion with one input negatcd.
tite souc- or open-, Iull- or half-arrow convention (Figure
3-17) is used to distinguish bet ween the positive and nega- When a logic function has only lwo inputs, üs output is
trve meaning of one ( l) relative to zero (O). usually simple to determine. For t hree or more inputs, par·
ticularly with cornbination logic functions, a logic or truth
table offers a convenient method of cletermining the output ,
A logic table rora funct ion with three in puts and one out-
--1> pul is shown in Figure 3-20. The table lists ali possíble corn-
binat ions of zeros andones for the inputs. Each output , X,
1 .s More Posrnve Thon O , ,s M0te Nego11ve Thon O could be zero or one, depending on the function.
lnpulS
A B
·- e Out pul
Ou1put is 1 forOlnput
o o o X
IV.C. Principal Logic Units t he u nit a r e ~huwn 111 F1gwc J-2..lb, ct11d the lv¡¡1c t aule tn
Figure 3-23..:. Since the diodes are not biased , an input vo lt-
In this section, the major urut s Ll~t;ú in I e la y ing will be de- age applied to any input wi ll produce an oulput voltage at
scribed. Detailed circuit descriptio ns will be ke pt lo a míni- X.
mum. For sirnplicity, the diagrarns will show only two in·
puts per function antl will i.nclude electr omechanical con-
tact equivalents,
lnputs
lnputs O.,tput ~ Output
,o
A B
IV.C.l. ANO Unit A X~
o o
~~b-
o ..
1
TheANDlogicelementisshuwn m h~u1t;J·ll ll1c:;1111· 1 o l
1 1 1
plest type consists of Iorward-biased diodes and resistors
(Figure 3·2la). The sy mbolic representation and t he etectr o-
(al Crrcmt tb) Symbol (el Log,c Tabh:
rnechanical equivalents for this unit are given in Figure 3-21 b,
lhe logic table in Figure 3-21 c. The forwar d-biascd dio des
Figure 3-23: OA Logic.
shunt the output terminal, and no output voltage can appeat
unless ali input diodes have a reverse bias t hat equals or ex-
lhrce varrauo ns of the UR u111t, co ruparab le Lo those of the
ceeds the forward bias. Since in puts are eit her zero or one,
ANO elernen t, are shown together with their electromecham-
there is no in between state that would allow partial out pul
cal equiva lents in figure 3-24a, b, and c. By comparing Fig-
voltage. Thus, the output is either zero or one , as sho wn on
ure 3·24a with Figure 3-22b, it is clear thal the inverse OR
lhe íoglc table. Three variations of the AND elernent are
unit is cquivalent to the negation AND. Sirnilarly, the nega-
shown in Figure 3-22.
tion OR of Figure 3-24b is equivalen! Lo lhe inverse ANO of
Figure 3-22a.
(+)
loputs
J
Output
lnpu!I A B
0utfM ~
A ~ o o o
A B
o 1 o
o o
B ---l f--l 1- 1
(a) Circuít (b) Symbol (e) Log,c Table A 8
--#-·-#-
Figure 3·2t: ANO Logic.
lb) rnver se OA 101 Negíltion OR (C) M,xcd OA
t& ti3-
Figuro 3-24. Variations of OA Logic.
-dJ-
OE (Figure 3-25). OE differs from the normal OR unit in
A B A B
that it does not provide an output I when both inputs are l
~ -1f----tf-
(a) lnverse ANO {b) Negat,on ANO \C) Moxo;d ANO
lnpurs
Figure 3-22: Variations of ANO Logic. Ovrpot
A B
o o o
IV.C.2. OR Unit o l l
l o 1
l 1 o
The OR unit is sho wn in Figure 3-23. Again , t he sirnplest (el Logic Table
laJ Symbol \b) Equivalent
type of unit consists of resistors and diodes. The syrnbo lie
representation and the electr ornechanical equivalents for Figure 3-25: Exclusive OR Logic.
3-l4
o-
A lnputs
Input Ourpur Ou1pu1
A B
o o
+1 -1 o o 1
o 1 l
{n) Symbol (b) Logic Table 1 o 1
1 1 o
Figure 3-27: Polarity lnversion Logic. ic1) Sy.-nbol (b) Equivalent \e) Logic Table
NANO, NOR -which can be represenled by a tola! of 12 d if- V. BASIC LOGIC CIRCUITS
ferenl symbols (Figure 3-32). The Iirst column in Figure
3-32 represents the normal logic ; the second represen Is in- In describing basic logic circuits, two types oí diagrarns are
verse logic; und t he t hird, negation logic. Thrce different used: Lhe logic block diagram and lhe logic circuit schernatic
symbolic rcpresentations can thus be used for each of the diagrarn. In the logic block diagram (also called logic sche-
four funclions, depending on the logic diagrarn requirerncnts matic diagram), the units are represented by Lheir logic syrn-
and on engineer or designer prcfcrcnce. bols, and lhc logic syrnbol blocks are interconnected to pro-
vide a complete funclional representation of Lhe systern. In
lhc Jogic circuit schernatic diagrarn, Lhe elements are shown
schcrnatically. Unil interconnections are shown in the sa me
way as in normal schcrnatic diagrarns. The logic block dia-
gram is uscful in showing the complete systern in funclional
form; the logic schematic circuit diagram in showing how
the logic units operate. In lhe following discussion, logic
schematic diagrams will be used.
V.A I Ma¡¡nuuJe Corupurrsuu uve lee~ll>d..:k provuíes me equtvalent oí !)flcip acuon, and uie
3 pcrcent band widt h prevenís the equivalen! of chattcring
I'hcre are two baste types of magnuude cornpanson lug1 ... for current values close to mínimum pickup.
units: fixed reference and variable rcference.
l'h~ type uf circuit could also be used for overvoltage.
V.A.La. Fixed Reference
V .A. l.b. Variable Reference
íhc logic circuit uscd for an mstanraueous ovei cuu eut un n
(Figure 3-34) is hasically a de lcvel detector. Input currcnt 1 he, log1~ unit discriminates betwecn ihe value of un operare
from thc current transformcr sccondary is transformcd to a volt age and the smallest of three restrainl voltagcs. Shown
currcnt-dcrived voltage on t he secondary of the input trans- in Figure 3-35, this type of circuit forms lhe decision logic
former. This voltage is limited by Zener clipper Z I and re· elcment for the SDG ground distance relay describcd in
sistor R2. For low input currcnts, the voltage is propor- Chapter I O. The restraint voltages ( V x: V Y' and V 2) and
tional to the current , as determincd by R I and R3. The rhc opérate voltage are connected in opposition through
mimrnum pickup is adjusted via the setting of R 1: a low tunnel diode TDI and diodes 025, 026, and 027. When
R 1 sett ing diverts more currenl through R 1 and R3 and less the operare vollage is larger than any of the three restraint
to the phase splitt er. voltages, current will flow through TDI. A srnall current
through TDI drives it to a high voltage (Figure 3-1 le), turn-
Fhe phase spluter consists of a resrstor-capacrtor net work, a ing on Q I and producing a voltage across the output termi-
transf'ormer , anda bridge rectifier. Output voltage of the nal. The tunnel diode characteristtc provides a sharp turn-on
phase splittcr is shown on the upper part of Figure 3-34. point, which serves asan effective lriggering action.
When this voltage equals the Zener voltage of 22, 22 will
conduct, providing a base current that turns on Q 1. Q I then Since clouble phase-to-ground faults may cause overreach of
turns on Q2, providing an output current through 02 and the ground distance relay, a desensitizer circuit is included.
R9. Q2 provides positive feedback lhrough R7 and DI, ThL~ circuit consists of three minimum voltage networks. A
cornpoundmg the effect on the leve! detector. portion, k, of each of the restraint voltages is input lo the
desensitizer circuit. When any combination of l wo restraint
l he drop-out current can be udjusted by resistor R7, nor- voltages is smaller than the third restraint voltage, an outpul
rnally set for a drop-out/pickup ratio of about 0.97. Posi- procl u ces a blocking a et ion through 086, preventing Q I from
Volls Seconóory
Currenl FromCTSec:.onoory
02 R9
-- I60Ht
Zl R5
Phose Output
Spl,11e, R8
R2
(-)
Input Transforme,
()u!l)U'
(-,.¡
T
R9
01:,
,1 0.:'b
0;>7
I
20\/011$ De RIO
LoQ,c Supp•y Ou1put
Ul)e,OI~
w,, l>e'Si4.1'r)tl,lit;.f KVi,.
í
VOIIOQe
(lf usee)
KVy
KVz
Rll
0--
turning on. When lhe operare voltage beco mes la1gc1 than squar e waves is rhe sarne as that of t he generat ing quantity
the largest restraint voltage, reverse bias is applied to 086 dur ing corresponding half-cycles.
through 038, turning QJ on.
Half-cycle square waves are generated at each zero crossmg For the operare condition shown m Figure 3-36, the íead-
of the respective input quantities. The polarity of the ing opérate input rnakes t he hase of QI posuive bef'ore the
3-J lS
polanzuig input can mak e t he base: vi (..!J posiuve. 1 hu~.~ l lt, however , tne polarizmg in put íeaus rne uper atc UIJJUl
turns on first which turns on Q2. Since QS has not been (Figure 3-37), the base of Q3 beco mes posilive before the
gated, it is in the block state, perrnitting an output through base of QI. Q3 turns on first and then turns on Q4. The
Q2, R8, and the output diodes. When Q2 turns on, 03 is current flowing t hrough Z 1, Q4, R6, and R7 produces a
reverse-biased through 04 from the 20-V supply. This pre- voltage drop a cross R 7. This voltage drop gales thyristor
vents thc flow of base current to turn Q4 as otherwise would QS, causing it to conduct and short the output to negative
occur as the lagging polarizing input becornes positive and As the lagging opera te input beco mes positive, it turns Q I
tur ns on Q3. Since Q4 cannot turn on, a half-cycle of out- and Q2 on, and (since QS is conducting) the current through
put occurs. Similarly , d uring thc negative half-cycle, the Q2 and R8 is shunted to negative. The operate input that
leading opera te input provides an out pul in the olher half remains when the polarizing half-cycle is completad cannot
of the circuit, which connects through its negative half cycle produce an output, because QS continues to conduct. Re-
cliode to the output. covery is determined by the anode-to-cathode current, and
R8 is set to allow sufficient holding current from thc 20-V
supply to maintain QS in a conducting state until the oper-
ate quantity is practically zero.
Polonz,ng Input
::'"Rf >-N_eg:....o_t,_ve----~--------
lf thc vpc::ratt! current reverses and is still larger than the po-
lariúng currcnl, 04 and 02 are forward-biased,
turn through R2 and R I blockecl by D 1.
going up from point A flows backward through 02 ami up
with the re-
Polarizing current
-- • n
lop
H
T~.
l_ .
Operore A
B Outpul
~
Iop
H
it
.__,___, (+)
H
...............
T~.
In Phose Relotoonsh,p lop> !POI. lpoL ¡POI.
--
Iop
•
n u
-- l_.
Operole A Output
B
~
Iop
it H
In Phose Reloroonshíp I POe lop
n
.__,___,
lpoL
(+l
--
~
H
....._........,
IPOL
T~·~
{a) Operation for In-Phase Conditíon of Operate and Polariza Ouantities
-- • H
iQP
lop tt
Operore A Oulpul
B
~
n
H
.__,___,
IPOL
(+) tt
--..........,
¡POI.
!i
••
90° Reloroonshíp Iop> !POI. No1e: Curren1s Showno1(+)from010PT1me
(b) Operation for 90º Cond111on Between Operate and Polarize Ouantities
Figure 3-39: Principie of Operetion of Ring Moduletor Type Phese Angla Comparetor.
With reversed but still smaller-polarizing current , part of lf t he polarizing current is the larger, as in the bottom half
lhe polarizing current would flow up through R 1, around of Figure 3-39a, DI is Iorward-biased lhrough R 1, and 04
lhrough DI (which is forwar d-biased by lhe opérate current) is forward-biased through R2. lf RI equals R2, net output
and back. The other part would flow up through R 1, down from lhe polarlzing curren! is zero. The smaller operate cur-
through D3, and back. Again, t he out pul voltage , - IPOL Rl , rent flows through DI, RI, R2, and back through 04. Net
is reversed,
.> ..!O
u111.:111in1)41i, Iur war d because ol the laigo::1 value v1 pv l l1111c: (J wltete lop Jl;\JIII equuls IPOL• t he polarrztng cui -
lurizing currcnt. 'l'he net output, then, 1s 'or (RI + R2), v1 rent is about to become lhc larger curren! and Iorward-bias
21opRI. 1) 1 and 04. The output changes lo +21opRI and decreasing
When 101' crosses the zcro axis, the output is zero. 11.s the
Rever Mng e IIher l he pu lariling or operat uig curren l wrll re- operating current becomes negative, so does lhe out pul,
verse the output volrage. which reaches a maximum of -210pR.
'I he out pul wilJ not be ¿c1v us long J~ the smaller cuu ent i:, l·urthcr Jnaly~1s shows thut t here is a rnaxirnurn positivo or
a hove a threshold or pick-up value. Wl11.:n the sum of the negative output each time lop = IPOL and altérnate one-
eurrents through a diode is zcro, as through 03 in hgure half -cycle penods ( 4.1 7 m ) of posit ive and negative outputs
3-39a, the output is still 101,R 1. Any tendency of cither rhese out puts are crosshatched in Figure 3-39b. Similar
current to flow in another pal h, because 03 is not conduct- results are obtained if the polarizing quuntity is greater than
ing, will result in one of thc I wo cornponents becorning the operat mg quantity, but with 'or lcading IPOL by 90°.
larger ; t hat is, thc zero condiuon no longer exists.
l·or direcuonal logic applications, thc output of the ring
Figure 3-39b shows the r ing rnodulator operarion when t he modulator is fed into the logic cir cuit shown in Figure 3-40.
opérate current is larger lhan the polarizmg current and Wilh a positive output across R I-R2, transistor Q I turns on,
lcads it by 90º. At time zero, half of IPOL flows up turning Q2 off and charging C2 through R7, R8, and R9.
lhrough R 1, clown through 03, and returns up the lower The tirning circuit is adiusted so that if the positivo output
half of the transformer lo A. The other half Ilows down exists for 4.17 ms, the uni-junction Q3 conducts, turning
lhrough R2, up lhrough 02, and down the upper half of on Q4 first and then QS, to produce an output.
the transforrner to A. The net output is zero as lop is zero,
As 'or increases from zero lo equal IPOL (Point P), I0p I'he discharge lime of C3 through R J 2 and R 13 is adjusted
flows through 02, R2, R 1, and 03, producing an output oí to keep Q4 conduct ing for at least 8.S ms. This provides a
-21opR 1, where R 1, and R2 are equal. When lop equals continuous logic output whenever the ring modulator bridge
lpo L• the current in 02 goes to zero. As lop becomes provides a positive output for 4.1 7 ms or longer. 1 f, in Fig-
largor than lpo L• DI conducts. The negative lpo L ali ure 3-39b, lhc operate current Oop) wave is shifted lo thc
Ilows through R 1; half passes through D 1, and the other righl, representing lead angles of less than 90°, the positive
half continues through 03. t0p Ilows through O I and 03, outpul periods will be grealer than 4.17 ms. (The negative
producing an output of -21POL R 1. output periods will be lcss.)
01 Pos,11.e
RIO
RI kj k4
TI
O:> Ou1pu1
Ope,01e e ~>
R2 RI Rl6
e~
_.~~.-.~+--~_..~--4>--~..-~+--~-e---~~~
Polom,ng @] 'Bo11nd,COIH No,molly ON T,ons,s1or
Convet sely, if t he o pc i a t c cur rcn t sh1tl~ lv t hc kit, r c pr e- 111 uus way , a repéllllVé u ain uf pulses 1s genci atc d as long
senting lead angles of more than 90°, the positive out puts as the input signa) exists. These pulses are transformed
will be less than 4.17 ms. (The negative outputs will be through TI to fire t he thyristor Q4, perrnitt ing cu rrent to
greater.) That is, the ring modulator output will becorne pass through LA, Q4, T2 pr irnary, LB, and Z4 and to trip
negative before Q3 reaches its firing point. This negative the circuit breaker. The time delay of this circuit is approxi-
output will turn off Ql and turn on Q2, blocking Q3. mately I ms. TI has two secondaries, t he second of which
is connccted lo a similar Q4 cir cuitry for double trip.
Further analysis for cases where t he v peratuig curreru lags
the polarízing curren t prod uces si rnilar fin dings, Thus, t he Lxcept Ioi t he t r ansforrner T2, the devices assocíated with
coincidenl-time phase angle cornparator pro vides a continu- Q4 pr ovide security. Zener ZI clips high voltage transients
ous output when the operute and polarizing currents are on the battery leads to one-third of Q4 rat ing. This voltage
±90° or ícss, the watt characteristic for a clirectional unit clipping prevents false operation of Q4 fro m surges and over-
voltage. The two-winding reactor LA-LB suppresses any
V.B. Amplification Units transients that could be transrnittcd t hrough the interwind-
ing capacitance ofTI or between the trip circuir and ot her
V.8.1. Breaker Trip Coil lnitiator lcgic circuit wiring (Sec Chapter 4 and Figure 4-l 2). Zcner
Z4 prevents shock ex citation from setting up high freque ncy
The breake, trip ccü initrator crrcurt bot.h pt o vnles po wei oscillation. which might reverse the current through Q4 and
(amplification) tor a trip coil a nd isolutes t he control cir- return it to a hlocking statc.
cuitry from lhe tripping cnergy source (t hc station battcry J
A typical circuir is shown in Figure 3-41. l'a¡rn.;1lo1 l'J ,s 111,tially chargecl through R9 and Z3 whcn
tlte breaker or switch is closed, bypassing T2 to avoid a false
,,,~ í:jo1111, y 111dication. When Q4 fires, ('3 dischargcs through Q4, Z2,
and R8. This discharge provides a holding currcnl for Q4 fo1
ahout I ms long cnough for thc currcnl I hrough lhe induc-
Pos,1,ve tivc lrip coil lt> reach thc re4uired holding currcnl for Q4.
T
lnpv1 R5
C2 I w0 ly¡.,c~ 0l -.:1rcu1tsare uscd Lv p1ov1dt: light iltHI alar111111-
tlications: onc is for circuil breakcr trip opcrations and Lhe
1 oth.::r is for general use.
Ne9011ve "fi1pCu11c11l
To Dupncore Cvcuus fo,
lnd,co101
Second Trip Circvn A typ1cal breaker trip indicator and alurm kigtL 1s sl1uwn in
Figure 3-42. Transformer T2 is in thc lrip circu1l, as in Fig-
ure 3-41. The transformer core uses a square hysten:sis loop
material to produce a very small excit111g cuirent and negh-
gible inductive rcactance when saturated. When lrip current
f'lows (,1ftcr Q4 fircs), thc circuil of R 1. l' 1, R2, and R3
Figure 3·41: 8r&ak.,r Tnp Co,i trunauon C1rcú1t strelches a 2-rns pulse at the secondary of T2 into 6 ms at
20 V at the output of Q2. Thc input signal turns on buth
QI turns on when the input voltage from the Iault-sc nsmg QI anct Q2 to charge capacilor C2. When lite voilage builds
and data processin g circuit exceeds 2 V. Q I t hen turns on up to the "intrinsic stancloff ratio" of the uni-junction tran-
Q2, allo wing C2 to charge through R6. When the voltage sistor (Yp of Figure 3-15), Q3 fircs and gates Q4, energizing
across C2 reaches thc "Iir ing voltage" of the uni-junction the indicating light. The conduction of Q4 also gales Q5
transistor Q3, the capacitor energy discharges through T l. through R l O from the drop a cross R l l. QS energizes t he
This discharge reduces t he voltage across the ca pacitor , turu- alarm relay. Even if the indicating light circuit is open, QS
ing Q3 off until the charge on C2 builds up again. will still be gated.
3·22
Trip
20\/o •s De Su¡,ply
Alo,m
R8 fie1oy
04
03
T2 RI R2 C4
C2
R9
C3 R10
01 Cl R3
su
lnd,ro,o, ¡,.,.,
B•eoke,
Tr1pC01I
lhc general mdicator circuu rs shown III Figure 3·43 1 he V .C.2. Coordinating and Loop Logic Timers
nor mal condition is a ( 1) input, which makes QI conduct ing.
For in dicat ion, thc (1) is removed, tui ning Ql off. I'hcn Cl lrxcd-ume dclay t imcrs are used cxtensivcly in logic cir-
chargcs t hrough R3 and R7. Whcn thc voltage across CI l ut ry A typical circuir of t his typc rs shown in Figure 3-44.
rcaches thc trrmg point of Q~. Q2 is turned on, gallng Q4 Wit h an in put , Ql is normally conducting and shorts CI
and Q:i to energizo the indicating light and alarm reluy. t lu ough R4. Rcrnoving thc input turns Ql off, and perrnits
C'I to charge t hrough IU and R4. When t he voltugc across
('I reaches t he Zener voltage of ZI plus thc potcntial hill of
20Vohs Oc Supply
DI and Q2, hase currcnt wilt flow, turning on Q2. Turning
Q2 on rcrnoves voltage from lhe output. Thc f'ixcd time in·
R3 R8
tcrval is bctwecn rcrnoval of input to removal of out pul. Al·
01
t hough normally u sed for short dela ys, judicious sclcction
02 of values for R3, R4. C'I, anti 21 providcs a wulc rango of
R7
Rl C4 available time dclays. Similar circuit ry can prevido a dclay
@]
Cl R9
bet wecn an O input andan O out put , or othcr variat ions.
lnpul
C3 RlO
Also, urncrs can be malle adjustable hy rnaking clerncnts
R2
Rll
such as R3 adjustable.
lnd,co10, Bus
Ne,;¡ot,ve @], Box lnd.::o•cs Normal !y 0111 r,ons,s10<
20vo,1s Oc Log,c Supply
Figure 3.43 lndicator and Alerm Circu,t
RG
R3
V.C.3 Toggíe or Latchrug C1C1.a111:. l· 1gu11: J-4 ()a ,~" )}' 111 boüc 1 eprcsentat ion o t d 11u1111at 111¡.,
t'lo p. A rnodif'icat ion to thc normal flip flop is to descnsi-
Toggle or lat chrng circuits, kno wn ,1~ .. thµ 1l0p~,· .í r c ur- tize it by holding Q2 in a saturated condition. When satu-
stable units similar to a latched-in or toggle-t y pe I e lay. A11 rated , Q2 keeps conduct ing e ven when Q I turns on. This
opérate signa! will make the unit chunge state ; re movul uf prcvcnts a spurious set signa! from producing a set outpur.
the signa) will lcave thc unit in thc ncw statc, A rno mcn- I'he rnodificd f'lip Ilop must [irst be "armed" by introduc-
tary reset signa! will restore the unit to us origrnal stute, rng an input "arrn" signal (Figure 3-46b). Thrs signal re·
Norrnally, a momentary opérate signal will change thc out- uioves the desensit iz ing bias Irorn Q2 and allows it to turn
put from (O) to ( 1) anda momentary rcset signa! will chunge off whcn t he normal set input signa! is apphcd.
the out pul from ( 1) back to (0). The typical circuir sho wn
in Figure 3-45 is simplificd to aid in the cxplanation uf its
operatíon.
A,mB-
Set F·F --..¡¡.
Reset
R3 kb ~1!1 U !,el ·Ú
C1eor =1
~d1 Uul~ul
Closing lhe set input switch SI mo meutar ity i evet ses tl11::. Output anJ tn pul l)Oldtu,:. separate and ele1-u 1cally 1:.olal~
contlition. Voltage divider R l ·R2, provides base drive lo J,.; eircuits between logic units. Used on the input and Olll·
turn Ql on. The base drive for Q2 is then shunted t hrough put of each separately packagcd relay, buffers protcct the
QI to negatíve and Q2 is turned off. When SI is opened, Q I logic circuit from transicnts and surges on intcrconnc,.;ting
will remain on, through voltage divider R2-R4-R6. Q2 will lcuds ttnd circuitry. Both isolator and buffer circuits prolcct
remain off, since R5·R8 ties Q2's base to negativo. I'hus, solid-state relays agamst undesirable operation on spurious
with QJ on and Q2 off, t here is a sel output but no olear signa Is.
output.
V.C.4.a. lnpuc lsola1.ur
When a momentary signal is apphed to t he reset 111pu1, volt
age divider R7-R8, provides base drive lo turn Q2 on again. A typ1..:al lllput 1s0lat0r cu..:u1t IS shown m Figur,:: 3-47 A
Thís tics the base of QI to negative, turning it off. Q2 then 20-V input to the pulsing circuit of R l-R3-C 1-02 chargcs
remains on, even af'ter the reset signal is removed. The unit the capacitor CJ. When the capacitor voltage rcaches the
is now back to its reset or normal state. hreakdown voltage of the four-layer diode, 02, a pulse is
.l-i4
zovcns Oc Supply
R7 C3
C,l
02
R6
Ol
R8 Oulpul
R5
Nego1111e
20VOlts Oc Supply
02
1-<I
01
R5 Zl Ou1pu1
01
1npu1 R2
C2 R8
Nego11ve 06
transmilled through r 1. I'he d ischarge of Cl turns L>2 ott hgun: 3 . .:¡ 1 I'he oui put rsulator circuir differs in that a
until the voltage across CI builds u p again. Thus a series ol [our-layer diode (DI), rather than a uni-junction transistor,
pulses continues as long as the input signa! cxists. Zener ZI provides a pulse chain through TI. An input voltage turns
provides surge-protection clipping al 20 V. on Q l and Q2, charging C2. The voltage across C2 triggers
D 1, as described above. The pulses-rectified and filtered
The pulses are rectified and accurnulated on C2. C2-R4-R5 are applied to the base of Q3, tuming it on and pr oducing
provide a steady de input to Q 1 until the input is removed. an output , Zener Z I provides surge-protecticn clipping ar
Q 1 conducts, turning Q2 on and provides a 20-V output. 20 V.
voltage on CL builds up ro around 5 tu 7 V, cur reru t lows V.C.5. Po wer Supply and Regularor Cir cuits
through Z2, Dl,and R4. QJ then turnson, which produces
an output. RS is required when the output drives a PNP Since normal station battery voltages and solid-state devrces
stage but omitted for a NPN stage. For interna! logic cír- are not compatible, it is necessary to drop the common
cuitry, Ql can be tumed on by the unbuffered input. 125-V or 250-V supply to 20 Y for use in the logic circuits.
Two circuits for regulating this voltage reduction are shown
~ l + l 20Volts Oc LogoeS..ppty
in Figure 3-5 1 .
R6
l.>nti.ke,ed Input
Posmve
T~ Output
$1011<>11
Rl
1-i ) .:<) vous oc ~pr, y
Bottery
j
Input Zl R3 CI R4
J_~~~--~~--~_.__...~- Volloge
1
LI et v, OOÚ
( - ) Nego11ve
:'llt!(JOIIV't:
Figure 3.49 Input Buffer C1rcu11
the collcctor current equals the load curren l. C I provides Where d-c isolation is required between circuits, t he d-c to
noise suppression and filtering. DI protects Q I against re- d-c power supply or converter is used. Closing the input
verse voltage, and ZI provides overvoltage transient protec- switch (Figure 3-53) turns on Q2 through positive supply,
tion. R2, Q2 to negative. This pulses the lower winding N 1 of T 1.
The N2 winding provides feedback to keep Q2 o perated and
The switching power supply (Figure 3-52) provides high ef- Ql off. The transformer TI has a square wave hysteresis
Iiciency and relative insensitivity to input voltage. Transistor characteristic. When it saturates N2 feedback is removed
Ql is uscd as a switch, either off or full on. When the volt- and Q2 turns off. CJ then discharges to turn Ql on and
age cornparator swit ches Q I on, dio de D 1 is reversed biased pulse the upper NI winding. Saturation in the opposite di-
and Yin is applied to inductor Ll. The curren( through Ll rection rcverses this process. The alternate positive and neg-
di (Yin-Ve¡) . ative pulses at N3 are rectified and filtered through C6 for
increases at the rate - = . to charge capacitor CI.
dt Ll the d-c output. The input-output can be l 25V - l 25Y,
When the output voltage V CI reaches a predetermined value, l 25Y - 48V, 48V - 48V with different circuit values.
the voltage cornparator turns transistor Q l off. At this
point the current continues to ílow through inductor LI,
VI. INTEGRATED CIRCUJTS
forwarding biasing diode O 1. When the current in L1 faJJs
below load current, capacitor C 1 starts discharging, decreas-
The trend in solid state relaying is toward the use of linear
ing the output voltage VCl until it falls below the predeter-
and digital integrated circuits to re place discrete transistor
mined leve! set by the voltage comparator, and Q 1 is again
circuits described above. A preview of the linear integrated
turned on and the cycle is repeated. The circuit is designed
circuil operatíonal a mplifier and its applícation to basic re-
so that Q I switches at the rate of about 22kHz to 25kHz to
lay units follows:
keep the ripple relatively small and the capacitor C I rela-
tively fully charged.
VI.A. Operational Amplifier
u
Figure 3-54 shows the equivalent circuit of a basic opera-
V+
Outpul
tional amplificr. The triangle symbol is used for this device.
Input
Vollage Vo1toge Volloge The supply voltages ± Ycc (generally ± 15 V de) wit h a com-
Compcrotoe 01 CI Rl mon of zero volts are not shown. The input terminals are a
ond Dnver
and b: bis the non-inverting input since a positive voltage
produces a positive output. A positive voltage on a, the in-
Negallve Negahve
verting terminal will yield a negative output.
Figure 3-52: Switching Power Supply.
The output e0 is amplified by the open loop gain A so that
FS T1
(3-7)
6
4
C4
ein + en - eref
1. (3-8)
1Il
Figure 3-53: De to de Power Supply or Converter zin
3-27
t:11-= t:n:f - ( Z
l¡
+ Z,
)
"in -
(
Z
z...+ z. ) eu l3-l l J
f 111 f m
o +
Substitutiug cquation (3-7) and solving for e0.
o
J (
+
e + c.Ul = e , - Z1· ) e. t3-I l.J
A z.m + zf ret zf + Z,m
u~ l m
1
Common As~u111U1g A is very large, - approaches O,and much less t hau
A
zin Thus
'1>Solove Sotu,011on
Z¡n + Zr
A
(3-13)
Nego11veSoturotion
I íus equauon (3-J 3) is the general operational amplifier
Typocol f\iromeiers tr ype 741 l equat ion with negative feedback.
lnpu1 Res,s1once=R¡ , 20 Meg Onms
-
Z,n o amplifier for use in relay circuits, These are described with-
+ en out the additional components required for accuracy, stabil-
'on R,~
e;n + + ity or compensation.
b
l
+
e,ef
t
Common V l. B. l. Ln ver tiug Amphfiers
Figure 3-55: An Operational Amplifier With Negativa Feedback. The inver Li.ng amphfier of Figure 3-56 is tite circuit of Fig-
urc 3-5 5 with terminal b connected directly to common (O
volts). Frorn equalion 3-13
lf Zr is much smaller than R1, the input resistance, the us-
sumption is that no current flows in the a or b terminals, su
that t3-l 4)
(3-Y)
t3-l0J
1
3 28
ll resistors are used as sho wu 111 Frgur e J-56, rhe out put e Vl.8. 3. Adders
-
'f
R¡ Common
Vl.8.4. Subtractors
R;n
The baste cir cuit is shown in Figure 3-59. The voltage at
Common the plus terminal of the operational amplifier will be
(a) Non-lnverting Amplifier Rf
e¡,, o-...:b'---1
(3-1 7)
Common
(bl VoltageFollower
e 0 =- -1 -fe·
R-m C 10dt l3-J 9)
Figure 3-61: A Differenlia1or and High Pass Filler Unil.
This circuit is a simple 10\, pass fiiter. Considering mag- Vl.8.7. Phase Shift UnHs
nitudes only Zr=-1- so that equation 3-14 becornes A variet y of phase shift unit s are obtaiue d usiug capacitor
2rrfC
and variable resistor cornbinations. These are illustrated in
Figure 3-62. A phase angle range of 90° to 180º is obtained
1
le 1 = - le. i with Zr adjustable frorn oº to -90° ( Figure 3-62a), 180° to
o 21rfCRit1 in
270° with Zin adjustable from oº to -90° (Figure 3-62b).
Thus as frequency increases, t ne magnitude of e0 decreases, lnverting operational amplifiers are used in both these cir-
cuit s.
e
-+11
"•• 0---C:::>-----i
e0' Ke,n ¡ 90 Te 180º
>----0.,.,
ª'
R¡
w1ith magnitudes
· from equat ion 3-14 where Z
, in
= -- 1
2rrfC
and Zr = Rr. Thus,
º'
ConYTlOn
This is a simple high pass Iilrer, as ÍI.: decreases, ie) decreases Figure 3-62. Phase Shift Uni1s.
3·30
Non-inverung a mplrfrers wuh t he RC networ k connected as Hysteresis 1:, obtained with posiuve (eedback through re-
a voltage divider (Figures 3-62c & d) provide a phase angle sistor R3 Figure 3-63b. With e0 large, eref is determined by
range of oº to +90º or Oº to -90° depending on the posi- the voltage divider R2 and Rl in parallel with R3. This
tion of R and C. voltage is higher than with just R 1 and R2. e0 approaches
zero when ein exceeds the eref· This causes eref to be low-
ered to a potential determined by the divider relationship
Vl.8.8. Leve! Detectors
of R I and R2 in parallel with R3. Thus the voltage at which
e0 switches from high to low is greater than the voltage
Figure 3-63a shows a level detector using t he operatronal
when it switches from low to high. This is illustrated in the
arnplifier in the díff'erential mode. Frorn equation 3-7
example in the lower half of Figure 3-63b.
(3-24)
VI.8.9. Active Filters
und
A ty pical active filler unit is shown in Figure 3-64. l ligh
''Q" circuits, diffcrent gains and resonant frequcncies are
t3-25)
easy to obtain. lnductance is not used in these circuits. The
filtcrs can be cascaded and are unaffected by loading.
As illustrated in Figure 3·54, .i change m level of ein (e3)
slightly above or below eref (eb) will cause tite amplífier lo
go into cilher negat ive or positive saturations respectively.
With eref formed by lhe R 1 - R2 voltage divider , e0 be·
comes low with ein above eref• and high when ein is lcss
lhan ernf·
+ Vcc + Vcc
RI Rl
R2 R3
R2 Vl.C. Relay Applications of Operation Amplifier
Com\Ol Com(Ol
Three protective relay applications illustrate the use of the
Exomple: Exompte: basic operational amplifier units describe d. Thc relaying in-
Rl = 5K, R2, lOK,Vcc= 15V Rl=R2=R3=10K,Vcc' 15V
puts from current and voltage transformers are converted to
e,ef' IOV e ,ef' lOV, When e0, l5V
ere!' 5V When e0 =O low leve! signals by shunts or auxiliary transformers.
Figure 3-63: Level Detector Units. with a gain of -K =!.!... The amplified signa! -Ki is rectified
R4
3-31
Variable Brrdge vultagc lulluw..:r w n h 1b out put negatrve ami Iollo wuig me
Gaon Ful! Wove 1n1eg,aro, Level
Amphfier OA.-3
üeiecror (+) terminal input. When OA2 output goes positive , the
OA·5
OA-2 and0A·4 OA-6
output of OA3 goes negative and applies a negative input
(a) Block D1agram to the (+) terminal of OA4 through DI. With RS equal to
H.<, 0A3 is a unity gain in verter wilh the input to OA4 neg-
utive when the OA3 input is positivo.
o
Rl VI.C.2. The SCO lnverse Time Overcurrent Reluy
'the logre diagr a rn of the SCQ sohd suue inverse tune over-
current relay is shown in Figure 3-66. RC approximation
and digital time mulliplication is used to provide inverse
time characteristícs equivalenl to t he electrornechanical CO
Coomon (Ol
(b) S1mphf,ed Schema11c reluys.
,..._...._ 1 - The d1., po wer supply requrrements are obtained from the
0-----
u.)J in pul current through the current-to-voltage transformer T
S,ne Wove F11!ered llmp1,t,e<1 Rect,fieó
Sine Wo"1! S111e Y.bve
, meqrcteo U,1y1<.: This ref'erence voltage output switches on the information
s,newcve Rectif,ed Oulpur
S,ne Wove \Oorll winding of T for overcurrent detection. The current infor-
le) Wave Traces \Filtered)
mation is first processed by an acto de conversion circuir
Figure 3-65: An Instanraneous Overcorrent U,111 whose output is then introduced lo a multi-branch RC net-
work. Each RC branch contains a first order RC circuit
by0A3 and 0A4. When the signa! Irom OA2 is uegauve , 0A3 with a time constant different from the other branches. The
forces its output positive while the input to the ( +) terminal outputs of these RC branches are properly weighted to ap-
of 0A4 will be negative through R7. This back biases diode prox imate a desired current-tirne curve. By changing t hese
DI to disconnect the OA3 output to OA4. OA4 acts as a RC networks by rneans of a plug-in module, any of the 7
8,nory
Cornco,aro, Counie, r, "º"'""'
char acter ist ic ..;urvc l,1111ú1c:. \Le. urve rse , ver y 111,c1:,", et..,,)
can be generated. The weighted RC output is then corn-
pared with the reference leve), which, if it exceeds, causes a
pulse signa] to be generated from the one-shot. This signa!
is used to advance the binary counter and to reset the RC
network. This operation repeats until the counter reaches
a certain predelermined count. An output signa] is then ap-
plied lo the decimal decoders where a time-dial coun t takes
place. This Ieeds the ANO circuit through an O R to the
30K
trip output. The instantaneous lrip unit is a non-hysterises
R t•oR
operational arnplifier (Figure 3-63a) level detector. lt op- Common
era tes through the O R unit lo provide a lrip out pul.
Figure 3-67: A Operational Amplifier Negativo Sequence Network
12=l(Ia+a21b~dl J tl-3.l)
3 c
With phase shift units (Figure 3-t>2), lt, 1:. shiueu 240° aud
le, 120°. With adder units, t he final output is
.¡
lowing t he sa me technique.
¡
These basic units are used in phase comparison prlot syst eru»
A typical circuit is shown in Figure 3-68. The outputs pro-
-º ---A=A--
vide square waves at a low leve) tor keying l u a remete ter-
minal, and ata high leve) for local cornparison. r 6~C:
The top circuit (X) has an adjustuble
anda leve) detector.
non-inverung
lf the sine wave at A is of sufficient
a mplu rer
z I' .n C+J4d--
magnitude to cx cecd the level detector setung (R4 anti RSJ,
b 1. CJ o
the leve) detector output switches lo "O" during the posit ive
half cycle as shown in the wave traces. PI determines t he
Ovtix,, ó -----
magnitude at which the output switches. At low currents bi vv.,ve T, sces
the output remains "I" whilc al high currerus, the out put
is a square wave. Figure 3-68: A Threshold Squarer and Square Wave Detector.
3.33
The middle cucuit Y is similar to X e x ce pt t hat <111 invert ing curr whose out put IS IJ. Resistor Rl l shoulJ be greate r t huu
arnplifier is used, to provide a positive output from a nega- Rl O so that the capacitor (C) díscharge rate is less than the
tive input current. At high currents the level detector charge rate. With no square wave (i.e. no current), than ca-
switches from "I " ro "O" during the negative half cycle in- pacitor C will remain fully charged causing the leve! detec-
put. tor following it to remain switched in the low state. How-
ever, if a square wave exists, then the zero transitions slow
The lower circuir (Z) generares a syuunerncal square wa ve capacitor C to discharge below the leve! detector threshold,
al low currents. Al no current it has a "l '' output. The cir- causing output D to become '' 1 ". When the square wave be·
cuit is similar to the X circuit. P3 is much larger than R3 comes" l " during the opposite half cycle the charge rate of
and R8 much larger than R9 to provide a hígh gain and a ( R 1 1) (C) is high enough to prevent further switching of the
low leve! detector switching voltage. Square wave detection leve! detector providing a square wave exists.
is accomplished with the operational amplifier timing cir-
4-1
Chaptei 4 L lNTRUUUCTlON
"In this book, the two terrns are considered syno nyruous and will be
used interchangeably. In sorne references, however, transients refer
to those phenomena related to lumped systern pararneters: surges
refer to those phenomena related to distríbuted parameters .
tv-.sy Leod
Gtound
No,sy t.eod
Ct.-1
Figure 4-3: Electromagnet lnduction.
a) Baste Schemanc
--1
R¡_
Forse
S,gnOl
:::,O
--
G,ound
bl A.,d, rangemeniot The Baste Circuu of al
Figure 4-2: Equ,valent Circuit for Electrostatic lnduction Without Figuro 4-4: Transposing The Signal Circuit to Minimizo
Common Ground Return. Electromagnet lnduction.
Surges can be classrfied into two rnodes: differential (also Differenrial-rnode surges are more líkely to produce rnisop-
known as normal or transverse) and common (also known erat ion of equiprnent , while comrnon-rnode surges are more
as longitudinal). likely to produce dielectric failure. ( ote also t hat purely
4.3
common-mode surges, when upphe-J cv un balance d cu cuus, rupt ron canuor suppor t t he t e cover y voltage , a rest rtke v.:-
will produce a differential-rnode component and vice versa.) curs and current flows again. (The recovery voltage is
V C - V 8.) The rnost un favorable instant of restriking is
shown in Figure 4-6. With continuity reestablished, V C
11. TRANSlENTS ORIGlNATlNG IN THE HJGH equals V 8. In the process of equalization, considerable
VOLTAGE SYSTEM overshoot occurs, and both V8 and Ve approach three
times normal line-ro-neutral peak voltage. The current flo w,
11.A. Capacitor Switchiug irnrnediately following the restrike, is also very high. The
curren t oscillates at the natural frequency of the circuit ami
Primary circuir transients are Irequeurly generat.eu by .;ap,11.,· decays with time, as governed by the circuit time constan t.
itor switching and are substantially more severe when ínter-
ruption is accornpanied by restriking.
11.A.2. Back-to-Back Capacitor Swnchíng
JI.A.1. Single-Bank Capacitor Switchiug
Back-to-back capacitor switching consists ot che energiza-
Figure 4-5 demonstrates what happens when a capacitor tion of one bank of capacitors with an adjacent and preví-
bank is energízed by closing a switch. A high Irequency , ously energized bank. Back-to-back capacitar switching is
high magnitude current , 1, flows. The capacitance of t he
much like energization of a single bank , except that the ef-
bus and the connected apparatus cause the same phenome- fective inductance is generally very much lower. The capac-
non to occur when a bus section is energized. Unless pre· itance, on the other hand, is only somewhat lower , sin ce it
cautions are taken to avoid transients, such switching can is the series cornbination of the bank capacitance and the
cause 5-to-6-k V peaks in secondary circuits. capacitance of the unit or uníts energized before the switch
was closed, For these reasons, the magnitude and frequency
Figure 4-6 illustrates what happens if restriking occurs when of the curren! are generally much higher for back-to-back
a capacitive current is interrupted. energization than for single-bank energization.
At the instant of interruption (current zero), tu!J volt age, ll.B. Bus De-energizarion
Ve• is trapped on the capacitor bank. This voltage cannot
change unless Iurther current flows. The source voltage, Bus J1opp111g 1~ similar to capacitor bank de-energizuuun, e>.·
VB, however, continues to vary sinusoidally. lf the in ter- cept the capacitance, C, is very much srnaller. Current mag-
Source Soorce
S·.v1tcn Sw,rch
1~~ 1].,.
T Ve
vj
·- ,_
Many other swuching-type operauons g.:n.::rate transients: l::.nerg1zmg a c1rcutt that ts capacitively coupled to adJat:ent
unequal-pole-closing of a circuit breaker, fault occurrence , or ncarby circuits can produce a transient in the latter cir-
4-5
cuits (Figure 4-9). When switch l is closed, V R appears as a 111.C. Current Transformer Saturation
false signa! across the effective resistance of the adjacent cir-
cuit. Initially, full battery voltage appears across the coupled Current transformer saturation, which may produce very
circuit. This voltage then decays e xponentially, in accord- high secondary voltage, is caused by high prirna ry current,
anee with the RC time constan t. poor current transformer quality, or excessive burden. The
surge repcats during each transition from saturation in one
direction to saturation in the other. The voltage appearing
l
at the secondary consists of high magnitude (possibly sev-
1.....-ConfOCI eral kV) spikes with altemating polarity that persist for a
;1 Open o• r0 few milliseconds every half-cycle.
+
RelOy Co I
V L (lnduc11ve
Ctrcu,1) 111.D. Grounding of Direct Current
l\cc1den101
Ground
ILI-------
t Bo••ery -=- V 1
·-
o~-----_._ ...... _ 1
1
1
To ;};CN
1
1
1
1
Figure 4-8: Transients Produced by lnterruption of an lnduction
Circuit.
lw
Negotive Ground above Clases
al aasic Circurt Thls Sw,tch 10 O,scharge
Cr / Capac,tor lhruTrtpCait
r ~
V Pos,r,ve
L(----/-i52a
Open r.; 1
Copocmve Couphng
8etween C,rcu,ts
b) Eqwvalent Circuu
¡C
Figure 4- 1 O: Accidental Ground on Battery Positive.
V Negotove
IV. PROTECTIVE MEASURES
IV.A. Separation
Jep
1
i., r,ans,enl
lk
1
1 Cr
H-i'I 1
--!t-11,
Tn)r,~tur Oc:; "'
LA
,\
1
1
1
520 1
:4:c,, 1
1 r, ,.....' lv.vW,nding
~-----·l
1
1 1 Reoc10r
I
I
i.>,ound o~Ckl~n I
This Switch10 Orschol(Jt
r-r:':=r4~
a¡ Basic Circuu Copocroes lhru Tnp CQ.1
r
Nore
More Üt:IUI :,rtv'f,fº
,n Fr(JU,e 3·41 lo h1p Cucuil
bJ Equivalen! C,rcu11
;f::i5úp:=
Common MO<le VOlroge
Figuro 4-11: Accidental Ground on Trip Lead.
IOIT cont act manually tnps b11::dk..:1 A, che vvltagc 111uu ... .:L1 ljappcJ capacrtors wilí both isolate the capacitan ..e t1v11,
in TC-2 by the interruption of current 11ow in TC-1 ( caused the de and still function for surge suppression. When a
by 52a-l opening) cannol cause the auxiliary relay lo pick surge voltage in excess of the gap breakdown leve! is ap-
up undesirably. either the late opening of 52a-2 nor the plied, the capacitor is able to perform its limiting functiou.
presence of current path I will have any effect. Zener Z 1
will allow forward voltage of only approxima te! y O. 7 V,
lV.D. Suppression by Shielding
which is ínsufficient lo opera te the auxiliary relay. This
scherne prevents undesirable tripping of breaker B.
A signal lead shielded with one or more grounds will have
lncreased capacitance to ground, Ce, (Figure 4-1). For
Portlal Schemat,c high Rs and RL valúes, this increase m capacitance to
I
IIOIT Au11tary RelayTrrp from the presence of an adjacent noisy lead. lf a shield
were used in Figure 4-2, it would surround the signa) lcad
and the comrnon negative and would be grounded in one or
520
more locations, This arrangernent tends to force CM¡ /Ce I
52 to equal CM2/Cc2, and any capacitively induccd signal volt-
TCI age across RL to be tero.
Circuits routed into the switchyard from the control house Surges can also be endured by raising the threshold voltage
should not be looped from one piece of switchyard appara- or energy leve! at which operation occurs, The equivalent
tus to another with the return conductor in another cable. circuits of Figures 4-10 and 4-11 show that half-maxirnurn
Rather, ali supply and return conductors should be in a battery voltage, applied through the appropriate capaci·
common cable. This arrangement avoids the large EMI tance, must not be allowed to trip the breaker or opérate
(electrornagnetic induction) associated with the Jarge flux any other devices. An auxiliary relay designed to pick up
loop that would otherwise be produced. at 71 V, or more will not respond to a single ground on a de
circuit with a máximum operating voltage of 140 V, regard-
JV.G. Buffers less of the magnitude of the capacitances on the systern.
(Note that the higher voltage design will not solve the prob-
Another effective method of delaying and desensít izing a lem shown in Figure 4-9: the higher euergy lcvcl rcstriction
circuit is to use a buffer (Figure 4-15 and Figure 3-49). will.)
Without energízing the transistor or damaging any element,
this buffer can accommodate a test source operating at I to
1.5 Mllz with a 150-ohm source impedance directly across ,20
the input (differential mode) anda 2500-V (open circuit)
first peak, which decays to 1250 V in 6 or more micro-
seconds. The buffer can also withstand a sustained 7-Vdc - - - --·------,
input, ora high de input voltage of sufficient duration to 22
R1 47K 68V O,
produce a minimum 4000 microsecond-volt product (for -< Normolly
Off
exarnple, 20 V for 200 µs). I~ R1
1 20V 47K 047 82K 101<.
¡ 48V 47K 20V C1 µ.f Rl R4
Buffering low-energy-level circuits greatly decreases the sus- I 125V 47K
-<+-+~~~~~--~~~--~_..---~~~--1-- ......-
ceptibility of static relays to surge damage or malfunction L. Buffer ..J
and, in general, eliminares thc need for shielding circuits in- Figure 4-16: A Standard Input Buffer Círcuit for Solid State
side a relaying panel. Retays.
5-1
A. Equivalcnt Circuir ol
,t Voltagc l i anstor mer
B. Couphng Capacitan ce Voltage Transforrners 11. CURRl:.NT rRANSfORMERS
C. Neutral "Inversion"
J he mejor entena tor select ing a current tra nsfoi mer 111uu
,m.: the continuous curren! ratings of ihe conncctcd equip-
mcnt (relays, auxiliary curren! t ransformcrs, instrurncnts,
et c.] and of the secondary winding of the current trans-
rorrncr itsclf. In practicc, with load current norrnally flow-
ing t hrough thc phase relays or dcvices, thc ratio is selected
so that the sccondary out put is around 5 Amp at maximum
primary load current , Where delta-connectcd current trans-
formcrs are used , the -./3 factor must be included.
f-01 large-rnagnuude., ..:lo:.1.·111 laull:., Lh.: curr ent t1a11:.lur111c:1 V ... ,1 by ~uu dllJ 1:. tne pruue :.uur ..e vi error. NuL.: rnat che
may so/unte; however, the nJJgnitude of Iault current is 111:t effect of le is to cause IL to leed snd to be smsllet thsn
not usualty critica! to the relay. For exarnple, an induc- rhe perfectly Lransformed current 111/ n.
tion ovércurrent relay may be operating on the flat part ot
the curve for a large-magnitude, close-in fault. Here it is Any síurple equivalent diagrarn for a current transforrner is,
relatrvely unimportant whether the current transformer at best, crude, Exciting curren! is accompanied by har-
current is accurate, since the tumng is essentially identical, rnonics which, in turn, produce harrnoruc relay currents.
The sarne is true for instantaneous or dlstance-type relaying An analysis for application purposes is usually made on the
Ior a neavy interna\ fau\t we\\ inside the cut-<:>ff or balance basis of sinusoidal fundamental quantities. While this ap-
poinl. In ali cases, however, the current transformer should proach is highly simplified, the equivalen! diagram is an ex-
pro vide sufficient current to opera te the rclay positively. cellent too! for picturing the phenomenon and estirnating
thc approximate performance to be cxpected.
11.A. Equivalent Círcuit
11.8. Estimatlon of Current Transformer Performance
An appro xirnat e equrvalent cireurr 101 a current tra nstormer
is shown in Figure 5-1. Current is stepped down in mag- A cun ent transforrner's performance is measurcd by its
nitude through the perfect (no-loss) transformation pro- ability to reproduce rhe primary current in terms of the
vided by windings ab and cd. The primary leakage irnped- secondary; in particular, by the highest secondary voltage
anee (ZH) is modified by n2 to refer it to the secondary. the transformer can produce without saturation and, con-
The secondary impedance is ZL; Rm and Xm represent the sequently , large errors. Current transformer performance
core loss and exciting cornponents. can be estimated by:
a. formula
b)
(5-1)
Figure 6-1: The Equivalent Circuit and Phaaor Oiagr1m of e I L = the maximum sccondary current, Amp
Current Tran,former. (symmetrical)"
ll.8.1. Formula Mcthod ·11ic1<.:1v1..:. t h c ... u11c11l transfoi mer sho uld ha ve u o n t nat
where f: freq LICJH;y 111 1 Jl :, L)pt<.:,11 e x cu auon curve Ior a ..:u11e11l n ausf or ruer 1:,
shown 111 ligure 5-2. Thcse data rcprese nt rrns currcrus oh·
A= the cross-sect iona! .11..:.i ul ure 11011 .;u1.: lamed by upplying rms voltuge tu t he cun ent u a nsforrner
')
in- scco ndar y , wrt h the primar y open circuitcd , 'I'he eurve
gives the approxiruate excit ing current requirernents for a
N =numbe: ut t urns given secondary voltage.
is 2.0 ohms. Will this current transforme: saturare? 200 !:> 40 1 12!:> 1 • Above 1 ne Ltn~ l lh.' VOltr1Ut: tu, d G,vuu
250 5 ~o 1 146 Excrunq Current W,11 No1 bt• lll,~ Tnan
300 5 60 1 168 95'}0 oí The Curve V11lut'
400 5 80 1 211
lf lhe curren! transtornrer Jocs 1101 sat urat e , t he ~et:<1mlar:r 450 5 90 1 230 2) Below The Lmc Th;, Exc11u,\J <.:ui ""'' ,.,,
current , 15, would be 40,000 divided hy 400, or 100 Arnp, :,00!:> 100 1 242 u Givcn Vo11a~1e w,H Not Exceed Th,•
6005 120 l 296 Curve Value by More Tnan 2!:>%
since N equals 400. Thus, t he current t ransforuier should
Figure 5 2. E1otdt10n Curv"~ for a Multiratio Bllshing Currem
be able to produce a secondar y volt age , V~· of 1 OOl 2 .O + Transformer With an ANSI Accuracy Classification
0.31), or 231 Volts. Equat ion (5-2), solved for Pmax• wrll of C100.
N = 20 turns
= 6 >-. 1.6
IL = 3 Amp
= 9.6 V
Then, from Figure 5-2. ~eglccting t he e xciting current (Je). 1 his value woukl ht·
come .?O times 5. 01 100 Arnp primary. when using t he
le= 0.33 100:5 currcnr transtor mcr ratio.
<;rou nd Rclays
= 66.6 Arnp
100 5
"b..
~
IL =5 Arnp (to operare t he rclay on t he 5-J\rnp tap) -------------~
~I N • 20
1
-.">Amperes
lo, E,omple
FQu 110len1 Circu,1 far
i
Í\eg11g,01e
V=0.7c,x5
~ c...,,en1 Tro~sfo,rne,s l eco Res,s •once
= J.8 vo h s (5-1 J
Figure 5-5· EQuivalent Circuits and Oistribution of Currents
for a Ground Fault With The Connections of Figure
5-4 in Example Number 2.
the smal\ phase relay drop. Such a correction could. how- The C classification covers bushing current transformers
ever, be made on a trial-and-error basis. with uniformly distributed windings, arid any other trans-
formers whose core leakage flux has a negligible effect on
Thus, the phase a relay circuit must supply 0.6 plus 0.6 the ratio within the defined lirnits.
plus 0.5, or 1.7 Amp. Given the phase relay of 0.68 ohm
and the current transformer impedance of 0.08 ohm, or The T classification covers most wound-t y pe transformers
0.76 ohm total, the phase a current transformer must sup- and any ot hers whose core leakage flux affects t he ratio ap-
ply: preciably.
Vs= 11 + 1.7 x0.76 The secondary terminal voltage rat ing (Figure 5-6) is the
voltage that the transformer will deliver to a standard bur-
= 12.3 Volts den at 20 times normal secondary current, without e xceed-
ing IO percent ratio error.
le= 0.8 Arnp (from Figure 5-2)
Figure 5-6 shows the seccndary voltage capability for var i-
ous C-class current transforrners, plotted against secondary
current. With a transformer in the C-100 accuracy class, for
= 2.5 Amp example, the transformer ratio can be calculated, and the
ratio error will not exceed I O percent between 1 to 20
times normal secondary current if the burden does not ex-
ceed 1 .O ohm ( 1.0 ohm x 5 Amp x 20 = 100 Volts).
= 50 Amp primary
C57 .1 3), is described by two svmbols=letter designation Figure 5-6: ANSI Accuracy Standard Chart for Class C Current
and voltage rating-that define the capability of the trans- Transformers.
former.
ANSI accuracy class ratings apply only to the full winding.
The letter designation code is as follows: Where there is a tapped secondary, a proportionately lower
voltage rating e xists on the taps.
C-indicates that the transformer ratio can be calculated (as
for the earlier I OL type transformers) The foUowing current transformer data, required for relay-
ing service application, should be supplied by the manufac-
T-indicates that the transformer ratio must be determined turer:
by test (similar to the earlier I OH type transformers) a. Relaying accuracy classification.
5.7
6
.:
v~ ~
L.-- -
4
c. Resistance of the secondary winding between the wind-
ing terminals. Data should be presented in a form that 2
/
allows the value for each published ratio to be deter-
mined.
0 o/ 2 4 6 e 10 12 14 16 19 20 22
Times Normal PrimoryCurrent
where
B-0.1, B-0 . .2, and B-0.5-in the standard bur not shown
z8 = per mlssible burden on the curre nt transf'or mer here-are the Standard Metering Burdens,
5-8
The following exarnple shows current transformer calcula- burden, use a higher current transformer ratio, or use a cur-
tions using ANSI classifications. The maximum calculated rent transformer with a higher voltage class,
fault current for a particular line is 12 ,000 Amp. The cur-
rent transformer is rated at 1200:5 and is to be used on the
Jl.C. Direct Current Saturation
800:5 lap. lts relaying accuracy class is C200 (full-rated
winding); secondary resistance is 0.2 ohm. The total sec-
To this point, current transformer performance has been
ondary circuit burden is 2.4 ohms at 60-perccnt powcr discussed in tcrms of steady-state behavior only, without
factor. Excluding thc effccts of residual magneí ism and considering the de component of the fault curren t. Actu-
de offset, will the error excced 1 O pcrccnt? 1 f so, what ally, the de component has far more influence in producing
corrcct ivc action can • takcn to reduce thc error to 1 O severe saturalion than the ac fault current. The de cornpo-
percent or less? ~
nent arises beca use ( 1) the current in an inductance cannot
change instantaneously and (2) the steady-state current, be-
The current transfornf r secondary winding resistance may fore and after a change, must lag (or lead) the voltage by
be ignored because the C200 relaying accuracy class desig- the proper power-factor angle.
nation indicates that the current transformer can support
200 volts plus the voltage drop caused by secondary resist- Figure 5-8 shows the current immediately following fault
ance at 20 times rated current, for 50 percent power-factor inception for two cases: fully offset and no offset. In the
burden. The et secondary voltage drop may be ignored full~ offset case, the fault is assumed to occur at the in-
thcn if the secondary current does not excecd LOO Amp. stant"'hat produces the maximum de component. In the
secondcase, the fault occurs ata time that produces no de
N = 800 offset.
5
Oc Comoooent =
2 11=!Cf
J
-t
o 2
a) Curren! Wave Woth Maximum Assymmetry
ó) Fully ÜJIStll
-..
,:~r
O) Voltage Wave Requoredto Force Ac Componen!
IL ~ Load Curréru Through Secondary Resrstance
I F = Fault Current
V - Voltage
o) No Ottser
-0.5
o 2
Figure 5-8: Current lmmediately After Fault lnception.
el Voltage Wave Re9u11ed to Force De Component
Through Secondary Resistance
~-~~4
I Secondory
Withoul Sotoroton I Secondory
With SoturOIIQfi
,'.l!t:J
O 1 2
d) Flux Variation to Induce Voltage Wave ( b).
The time required for d .;u11e111 u anstor mer to reach SdlU· :,---
b. Calculare YK/IRT.
6.28
Any uon-core device will retarn a flux level even after the
exciting curren! falls lo zero. Superimposed on this resid-
1
Sotu,ot,on Curve ual flux are variations in core flux, dictated by thc curren,
transforrner secondary curren! and secondary burden. The
4~-- residual flux may either aid or detract from transient flux
performance, depending on the relative directions of the
residual flux and the required flux variation.
le
T = Primary Circu,t Time Cons1an1, Cycles Figure 5-12 shows the importance of previous loading his-
t= Time to Saturate. Cycles
tory on current transformer residual flux level, Suppose a
VI( = Threshold Voltage for Saturation. Volts
1 = Symmetrical Secondary Current, Amperes curren! transformer has a residual flux defined by point
R = Secondary Circuit Resistance, Ohms
le = Exciting Curren! "a." lf a syrnrnetrical sinusoidal primary current starts to
flow, requiring a flux variation as shown , the pattern be-
tween a and A will be traced out. The average value of the
de exciting current with this pattern is la. This currenr
flows in the secondary and has no counterpart in the pri-
f 1 Log,o [
i'"o.434 1
1 + 271'
l-~ I J mary. It decays with the time constant assocíated with the
6.28IRT secondary circuit, At the completion of this transient , the
Curve Assumes T> 3Cycles
pattern has moved to cC with an equal flux variaticn that
is syrnmetrical around the vertical axis. The pattern con-
tinues to be traced out. lf the circuit were now ínter-
rupted, the residual ílux would have the value existing at
the moment of interruption, which is quite different from
2 3 4 6 7 the initial valué assumed. In fact, any value of flux be-
VK
IRT tween zero and saturation Jevel may be retained in the core ,
Figure 5·11a: Current Transformer Time to Saturate. depending on previous events.
te111 on w hrch they ar e to be used , 1 wo no uunal secouu-
ary voltages I l 5 and 120 Volts are allowed for voltage
transformers; the corresponding line-to-neutral values are
115/y3 and l20/y3. The applicable voltage depends on
the primar y voltage rating, as given in A SI CS 7 .13. The
nominal secondary voltages for coupling capacitance volt-
age transforrners are 115 and 66.4 Volts
Figure 5· 12: Residual Flux in Current Transformar. shown in Figure 5-13. Sincc rcgulation rs critica) lo ac .. u·
racy, the circuit rnay be reduced to that shown in Figure
Reducing the residual flux lo zero requires lile apphcauon S-l 3b. l he phasor diagram oí Figure 5-l 3c has greatly ex·
of a sccondary voltage high enough to produce saturation , aggeratcd voltage drops to ernphasi/e that, for typical trans-
íollowed by a gradual reduction oí the voltage to zero , Iorrners and burdcns, the secondary voltage usually lags the
"pcrfectly transforrncd" prunary voltagc and rs dcfrcicnt in
A current transforrner wuh an air gap in rne core has c1 rnagnitudc. Typical rated maximum errors for thc e dcvices
Iairly low residual flux, approximately 10 percent ot saiu are 0.3, 0.6, and 1.2 pcrccnt. Voltage transformcrs havc ex-
ration density. Residual flux for current transformers wirh ccllent transicnt performance, faithfully reproducmg abrubt
no intennonal air gap is appro xirnately 90 percent of satu- changes m the prirnary voltage.
rauon density.
J
rent collapses slowly after interruption
Also , air-gap units are more coslly to manufacture, since
the small air gap rnust be both accurate and maintainable.
I>)
lll. VOLl AGE TRANSFORMERS ANO COUPLlNG Figure 5, 13: The Equivalent Circuit and Phasor Dlagram ot a
CAPACITANCE VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS Voltage Transformar.
Vohage transformers (formerly called potencial transtorm- 111.B. Couphng Capacitance Volrage Transformen,
ers) and coupling capacitance voltage transformers are se-
lected according to two criteria: the system voltage level Coupling capacuance voltage transformers tCCVT) and
and the basic impulse insulation leve! required by the sys- bushing capacitance voltage transformers are less expensive
5-12
than voltage transformers but may be inferior in transient voltage depends on the values of R, L, and C. Other tran-
performance. With these potential devices, a subsidence sients are introduced by the presence of ferroresonant sup-
transient accompanies a sud den reduction of voltage on the pression circuits and by the relays thernselves.
primary. This voltage may be oscillatory al 60 Hz or sorne
other Irequency , or it may be uni-directional. A representa- A voltage transforrner is not significantly affected by com-
tive severe secondary transient is shown in Figure 5-14. parable transients and will reproduce prirnary transients
with excellent fidelity. Modero CCVTs, such as the PCA-7,
have capabililies approaching those of the voltage trans-
former.
+
.,
(j
'Jeutul "mversiou", m whrch ground becornes externa! to
Uit svsrem voltJi,?c tn.1ngh: crn occur on ungrounded sys- /
Lam~ w,t~ 11 ~nslt: potential transrormer connecred Iine-io-
g1uua.d l igure 5-1 í shows ihe possrble voltage a erross an
unl1)11ded vol,agr. transíormer l\;ote that an x~·t,m ratio
ot .3 would theoreucally cause an mñnue vo ltage across thc
e
vohage uansíormer. Such :J suuauon never occurs, 01
COur~ because \'.111 reduces as saturarion occurs.
Whero
\ Pl\nR ,1 \lah,19.: I<> Grpund
By lnadrng rhe rranstcrmer C.11"<!1 ully
, t h1i; large , sustaíned VLL = Lme 10 L •"" \lolJ:lQ"
ovwvu1t.1g..: phenomena can he avoided, Caution should al- X, O,smbuu,d C:ni:m~•t,1nct: p1•r Pon~•l
Xm Maon.,twn,, 1m11<'íta111::1e ar Thu
w:iys be exercised where the secondarj vcltage of the truns- Vc,1Íacte T1nru1armer
b
fonner is used l or s~ nchrorusm check since t he loadrng wil!
Q!Uk 3 plta.~l' s'Jtl It , Figurci &-17 Neu1ral (nverslan on 011 Ungrounded Powe, Syst.im
6·1
Chapter 6 l. lNfROOUCIION
JI. i: ault Dctection Abnorrnal condn ions that may occur wnh rotuung equip-
rnent include the following:
111. Ground-l-ault Protecuon
A. Unbalanced htult~
b overload
B. Balanced Faulls
X. Protecuon Agamst <.,cncrato, \lo1v1111g g smgle-phasc u, unbalanceu cur r ent opcrat ron
t hc 111.11.h.tnc, are 1..u111p.ucú 1r1 d ,llttc1cnlldl ... u .. uH Any ha ve lv [Je sc t above thc lll<1.\t111u111 c:11v1 .... ur reut lhdl could
"difference" current is u sed lo opera te a relay. be expected during an externa! fault.
Figure 6-1 shows t he relay circuns for 0111:! phase ouly l-v1 The percentage differennal relay (Figure o-2) solves me
normal operation or for a fauh outside t he two sets ol cur- above problem without sacrifícing sensítivity. The restraiu-
rent transformers. lp entering the machlne equals lp leaving ing windings receive the transformer secondary current and
the machine in ali phases, neglect ing t he small interna! lea k- dcscnsitize the relay to high externa! fault currents. There
age current. On a per-unit basis, t he secondary current is are t wo cornmon restraining schemcs. ( 1) windings on the
equal lo tite primary current minus t he magnet izing current , same electrornagnet , which produce contact-opening torque
le. against the contact-closing torque oí the operating winding:
or (2) generating a restraint voltage for comparison with the
I'he relay current, tt:2 · ld 1:, the dir ter ence ui rhe excituig voltage produccd by thc difference curren t.
or magnetizing currents. Wrth the same type of currcnt
transformers. this current will be sma!l at normal load.
Hence, to prevcnt relay operation, the relay must be set
above this máximum value during normal mach ine opera-
Protecteó
tion. lf a fault occurs between tite two sets of current truus- Eqo,pment
-
formers, one or more of tite left-hand currents will suddcnly
increase, while currents on rhe right side may eithcr de-
crease or increase and flow in the reverse direction. Either
way , the total fault current will now flow through t he relay,
Operot,ng
causing it to opérate. w,nd,ng
-1p1.¿
-
Equ,pmenl
The SA-1 relay is a three-phase, variable perceutuge r cla y t,c11,:;1<:1Cv1:. wun splu-phase w111d111gs can be p1uc..:1.C<::U by
avatlablc wuh a sensitivity of 0.14 Amp or 0.5 Amp. 'I'he two sets of differen tial relays, one connected as in Figure
S/\-1 operares in approximately 25 ms cornpared to 80 lo 6-2, and lhe ot her connected as in Figure 6-4. This arrange-
165 ms for thc CA generator differential relays but costs rnent protects against ali types of interna! faults, including
approximately 25 perccnt more. A saturating reactor in short-circuited turns or open-circuited windings. Unless the
each of tite three "operating" circuits minirnizes the tend- ratios of the current transformers are l wo to one, the
ency to opérate on the low magnitude error current associ- scherne of Figure 6-4 rnust be equipped with auxiliary trans-
atcd with unequal current Lransformer saturation. Thc re- forrners to provide a balance during normal operalion.
actor has an impedancc of approximately 85 ohms at 0.14
Arnp and 1.5 ohrns at 30 Amp,
-
1,-12
-
o .'\:, the grounding 1mpedance is incrcased, cu1renr·ly¡.><!
12·!3 +-
relays becorne less applicable. The lower the relay pickup,
-
l>
[3·!1 thc higher its burden on lhe current transforrner and thc
e more difficult it is to distinguish bctween ground-fault c.:ur-
rent and third-harmonic unbalance current flowing in lhe
t'""º""
neutral. This third-harmonic current may be as high as I O
Reloy
O ello to 15 perccnl of the maximum generator output with low·
- -
Generolor
impedance grounding.
ii-12 1¡12
!'he ground rclay may also opera1e for ground taulcs be·
Figura 6-3: Percentage Differential Relay Schematic for a Delta
Connected Machina. (Only One Phase Connections yond the generalor. For lhis rcason, a lime delay may be
are Shown) necessary to coordinate with any other overlappmg relays
6-4
A ryprcal .._¡¡::,e is a generat or ~u1111e~leu uu e ... Liy Lv .i bu, vi lhc Cdl111g ul 5 4 V tu, Che o /-V lela) JHct l o V 101 t he
with ot her circurts. A faull on one of t hese circuits shouJJ 199-V relay. Provided that a Iull-rated primary winding b
nol lrip l he machine , the relays in lhe faulled circu it will used , lhe maxrrnum voltage for a solid ground fault is
clear such fault s. A wye-delta transformer bank will block 120/../3 (69.3 V wit h 120-V distribution transformer sec-
the flo w of ground current preventing taults on lhe op- ond ary), or 240/-/3 ( 138.6 V with 240-V secondary).
posite side of the banks lrorn operating ground rclays. In
t he unit-connected scherne, the t ranstor mer bank lirnits I he scherne combines good sensurvity for internal ground
thc ground relay operauon to taults in t he generator , t hc f'aults while being very insensit ive lo third-harrnonlc volt-
leads up to the transfor mer bank , anti lhe della winding, agcs. A tuncd filtcr circurt , consísnng of the relay coil a nd
capacuor, manifests a lugh impedance lo t hird-harmonic
[he unit syst ern is lhc rnost common urrangcment for ali voltages and prevents í hc rclay from operaung. Thc 3rd
but small gencrators. For unu systcrns high resistance harmon1c pickup of lht! relay 1s approximately 8 tunes !he
grounding is used, and t he maclune is generally grounded pickup at rated frequency.
lhrough a dist ribution transtorrner and resistor combina-
tion, as shown in Figure 6-5. Since thc secondary is rat ed J'he ~V 1t!lay, wluch 1s used to protect thc CV-8 aga111st
al 1 20 V or 240 V, thc physical s111: ol l he resistor can be ovc1voltage, can bt: onuttcd where the conlinuous raling of
considerably srnallcr lhan if it were connecred to lhe pri- lhc CV-8 is greatu than the max1mum fault voltage. 1 he
rnary. SV rcl¡iy 1s set to open lls contacts above 70 V, inse1l1ng thc
resistor R lo lim1t 1he voltage on lhe CV-8 to 60 V whcn
Transforme, Bus
139 V b apphed. 1 he SV, with a conlinuous rating of
GenerolOr
160 V, 1s re4uired for an alarm scheme. but seldom for lrip·
ping
J
G<ound lripo,
Res,stor Alorm
Opt,onQ4 CV8 C I he t111n! ~.:tt111g should be madc so that faults m the volt-
_____ ..J
currents that flow during these u11bc1lcS11 ...c:J l a u lt s 111Ju1.,e I'he l.UV t 4o) t cla y <1 ueganve sequen ce cy pe, has a J111111·
twice-rated frequency rotor currents. These cun enrs tenJ rnuru pickup uf 0.6 per unit negative sequence currenr o2,
to flow in the surface of the solid rotor íorgmg and in rne wrth taps bel ween 3 and 5 Amp. The solid state SOQ relay
non-magneuc rotor wedges and retaining rings l'he r esult · has a trip pick-up adjustable between O. 1 and 1.0 per unit
. I,
mg 2 ~R loss quickly raises the temperature. 1J the tault of t he base amperes of 3 to 5 Amp and an alarrn pick-up or
persists, the metal will melt, damaging the rotor structure 0.03 to 0.2 per unir. As shown in Figures 6·7 and 6·8, the
COQ relay will match the (12)2t = K curves for values of K
Such faults result from failure of a prorecuve :,1.,ht:mc: or trorn 5 to YO and from 1 to 5 per unit 12. For Figure 6·7, a
equipment externa! to the machine. The relanve m .. grn- t elay tap setting corresponding to the secondary full-load
tudes of negative sequen ce currents for hne-t o-hne fa u Its current of the machine is used. Figure 6·8 requíres a relay
on a typical turbine generator under differenr operaung cap settrng equal to three-Iourths of the secondary full load
conduions are shown in Figure 6-6. The effect uf tite shu nt cun ent, The 3/4 fuU load tapis used to obtain better sensí-
load impedance during the fault is mcluded Ior shot t cir- nvity and wider contact spacing. Figure 6-9 relates time
cuits with load on the system. dial settings to machlne (12)2t capability. Similar curves
apply to the SOQ relay with (12)2t valúes from 2 to 40.
XcJ•l.40
x;,,o.1s ,w 1
X'd•Xz=0.10 90 1 \
TdO= 6 5ec<lnds ªº'º - 1,
\
i
ou r -
F
:,u
!>r--.--.---,----,.--.-- r I r ,
b.1 r 111tt:-
• 10Seconos
T ~,
Nolood WithVoltage Regulator {lnf1n11e Sus) !> \ ,2¡21 • lt>b
r r \'\ 1
Fu1 Load W1thVottage Regulator(lnf1011e Bus) 4 ( lz)2r • 15.?
\. \\ 1
'1 t \r,.
. -
1
\\ ,\ 1
\ 1\y \ I\~
!:) Genero•orsChoroc1e,1st,c-1-
u 2¡2r =90
0o ~z~~3--4~.....,,!>--6..____,.1
_ _._a_-;.9 1\ ~ I U2l2 t •30
,,
10
'
T,me n Secoods ~tT
IU
T \
9 ,- , \
' \' \ \\
1 \
Figure 6·6. Relativa Magnitudes o, Negattvt;: Sequ.,nce Curr.,nu 6 1-
r ,11 1 \ \ 1\\
1'\\ \
1 1
According to AXSJ standards, the penrussibte 111tcgr<11cJ 1 \
r - 1
product, U2)2t,* which "indirectly cooled" turbine gen t
erators, synchronous condensers, and frequency-ch .. nger - . -~ 1 1
~ \\
l-
1
sets can tolerate, is 30. The standard for hydr auhc tur-
bines or engme-driven generators is 40. Standard '"dtre.,;tly
,:,
rt 1 \ 1\
TÍ
~I
cooled" machines up to 800 ~1VA are capable uf with-
standing a perrnissible integrated product of I O, w lule
sorne very large machines (1600 MVA) can only toler at e S '.s .6
-
1
---
a .9 1.0 i.s 2 as 3 "' s 6 1 a 9 10
Negor,ve SeQuence Current 1nperUn1t
barly inspection is recommended for machines subject tu (1.0 per Umt =TopVolueCurrem=Machtne Full LoadCurrent)
Iaults between the above limits and 200 percent of the lurnt
figure 6-7. Companson ot Relay and Generator Characteristics
to detect damage. Serious damage can be expected for
(Time vs Negat1ve Sequence Current for an (12) 2 t Factor
Iaults above 200 percent from 30 to 90).
*12 i~ negative sequence eurrent in per unit of machrne-ruted current, I he ~c:ttwg vi ihe Cü(J .:a11 be 11lustrated by an examph:: A
and 1 is in seconds. 760 MVA, 20 KV generator with 25,000/5 current tran:,·
t,t,
760,0üü so ,_ -
V
rx: = 21,939 amperes pr unary
-n 20
V
/
= 21--'939
- = 4.39 amperes secondary. 70
J
5000
Iop Volue = Mochme Ful I Lood,
/
Cnoose a COQ tap of .75 x 4.39 or tap 3.25, anda time bO IY
dial of 2.5 (Figure 6-9). The operat ing times (Figure 6-8) V 1
will be 16 secon ds Ior 3.25 amperes neganve sequence, or
1.5 seconds Cor 9.75 12. 50
/
,._.,.._ J
V _.,_
100 ~ ,- 40 / -
-
90
80
70 J
./
e
60
--
50
40 30
30 ,--... ,-...
20 ..__
\1\'
20
.,/' ·-
15
1\ i'
,,~
11.
Generotor ,,_ _ -- !/~ \ 1
- TopVa lue = ~ of Mochine Ful I Lood
l'" "
(I2)2t '5 ;-;.> ,-
10
9
cnorccte ..sncs
(r2)2 t = lO 10 ,;
V
8 " ,1 V,
"' J\ 7 ,__
1
~7
L
7 :\12)21,7
6
1 I\~ \
,.., 1
5
J
1 \ 11 1 1
5
,_ 1
'I' 1\\ ~ 1 1 1
4 ._
r
,_ - 1- _,_ 1- 1-t- 11 1 1
l\1\' .\ 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
2
Reloy Chorocteristics
Time Dial Setting ~ ti 1\ ·---
Time 0101 Se111ng
1.5
1 2.5" ,,,.V'
1.7 ~
!\ ~I\ Figure 6-9. Required
Constant.
coa Time Dial Setting vs Gener ator
vv
1 - - --
1.1/ Í\~~
9 '\ \ \
.8
- "
.7
-
'\
'\'\
.6 -
.5
'\ \ ' ! lle Iilt er out put uf t he COQ relay rs:
,4
.3 ~
'"
.,. Moch,ne Full Load \ó· 1)
'O
e
.2
Curren!= 1.33 X Top ~lue .,___
~
whe n t he connecuon shown in Figure 6-10 is used . 11, ho w-
.. .,:;
(/)
s
E ever, t he auxiliary current transformcr is not uscd .
¡;: 00.1
,15 A .5 .6 .7
2 .25.3 1.0 1.5 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 1 a 910
Negotive SequenceCurrent in Tnnes Top votue
(Top Volue = ~ of Mochme Full Lood)
( <> 2)
Figure 6-8: Comparison or Relay and Generator Charactarrst ics K i~ t he filter consiant
(Time vs Negativa Sequence Current for an {12)2t
2
Factor from 5 to 10).
lf 10 is small, íts elfect can be ignored. Othcrwíse , n wil] be
necessary to use either thc auxiliary curren! transf'orruer or
lhe COQ or SOQ relays are reco mme nded fer ali machines the rcla y w it h neutral made up inside. The auxiliar y curretu
rated 5000 kYA or larger. Schcrnatic conncctions for un· transformer is not normally required in u nit-co nnectcd ap-
bala nced faull protection are shown in Figure 6-1 O. plicat ions .
•
6-7
A generator should be pr orected against da mage t hat wtll I hti. rcla} ha!> contacl-openmg tCJryuo:: whc:11 e he re:,t~lant.:e
result from prolongcd contribution to a balanced fault. A ll, low, indicating low machinc Lemperature. When the tcn1-
KD-11 (21) relay fed from current lransformers in the neu perature of Lhc machme exceeds J 20°c for dass·B insu-
tral of the gencrat or and from a voltage supply connected lated machines, thc bridge becomes unbalanced and the
at generator voltage leve) provides such protectíon. A single contacts close. While the power supply for the DT-3 may
6·8
he ,11. ur ,k, a1. is prclcu ec. 1111~ IJ 1-J r e la y iucluue« dll 1sv ot dll)' un..: pllc1~i.: v ultage Lu t h e KLl··l 1dc1; wrll 11u1 ....,u:,c
lat ing t runstorrncr t hal allows l he RTI) to be grounded 1ncorrcct lripping. With lhi..: KLF, somu combinations of
withoul ground ing thc stauon battcry. load and phas;: vollugc loss c,111 opcralc thc rclay. The
KLF·l musl havc a wyc-wyc vollagc supr,ly, with lhc neu-
VI. OVl!.RSl'J:::t.::O PROTtCTlON tral b1oughl lo lile r\!lay. Thc KLF can be uscd wilh a wyi..:·
wyc, tlclla·tlclla, or open <.!cita-open tlclta supply.
/\ gcncrator acccter.ues whcn 11 bccomes scparated l Iom
ils load. 'I'he accelcruuon dcpeuds on t hc inert ia (WK 2). Wlu.:11 pa1 t1t1I or complcLc loss of excilation occurs on u syn-
the loud loss, and t hc gover nor response. To rccogrnzc ove: ch ro110us machrnc, 1 c,1cl iv;;: power flows frnm l hc ~ystcm
spccd, .1 pe, 11)dn.:11l magnct gcncr ator ,s of'tc n conncctcd lo 111to lhc 111achinc (Figur.: 6-J l). Nl>le thal kW oulpul is
the ma chinc shuft lo supply u voltuge lo lhc govcrnor that conlrollcd by thc prime-mover input, while kV /\ R output is
rs propurt ronal to specd 'l'hc governor muy also be c.:onlrolled by lhc fiel<.! cxcilation. lf the syslcm is large
cqulppc d wit h ~1 spced-respo nsive Ilyball mcchanism. E1 .:nnugh lo supply lhc dcficicncy in cxcílalion through thc
thcr the pcr rnancnt muguet gcnerut or or thc flyball mech armalurc, thc synchronous machinc will opcrate asan in·
anisrn c,111 irutiare pt ime-mover cont rol Lo removc po wcr duc.:tion gcnerator, supplying csscnlially lhc saml! kW lo thl!
inpul and ulleviute overspecd. An ovcrf'rcqucncy rcluy, such systern as befare lh.: loss of .:xcilalion.
as a CF-l. can be used lo su pplement t his overspeed cquip-
mcnt , S111ce synch1onou~ genernlors are nol designeLI for asyn-
chronous opcration, thc machi ne output will oscillatc
Vil. LOSS-OF-EXCITATlON PROTECTlON slightly as the rotor oscillaks, in an attempl to lock inlo
synchronism. Loss of synchronism does nol rcquirc immc·
Lhe gencrator must be kepl on hne , supplymg power as long diale lripping unlcss therc is an accompanying dccrease in
as possible , part icularly where thc rnachine represents a siz- the terminal vollage lhat threalens system stahility. ll gen·
ablc port io n of thc systern capacit y. To this cnd, an early erally takes al least 2 to 6 scc to lose synchronism. Many
warning of low excitat io n would give thc opcrator un op- instanc.:es have becn reporletl where mac.:hincs have n111 out
po1t11111ly lo resí ore t hc fie ld if possiblc and avoid tripping of synchronism for varying periotls bccause of loss of cx-
Unnccessary ír ipping. and the result a nt loss of kW output , citat1011 withoul damage to thc machines. Thc maximum
can pr eclpit ate syst ern breuk up anda rnajor out agc. Whei c lime reported is 17 min 011 a 100-MW, 25-II,. machín.:.
lhe maclunc and system are hcadcd for inslability caused by
loss of ex cit at io n, ho wcver, thc machinc should be tripped
uutomaí ically.
1'11;.: K Lr and K LF· 1 rela y1, (40) wcrc designcd with t he 11 Reoc1ove Power
1n10 Moch;ne
above objcct ivcs in m111J und are apphcable to ali t ypcs ol
machines, These relays will prot ect against varying dcgrccs ( I) lnduc11on Ge11ero1ur
of abnormally low cxcitut io n by porforrning the f'ollo wing Opero1,onof1er Lossof F,eld
l'he K LF-1 d1ffers Irorn t hc 1'.Lr relay 111 thut 1l ha:, .1 sepu-
Figure 6-11: Diagram Showing Current Locus of Ac Machines
rate phase voltage supply f'or each clcrnent. A:, a rcsult , loss Operating Under Various Conditions.
6-9
-R
Pos11,ve---------._
lCS
\
( 11 LU\j\llf19 ( Loghl LOOO/
MIOrn
Distcoce Unll ( Z l
Figure 6 12 Trlp Clrcults end R·X Diagram Show,ng Opera11on of The KLF (40) Loss of Fteld Relay
Maclune loss of [icld can result f1u111 .,u> vi t11 .. lvlluw111ic: K\.dU\,\.Ú \.,h,llJllVII u::.ulb LII .. diu¡, ILL llL\. ILLddllnc\ tc11111
IIJI voltugc ... ausing 11 tu dr.rw reactive power from t he sys-
• loss ot l1clu to the main excuer tem • An excessive voltage dccay mdicates l hat l he systcui
IIIJ)' beco me unsiuble Conscqucnt ly, thc undcrvolt agc u1111
• <1cddcntal t ripping of the f'icld lll"J ll.c.1 must be set to drop out at a voltage from wluch thc syst e m
cannot re cove r dunng loss of excit auon. Alt hough lus 1s í
• shou circuus in the ficld current s .i drf'hcult vulue to detcrrmne without ,1 transrent sluhiht y
vut. KLF AND KLF-1 CURVES The steady-state stabilit y curve is anot her sign ificant limit
that can be rclated to a loss-of-t'icld relay with KLF and
figure 6· 13 shows how a gencrator capabrhty curve can be KLf-1 vharacteristies, The MW-MVAR curve can be dcvcl-
t ransf'ormed into un R·'< d iagrarn. For each point on lhe oped us shown m Figure 6·14a. In t his Figure, V is the pcr-
curve, an anglc, ~. can be measure d from tite horizontal, and unit terminal voltagc, X5 is the equivulcnt pcr-unit system
t he vulue of t hree-phase \1VA rcad. Knowing thc hne-to- i rnpcdance as viewed from the generat or tcrminals, and Xd
line voltage al which thc capabilit y curve applies. a vulue of 1s t he per-urut unsaturated synchronous rcactance. Bot h Xs
ZP or Z can be calculatcd usmg. and Xd are mcusurcd on the muchine MVA base.
,
kV-
2
P
= --
MVA
prirnary ohms (6-3)
Figure 6·14b converts the rnachinc's steady-stat e st ability
curve toan R-X diagrarn. Note that thc curve of Figure
6· 14b can he plott ed direct ly from a knowledge of X5 and
Z = MYA -¡f
kV2 ( R )
sccondary ohrns (6-4) Xd wu hout thc mtcr mediate stcp of Figure 6- l 4a.
V
MVAR from
Mochine to System
F,eld l1m1ted
/
PerUnit
MVAR
a)
Stotor End lron L,m,ted
MVAR
,nto Generotor X
b)
-X
b) R·X Plot
Figure 6-1 S relates K LF or K LF-1 settrng to capability and
Figura 6-13: Transformation from KW-KVAR Plot to R X Plot rmrurnum cxcilation limiter (Mf.L) curves. Assurnc a givcn
kW load on thc machinc and ussumc that the vars in t o tite
machmc are gradually being increased by decreasing rna-
wherc Re and Rv are the curren! and voltage transformer chine Iield currcnt , as 111 curve A of Figure 6-1 S. lf tite reg-
ratios, respectively. ulator is in service, t he mínimum exciter limiter (MEL) pre-
vents opcration ata leve! that would jeopardiz e the machine
Point ZP or Z can then be plotted, al angle ~. on the R-X thermally. lf the regulator is out of service, Z continúes to
diagrarn, Other points on the circle ares can be obtained in decrease until the K LF impedance unit opera tes. An alarm
the sarne way until the desired curve is complete. rndicates a hazardous operating condition íf the voltage is
6·11
X Foult
A
''°"' 01r~c.:.11ono1
R UM
f\LF O urnl
J\Lt" ~t:lf•mJ
(Zone2) ::ítOOI~
Sw,ng
"\\.,.r" :>t:llll•~
(Zone 1l
St~ody Siete Stob,1,,y Figure 6-16 KLF Relay Stable Sw,ng Follow,ng Clear,ng of
Nearby 3 Phase Fault
lºr-
u, .....,,. 1 -e
l ikr ,111 orher elemcms 111 gcnc1.;to1 p101c .. uou, th.: lv:., 01-
Iield reluy necds backup lo preven! catastrophic Iailurc 11'
ve
a devicc or associatcd co mponcnt should I ail Se .o, o
oo
l,
F
I wu KLF or KLF-1 rcluys provrde beuci prot ecuon t ha n
Sellmg
-- Recouunended
Zont I (alone]
Settinp for K.Lf Rehiy
Zone 2 (alone)
-
801h Zone I and Zone 2
such as linut swit ches or exhaust hood ternperature
tors. lf a large nurnber of thesc devices are riecessary, how-
detec-
fmpt..:d.anee See Figure b·l6 See hgure 6· 16 See hgure 6-16 ever, a single reverse po wer protective relay is recornrnendeo
Seu ing for added safety and backup protection. The reverse powcr
Voltuge (a) undervoltugc con- sov Zone I volrage contact relay is commonly used with diesel engine generaling units,
Sernng tat:I shorted or shorted Zone 2 drop-
out voltage sel ,t 80'.t wh.:re there is danger uf explosion and fire from unburncd
11>1 set JI H0',1, lur
securuy 1 fue l.
,__
I D-1 (See J ¡'4 to I sec 1 {4 to I se, Zone I umer = 1 /4 se~
Fig. 6·17) ~lotoung , c:.ults trom a low pri me·mover input to the ac
I l /4 >e<.. udeq uare I ll sec preferred) Zonc 2 t irner = 1 sec
generator. When this input cannot meet ali the losses, lhe
ID-2 (See Not requrred Ior (al l nun None lor Zone 1 deficiency is supplied by absorbing real power from lhc sy:,-
F,g. 6-17) above
Zonc 1 umer = 1 u1io tem. Since ficld cxcitation should rema in the same, the
1'01 ll>J abcve use I
mm. :.ame reactive power would flow as before motoring. Thus,
Advantagcs Less sensiuve to 1 ) More sensiuve 1) Same JS l ). 2). and on motoring, the real power will be into the machine, whilt:
stable sysrem sw1ng~ 10 LOI' con- 31 Jl lefl
du son the reactive power may be cither ílowing out or into the
21 Pro,.,..,d~ ba"'k -up pro· machine. Usually the reactive powcr will be supplied lo the
lJ t'Jn cperare recuon
on part ut LOF system as machines are not generally operatcd underexcitcd.
3) Provide alarm
Icatures Ior
manual opera· Dunng generator motoring, the current phasor will fall in
(ion
the second or third quadrant, as shown in Figure 6· I 1. Usu·
ally, the phasor will fall in lhe third quadrant, with the ma-
chine supplymg reactive to the system.
Specsat Stumxs fui Multi Machmes Bussed u Machmc I crnau14b, An;- rday des1gncd to detect motoring would have to be
S•t1ina Zone 1 ( slone) Zone 2 (alone) 801h 2011• 1 and Zonc 2 cxtremely sensitive to respond to the first incrcment of re·
vac
Gas Turbines. The Iarge cornpressor load uf ga~ turbines
represents a substantial power requiremenc from t he sys- u,1 1 . :r.}(
1
~ la
'YQ11
'
tem. Consequenlly, the sensirivity of the anri-rnot oring u Legena
co
device is not critical. Vb<, O - Oir<:<etronalUr111
Ven CV TrmingUnrt
Hydraulic Turbines. W hen the blaues are: und er t he tau- f'tgure 6 18 Typrcal Schemauc to, An11-Motorrn9 Prorecuon Us,ng
CRN-i (321 Relay
race water level, the percent of kW rating required lor
motoring is high probably well over 2.0 perceru. Frorn wcr e used in t he: past, these schemes are no longer re ...orn-
0.2 Lo 2.0 percent kW is rcquired for the turbine to motor mended. Any continuous bearing current may be harmful
when the blades are above the tail-race levet. For t ur- to the bear mg. The flow of this beanng current is shown
bines using a Kaplan adjustable-blade propeller, the flat in Figure 6-19. A srnall leakage curren! flows through the
blade condítion probably requires less than 0.2 percent field-to-gr ound ca pacitance, which, on a large turbo-
kW to motor. generator, can be between 0.3 and 0.5 µF.
A single ground on the held ol a synchronous macrune I he re co mrnended field ground protecnon i. ... heme lur a
produces no immediate damaging effect. lt must be de· generator with brushes (that is, stationary field leads acces-
tected and removed because of the potenual of a se cond sible) is shown in Figure 6-20. This scherne, which does
ground whích coulcl short part of t he field winding and not require any external source, uses the very sensirive
cause damaging vibration. While ac detection methods d'arsonval de relay, type DGF.
6-14
F,eld
TBreoke,
F el<l
Breoke, T Fault un
Plus Side
Fault un
Minus Side
Faull 55%
Irorn
Minus Side
FauH 44%
from
Minus Side
point in thc Iicld winding. The non-linear resistor values mcndcd for hydroclec;lric g.:nerators subjcct to ovcrsp1:.:d
at two points are: and conscquent ovcrvoltagc on loss of load. Sorne hydro-
elcctric generators cango up lo 140 percenl or more of
45,000 ohms ut 60 V ucross the resistor rated specd when full load is dropped. The voltagc may
4,700 ohrns at l 50 V across the resistor. reach 200 percent or more.
6·15
fhc ac overvon age prote .. uve scnerne ts :.livwu III l·1gu1..: l.abic b IU
6·21. The relay, which cha nges the cxcitation system ro t'crtu,u.w.,1 ....e ul ~a.uu¡¡ho\.Qc Prcrecuve Kc.h•)~ "' Ktdu1.;e<l trcqucnc1e:5
reduce the ouiput voltage, can also provide backup protc-, Pickup in Perctnl of 60-hcrtt Pickup Classification
IOS II S A
151) tO·S ISO B
(0·6 143 8
(0·7 140 ll
cos .?t>l 13g A
lO·<I !60 140 A
St 85 93 A
CO\ Pc11urmw.n"'c wml! o CO Unlt u:»~U tn rclu)
\fvhq<'" sv 26 so A
~ lfl~flt'~l\l (59) c·v "vn1 ... , 122 120 A
T SV Reduc,ng m~km1
L-... Res,s10, voumerer
l \'-8 e
U11h:1c.mw1 CA gcnerdtur 2SS 123 A
1871 C'A lrtn~íorinc, 149 8
~A·I 370 175 A
---oc HU·l 2SO llO A
1'cg•h·~
Sequencc l l>V u
l4bl SOQ
l.AJ'.\\ vl
f ,chJ I o1u, 11.l ~ • "' "1 ~ 1, t::.
hours cturing warrn-up at Irequencies well below t heir rat- ..-rJtc tal,d> nor pro\1dc lo,,·ol·lidJ protcct1on dunn[!
mg, llowever, current transformer and relay performance t he "a rm ·Up p.:riod
at these reduced frequencies rnust be considered, since l·v, _...,,._, ,umpvunJ 1urb111c gcncrJtor, tite lu\\ JHc»u1c
Iault magnitudes are approximately the same as at rated Jnd th.- h1gh prcs:,ur.- unns should hav.: 1hc1r l1dds ,1pph..:J
Irequency, Current transformer performance can be ex· ,md ')n.:hro1111,:J wh1lc on turnmggcJr so that thcy Jrc
pected lo deteriorare badly al low frequency. There is a brought up 10 rJtéJ :,pc.-d in synchronism. S:,,n..:hrum1111l'
compensatlng effect, however, in the reducuon of burden surges mJ} ou:ur, JI thcsc low spccd:,, wh1d1 wrll opcr.ilc
impedance, thc KLI or KLl·-1 rcla)s I hcsc S}ll1.hro11111ng ,u1gc:, c.J11
I
rl!a1.h 60 pl!n:cnl ot tho: full·luJd ,urrcnt ,in1..c thc 11npcd·
The performances of relays assocrar ed wrt n t he generator Jnu• 111 thc g<"nl!rator~ 1s Vl!ry luw h. LF ur K LF· 1 rday, Jf•
phed to a cross-.:ompound unn should thl!r..:lurt: b<' d1sablcd
ora generator·transformer unit al 1 5 and 30 Hz are surn-
marized in Table 6-lll in terrns oí 60-Hz performance. I dunng start·up. ·--·-·----·-·
t,-1t,
I he St, 1t!lay \vi !:,V 1u1 t n e <.. V-8) is reconunenueu ,;1~ sup- XIV. Rl:.CUMMl:.NUl:.U PRU'l l:.CI ION
plernentary protcction in severa) áreas indicated by an as-
terisk 111 Table 6-111. Use of this relay is optional in t he A Frgu res 6-22 and 6-23 show t he reco rnmenued ¡.>1ot..:..:L1011
and B classifrcat rons and will dcpend on the necd for addi- tor large tanderu-cornpound and cross-cornpound, un it-
t ional scnsitivrty. The SC curre nt relay has a flat charac- connectcd turbine gencrators. Figures 6-24 and 6-25 show
terisuc, a nd mercases shghtly in sensitivit y as thc operat mg thc recommcnded protect ion for machines t hat are not urut
frequency drops, Whcn an SC relay is operated on de, 1t connected. Gencrally , such gcnerat ors are uscd in industrial
picks up at approxrrnately 1 S percent below its normal applícations.
60-11.t. pickup. The pickup ol t he SV voltagc relay is al-
mos! direct ly proport ional lo írequency: its sensitivity at
15 l z rs thus 4 tunes t he sensiuvn y at 60 111.. For t his
í XV. OUl-01'-S11:.P PROfl::CTION
reason, the SV relay provrdes cxcellent backup protect rou
for 60-111. voliage relays ihat lose their sensitivuy at lo w Al> generator unpe da nces becorne lurger in proporuon lo lit.:
írequencies. syste m, t hc electrrcul ccnrer w1II be closcr to lhc gencrator.
fhis condit io n intcnsif'ics lhe nced for out-of-step dele el ion
Wuh une cxci;:¡.,11011, thc rclays hst e d m I able ó-111 wrll
as part oí thc gencraror rclaying complcrncnt.
Such rclay-
neit hcr ovcr hcat nor opérate incor rcct ly if left in t he cu·
mg schemes are described in Chapter 19, Systern Stabilií y
cuits wheu the generator is operated al reduced freque ncres
and Out-ot-Step Rcluying.
I he K U· a nd K Ll·-1 rclays. whcn u sed in a cross-compound
conf igurauon. must huve t heir trip incupacrt ate d during
start-up,
. ffi.
Exc,ter ,,~
º' 51/27
o
Vo roge H1Qn
Tronsformer VoltoQe
Bus
)'
fTI111
ttU
87G
A.:1..111ve--1----- 87T
Protecnve
Retoys
Oevice Number Char1
2 TO 5 59NT CV8
21 1(0 11 63 SPR
40 KLF o- KLF I 64 DGF l "Brush" Machones Onty}
41 F,eld Breaker B6G WL Generator Lockout
86G 46 500 87G CA o, SA 1 Generator o,rrerent,at
51/27 cov 87T HU-1 Overau D1fferen1,al
SIN ca ( J Number of Retays Aequired
Negollv~------ 59N SV 7 16V
e 83
41 ~
4
4
1..P~LP
~9 ~9N
NT
<D
';"
Po\11've !~)
Openo1 Ottie,
55Herll Trops
40
LP
----±-11,_[. . _T-
21 5001000KVA(Above24Kv) Supply Supply
6----iH eHt-e
3) Above lOOOKVAIAny Voltage) Non-Unit Connected
Tronsfonner
M)
_1 A \bltoge
l3'
Tr=~r 2?
Loods Oevice Number Chart
47
27
-Type CP Relay
• Type SV Relay
86R ·Fault Relay
Lockout Auxiliary
Control Schematic
(2lVT's
Contact Close if.
Posilive-r-=-
1 ~:~ ----
Device Number Chart
32 -CRN-10 Main Supply Fails
46 -coa
51G -CO 47A ---- Alternate Supply is Sanstactorv
51 V ·COV
52 • Breaker
86 -WL 27 ---- Bus Voltage Low
87 ·CA
86R ---- Fault Relays Have Not Operated
0 May not be Required
528 Main Supply Breaker Open
,f Turbine Has Srmuar
Resistor Protecnon
528 ---- Alternate Supply Breaker Open
Í'Of Sys•ems 600 Voltsº"° ) Number of Relays
Required
Below Cther Types of
Grourtd eg Woy Be Appl cctse Oose 8reoker A
Applicable to Small Generators
1) 0500KVA18elow5Kvl
2) 500 IOOOKVA (Below 2 4 Kv)
Figure 6-25. Recommended Protection for Small Generators as Figure 6-26: Bus Transfer Scheme Utilizing Polyphase Voltage
Used on Industrial Plants. Relays.
Chapter 7 l. (NTRODUCTíON
Xll. Negative Sequence Currerit Relays f. Out-of-stcp operation for synchronous motors
Xlll. Out-of-Step Prorection
g. Loss of excitation for synchrcnous motors
XIV. Loss of F xcltatíen
XV. Typical Appllcat ion Combinations Protective relays applled for one hazard rnay opera te for
others, For example. a relay designed to opérate on an ex-
cessive overload could also protecr ugainst .¡¡ Iault ln the
windings.
While protectíve relays rnay be applled to a motor of any sel at 1.6 times ILR ar more, where ILR Is the actual sym-
size or voltage rating, in practico they are usually applicd metrical starting current, as Limited by source impedance,
only to U1e larger or hígher voltage morors. The ratio r3,p/lLR should thus be greater than approxí-
rnalely 5 .o.
Il. PHASE-FAULT PROTECTION In general then, instantaneous trip units can be used for
phase protection if the motor k V A (or approxima tely the
The phase-Iault current at the termínals of a rnotor is usually horsepower) Is lcss than one-lialf the supply transformer
cónsiderably larger than any normal current, such as start- kVA. If not, differcntial relays are required for sensitive
ing current or the motor contribution to a fault. For this faull detection.
reason, a high-ser ínstantaneous-rrip unít is recommended
for fast, reliable, inexpensive, simple protection. Wherc the The Iogic for this critecion comes from the Iollowing. As·
starting current value approacbes the fault current, however, sume a motor is connected to a supply transformen with
sorne forro of di.fferential relaying becomes necessary. Toe 8%, [mpedance, The máximum fault current at the trans-
sensitivity of the differential relay is independent of start- former secondary wirh an infinite source is:
Ing current , while lnstanraneous-tríp uní is, which respond
only to phase eurrent, must be set above the starting cur-
rent (includíng de offset). This difference is shown in Fig-
ure 7-1. = 12.5 per unit on the transformer base.
Note: 1LR
lo Thls Case Coveraqe = (.08 t XM)
by IT Is Very Sllghl.
where Xr,,1 is the motor rrnpedance,
13(/)
In order that > 5, XM rnust be greater than 0.32 per
1 LR
' -,
1-- IT 100 Mln unit on the transforrner rated kV A base.
lu~ (l.!lc~ed Fl<>tor cu,rno•)
>;
Use Diflerenllol ~eloy Where Motor J<VA Ratino
Duríng across-the-line starting of large motors, care must be taneous trip unít or 51 (CO) time overcurrent relay , Typical
taken to prevent the high inrush current from operating the sensitivitíes obtainable with these ground-fault protection
ground relays. Unequal saturation of the current transform- systerns are shown in Table 7-J, repeated below. A voltage
ers produces a false residual current ln the secondary or re- is generated in rhe secondary windlng only when zero se·
lay círcuits, Using two- rather than three-phase relays or q uence current is Ilowing in the primary leads. Sin ce virtu-
using three-phase relays wiíh dífferent impedances will tend ally aU rnotors have their neutrals ungrounded, no zero se-
to in crease the effects of false residual currents. quence curren! can Ilow in the motor Ieads unless there is a
ground fault on the load side of the BYZ. 1 r surge-protec-
tlve equlprnent is cormected at the rnotor terminals how-
False relay operation is unlikely if the pilase burdens are
ever, current may be conducted to earth by this equípmenr,
Un1 ited so that the voltage developed by the current trans-
To date, there has been no reported case of an instantane-
Iormer during starting is less than 7 5 percent of the relay-
ous relay connected to a BYZ current transformer trlpping
ing accnracy voltage rating of the current transf'ormer for
beca use of surge-protective equiprnent. The presence oí
the particular et tap being used. (f false relay operation is
such eq uipment rnay safely be ignored in choosing a relay.
a problern, the ground relay burden should be increased by
using a lower relay tap. J\11 three transforrners will Lhen be
forced to saturate more uniforrnly, effectively reducing the Table 7-1
false residual current, This Increased saturation may reduce
the sensitivity to legírnare ground faults and this should be Relay Settings and Sensitivities Using the
checked. Alternatively , a resistor or reactor can be con- 50/5 BYZ Zero Sequence Curren! Transformers
nected in series with the ground relay.
M••Ímum Primnry Jt0
Relay Minimum Sen8ilivity in Amperes fur Acc,uat,
The cornrnon practice in 2400-to-14,400-V station service, Relay Type S,tting l>rimary .110 Ampere~ fiming and Counlína1ío11
BYZ 14-3/4 10 •nd 7-3{4 íD ~r~ rh~ insitlc uiamete1 of I he wmuow in Incites.
b--<1----4-1------------~ Mo1or The zero sequence type current transfonner 1s also used in
the flux balancing differentiaJ sche1ne, ln which each phase
is equipp~tl as shown in Figure 7·3. This sche1ne combines
ITH excellent phase- and ground-fault sensitivity witb freedoaJ
-01
50 co from load current and startú1g curre11t problenis .
.............. 51º'
•
.Q
·i_r ~
32N lCS
o" Hi -Vo
g- G1oundlng
(Refereocel
32N
- -
+ 3.?N
~
Resislot
32N
*"
'
----~
8
~ 1
__ ..
e
g ..' Re1Qys ¡,_
•
-
NCQ01,ve- .....------
u
~-
a"' • ~ t.+ Alle,nole Ac Curren! Altema19 Schemu to, H,gh Res,slance Ground111¡¡ ol Neu¡ral ol Transtormers
Q.
Ctrcu,t W,lh E11he, Ring
"" -- 32N.
- +32N
~
or Convent,onol Type
~ Curren! Tronstormers [>
'
Molor
'
8 .
32N
Figure 7-4· Typical Connections of The Product Tvpe CWP·l (32NJ tor Hígh Resistance Grounded Systems.
7-5
1
Srcrtlnq Curve
Llneor-Llneo1 Ploí
Curren!
CO Choroctensnc (51)
Figure 7·5: Motor Staning TIme Exceeding Permissible Locked
Rotor Time.
Time
/
Current Are.o "A''
is a trace of current against time (Figure 7-6). Ir ILR is ap- ~ ~
plied to the CO relay for time ta• tbe contacts are very
nearly cJosed. Current does noí drop below the CO pickup
value untíl time lb. Contact closure occurs al sorne point
te, e ven though the CO re lay characteristic is always a bove
CO Pick-up lLR Currenl
U1e current trace. (I·llnScolF
/
change of Impedance with motor acceleratíon makes the
distance relay particularly well suited to this application. lt
also affords tirne-delayed backup protection for three-phase
Current TroeE faults and lnstantaneous backup prctection for two-phase
and the ground faults.
ca Pick-up If neither of the above schemes is applicable to a motor
which has a starting time grearer than the allowable locked-
Figure 7·6, CO Characteristic Compared to Current Trace.
rotor time, a mechanical zero-speed switch may be used.
This devíce supervises an overcurrent unit and prevents its
Overa narrow range, such as that between two and three operatíng a timer once rotation is detected. Thís scherne
times pickup, a CO relay can be assurned to operare if the will not detect a Iaílure to accelerate to full speed nor pulí-
integral of (J - l )" dt exceeds K, where I is the m ultlple of out wíth continued rolation. as the other t wo schernes wUI.
1
VoltsAc
1
__ 52o
21~30
2 CV-4 21 00
lhaóeQiJOte
Proteenon-
GQod
,
lllllEf
TIme Pro1ect1on /
2 CV.LJ Srorttng
Time
Note:
Pnase Pnnse Onll cannot Opera te
on loatT or on Starhng Cu«eo1
X I a) Cunenl
00Un,t
IJOIOOdeó
Motor
Loooao
: >-L-o:~~t----:;:::
Molar
W1th Locked
Motor Rotor
lmpedonce
Time
30Unlt Good Rrotcct1on
Chonge of lmpedonce W1t11 C0·5Rell'.ly (51~
-.. ..,.,L.ocked
Time os Motor Acéelérotes
Ovei Prorects --....e;_"-"'.: :¡ Rotor
Trme
Slor11nQ T ime Is
Figure 7-8¡ K0-1 O Oistence Relay (211 U~ed for locked Rotor (bl Currem
and Backup Protection for Larga Motor.
V. OVERLOAD PROTECTION
BL-1
Heating curves are difficult to obtain and vary considerably (49)
wíth motor síze and ücsign. Further, these curves are an ap- Mo11;ir Cotrob1111 y
Time
proximate average of an lmprecíse tbennaJ zone, where vary-
- " ~ked
ing degrees of darnage or shortened insulation life rnay oc- ROtQI
Thermal overload relays offer good protection Ior light and Figure 7-9. Typícal Motor and Relay Time Current Characteristics.
medíum (long-duration) overloads, but may nor Ior heavy
overloads (Figure 7-9a). The long-time induotion overcur-
approved means." This requirement is necessary because
rent rele.y offers good protectíon for the heavy overloads,
single phasing (opening one supply lead) in the primary of a
bu t overprotects for lígh; and medium overloads ( Figure
delta-wye transforrner that supplles a motor will produce
7-9b). A combination of the two devíces provides complete
three-phase motor currents in a 2 1.1 relationshlp. If the
thermal protectíon (Figure 7·9c).
[\VO uníts of current appeared in a phase with no overload
VI. THERMAL RELA YS The DT-3 relay is a d' Arsonval-type de con tact-m aking mil-
liammeter which is connecred across the bridge. Thc bridge
There are two types of thermal relays, Those such as the is energized by either 125 or 250 Vdc or supplied with 120
CT and DT-3 opérate from exploring coils embedded in the Vac through a transforrner and full-wave bridge recrifier in
machíne windlngs. They are applled only to large motors, the relay , The relay scale is callbrated Erom either so? lo
usuaííy 1500 H P and up, where exploríng coils are available l 90°C ( or 1 00° to l 60ºC). Toe right- or left-hand con-
when specified. Replíca-type therrnal overcurre nt relays, tacts e lose when the ternperatu re rises or falls to the preset
such as the BL-1, operate directly from the cutrent dra wn value between so? and l 90°c (or looº and
160ºC). The
by the machíne. normal setting for class B machines is 120°c.
Vl.A. CT and DT-3 Relays (49) No eurrent-responsive relay can protcct a motor subjected
to block ed ventilation, The D1'-3 relay overcornes this
The CT and DT-3 are bridge-rype relays, The exploring shortcorning by rcsponding to temperature alone.
The CT operating unit is an induction disc, with the two The thermal repHca relay is recornmencled ,vhere embedded
torque-producing windings connected across the bridge. Cur- ten1perature detectors are not available; the bridge-type re-
rent Ilowing through a current transrormer from one phase lays are reco1nn1en<led ,vhere they are. The DL-1 re-pl1ca-
of the machine supplies energy to the bridge. The relay con- type relay is tempera tu re co1npensated and opera tes in a
tacts close when the ternperature of the stator windings Cixed titne ata ¡,,iven curren l. regardless of relay ambient
reaches a predeterrnlned valué and the currcnt Is sufficieutly variatlons. Wltile thls characteristic is desirable for the
high. Tripping on thermal overload is also avoided if the stated conditions, it produces underprotection for lligh
duration of the overload is short. 1notor a1nbient and overprotection for low tnotor ambient.
7-R
r +1 I rr 1-)
lCS·L
Curten!
1ronslarme, ICS·L
co 520
52
ICS·T
tcs-r
Atorm
Re,;el
-----• Alorm
J0,000
HighT
Low l
H1gh
............
r I
' 1000 : co
lowT I 1 1 • • Nore:
1 I Aá¡us1ob1e
t Alar:..L.
1 Chorocier<Slie
11).lorm Tri¡,
'
100
1
ITH-1
l
• 1 ...
3-2.!) 1 t---Trlp
Slortrng
Curren! nme 1 Currenr
lb) le} 10 1
Figure 7·11. Typica1 Schematic and Operallng Characteristlcs tor The
¡ Symmetrlcal
Asyrnmetricot
:
Type CT Relay (49) for Motor Overload Pro1P..atio11.Uts t ( Locked ROlot)
Advantages 11,,. Good Pro1eciio11 for Overload Jcigglng ~ i---IIT
Operatlon) 1
1L+-~_.j.~---4~--1,.....L.~...¡.....~==:;:====
1 1;75 3 10 12 ~
Current tn perUnllof Ratt!d
VII. COM RELA YS (50/5 l) FOR OVERLOAD
PROTECTION Figure 7-12: Protectlve Schame for Largo Motor Using COM-5
Relay (50-51 I With Alerm.
The COM-5 relay shown in Figure 7-13 conrains a six-cycle Low voltage prevents motors frorn reaclung rated speed ou
tímer. Moderare overloads up to the ITll pickup cause CO starting, or causes rhem to lose speed and draw heavy over-
unil trippíng with time delay· above ITA pickup, six-cycle loads. Motors should be disconnected when severe low
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9-1
Chapter 9 l. INTRODUCTION
IV. High-Impedance Differential Systern For the same reasons, de saturation also is unequal. De sat-
uration is much more serious than ac saturation, because a
V. Setting Example for KAB Bus Protection
relatively small arnount of de from an asymmetrical fault
A. Setting for the Voltage Unit wave will saturate the transformer core and appreciably re-
B. Setting for the IT Current Unit duce the secondary output.
Externa! Fault
Bus
15 5
Volts Volts
(9-2)
ZR = relay impedance
9-3
0.4
~
0.3
0.2 I'
- JI'
0.10
/, IV1
,r, , ,
I
.oe
"J
,, r
,,
",
I 111
.008
and is stamped on the nameplate. The stated impedance is )
.006
accurate to within ±5%. I J /
.005
vi)
vv
V
.004
--
The mutual impedance, accurate to within ± 1%, determines ~j
/1/ !/1)
the spread between the maximum externa! fault for no trip-
'1 1/11
ping and the mínimum interna! fault for which the relays are /, 'J V
set to trip. For the externa! fault shown in Figure 9·2, the
worst possible case would occur if the linear couplers on ali i .00 1 1
J
J) '!¡ V
2 3 4 5 7 10 20 30 40 50 70 100
the unfaulted source circuits were out by +I %, and thc lin- Curren!in RelOy, M,lhomperes
ear coupler on the faulted circuit was out by -1 %. Maxi-
Figure 9-4: Typical Energy Curves for The Type LC·2 Ralay
mum error is thus 2%. With this maximum error, if the re·
lay were set to opera te for an X-ampere interna! fault, it
would also trip for 50X-ampere externa! faults. with 30-, 40-, 60-, and 80-ohm taps. A contactor switch
shock-proofs the relay , The 20-to-30-ms operatrng time in·
Applying a 2: 1 safety factor, the recommended application eludes 12 ms for the contactor switch.
range between the máximum externa! fault and mínimum
interna! fault is specified as 25: 1. The externa! fault usu- The LC-1 rclay was originally designed for high-Iault cur-
ally will be a solid three-phase fault, while the interna! fault rcnt busses and the LC-2 for light-fault curren! busses. Op-
will usually be a line-to-ground fault. crating cxperience has shown, however, that thc LC-2 relay
can also be used for high-fault currcnt busses if a resistor is
Two relays are applied with linear couplers: the LC-1 relay uscd to limit the opcrating curren! within the recommended
operates at 0.5 to 8 VA; the LC-2 relay operates at .0085 to range.
.062 VA. Toe typical energy curves for the LC-2 are shown
in Figure 9-4. When systems are grounded through a current-lirniting irn-
pedance, or when the 1: 25 current ratio requirement is not
The LC-1 relay has a solenoid operating unit (ac contactor rnet, a fourth or ground-type LC-2 relay may be required.
switch) connected through an impedance-matching auto·
transformer with 30-, 40-, 60-, and 80-ohm taps. These U.A. Applying Linear Coupler Bus Protection
taps represent the approxirnate interna! impedance, ZR, of
the relay. Interna! impedance will vary in magnitude and Thc first stcp in setting linear coupler relays is to determine
phase angle with contact travel. Above 150% of pick-up, the maximum fault current that can occur on a fault exter-
the time of operation is 16 ms or less. na! to the bus. This value is divided by 25 to give the mini·
mum setting. Comparing this calculated value with the rnin-
Toe LC-2 relay consists of a polar unit energized through a imum fault current for a fault on the bus will indicate
full-wave rectifier and impedance-matching transformer whether a ground relay is required.
9-4
The relay-óperating voltage is obtained by multiplying the d. Selecting the 60-ohm tap and assuming ZR = 60 /22°
mínimum setting current by .005. The relay tap should be ohrns = 55.63 + j 22.48 ohms, the total secondary circuit
approximately equal to the total self-impedance of ali the impedance, Zs
linear couplers in the circuit, since maximum energy trans-
fer exists when these impedances are matched. Close
matching is only important if the mínimum setting is crit-
ically near mínimum fault. In fact, deliberate mismatching = (36.0 + j 48.35) + (55.63 + j 22.48)
can be used where the relay current is higher than the relay
range. = 91.63 + j 70.83.
Il.B. Setting Example for Linear Coupler Bus Protection or, Z5 = 115.81 /37.7° ohms.
A typical example will illustrate the application and setting. e. From Equation (9-1 ),
A section of 230 kV bus has 6 circuits (3 transmission lines, Mlpri = 953 x .005
2 transformer banks to the 115 kV systern and l bus tie),
The maximum externa! fault is 23,800 amperes rms syrn- = 4.76 Volts
metrical, and the mínimum interna! fault is 1800 amperes
rms symmetrical. The linear couplers on the six círcuíts f. From Equation (9-2),
have the following self-impedance:
c. The sum of the linear coupler self-impedances, Zc Since this current is above the recommended setting leve!
shown in Figure 9-4, a resistor should be used to reduce
= 36.0 + j 48.35 the relay current.
= 60.28/ 53.33° ohms. h. Using a 19-ohm resistor in parallel with the LC-2 coi!,
and assuming a coi! impedance of 48/22º ohms for the
9-5
= .0676 Amp.
-- --
120
1
i
110 The currcnt in the rclay coil of the paralleled combina-
,- ,- tion is
100 ,__ - - - >-----
90 - - ·- - - =.0676x 19
1
80 \ R 66 O
?O '\ <,
= .0195 Amp.
\ \ ..........._
--::: --
-- -r---
60
\ '\
50 1\
r-, ~ .son Top- -
k. From Figure 9-5, ZR = 56/22° ohms for 19.5 mA on
-----
\~ 1--- 1
1
the 60-ohm tap. To adjust, repeat step (h). Toe total
40
-, I"-.. 1Í. 001Top-
- secondary circuit impedance, Zs
...... i4on;rop 19x56~
20 30!11Toon
1 !9+56/22°
10
=19x56~
74flM
Curren! in Reloy, Mtl rornperes
Figure9-5: Typical lmpedance Curve for The Type LC-2 Relay. = 14.38 /5.6°
60-ohm tap, with a relay current of 35 mA, the resistor/ or, Z=14.3+j 1.4ohms.
coil paralleled combination has an impedance, Z, of
Repeating step (i) and U). above , the total secondary
19x48~ circuir impedance, Z5
19 + 48/22º
= (36.0 + j 48.35) + ( 14.3 + j 1.4)
19 X 48 /22º
=-----
66.0 /15.8° = 50.3 + j 49.75
"'13.82 /6.2°
- 70.74/45.32° ohms
= 13.74 + j 1.49 ohms
I 4.76
sec = 70.5
i. Again, as in stcp (d) abovc, the total secondary circuit
= .0674 Amp.
impcdancc, ls
19
"'49.74 + J 49.84 'R = .0674 x 74
For IR= .0173 Amp on the 60-ohm tap, Figure 9-5 indi- not change the installation; it only requires a relay adjust-
cates that ZR = 5 8 /22° ohms. Sin ce this value is quite ment.
close to the 56 /22° value used in step (g), the calcula-
tion need not be carried any further. In most applíca- 11.C. Frequency Response of Linear Couplers
tions, one or two calculations are sufficient.
Linear couplers transform all frequencies very efficiently.
The relay should be adjusted to trip at 1 = .O 173 Amp on Bus differential applications with back-to-back switched
the 60-ohm tap by using the rnagnetic shunts at the rear of capacitors can produce very high frequency, high voltage
the polar element assembly. transients. Magnitudes of 4.75kV rms at 2900 hertz have
been measured across the linear coupler secondaries. Type
If', for this example, the maximum fault current were in- R VS signa! arrestors can be used on the linear coupler sec-
creased to 35,200 Arnp, the calculation would be: ondaries to clip these transients. They have a 60 hertz
spark-over value of 1100 volts rms, an impulse spark-over of
I . = 35,200 2600 volts and discharge voltage levels between 1100 and
pn 25
1600 volts (8 x 20 microsecond wave crest) for 1500 to
= 1408 Amp. 5000 amperes. As non-symmetrical breakdown of the ar-
restors can occur to produce mornentary false relay current,
Mlpri = 1408 x .005 an 8-12 millisecond dela y should be added to the relay, par-
ticularly the LC-1 type.
= 7.04 Volts
II.D. Advantages and Summary
Using the same 60-ohm relay tap, step (k) is repeated using
ZR = 52 /22° ohms. Thus, the combined resistor/coil im- As illustrated in the above example, the linear coupler bus
pedance, Z protection system can easily accommodate system changes
and future expansión. In addition, it can be applied toan
= 19 X 52~
unlimited number of circuits.
19 + 52/22º
Since the linear couplers do not contain iron, there are no
= 19x52~
saturation or transient problems. The setting is calculated
69.98/16.6° using only Ohm's law. Toe operating time is less than 32 ms
= 14.12/5.84º for the LC-2 and 16 ms for the LC-1. Both relays req uire
mínimum panel space. The operating voltages are safe for
That is, Z = 14.05 + j 1.44 ohms. personnel and well within the insulation limits of all con-
nected apparatus. Since linear couplers may be open cir-
Tite total secondary impedance, 25 cuited with complete safety, circuits can be switched among
severa) bus sections much more easily than can conventional
= (36.0 + j 48.35) + ( 14.05 + j 1.44) current transformers.
= 50.05 + j 49.79 In connecting linear couplers, the four wires from the star-
connected couplers should be transposed with respect to ali
That is, Zs = 70.6 /44.85° ohms.
other circuits and carried in the same conduit or duct. If a
7.04 multi-conductor cable is used, the other conductors should
'sec = 70.6 not be used unless there is no possibility of their inducing
tripping voltages in the linear coupler circuits.
= .0997 Amp.
19 Manual test auxiliaries are used to check the scheme during
IR = .0997 x
70.6 installation and at regular test intervals. To check the nor-
= .0268 Arnp. mal differential both for correct connections and for a
shorted coupler, three high-resistance voltmeters are con-
This current is within the recommended operation range as nected across the relays. With load currents flowing, these
indicated in Figure 9-4. Thus, an increase in current does voltages should be very low or zero. Since the circuit might
9-7
also be open at sorne point, a second test, which requires The saturating autotransformer also presents a high imped-
opening the trip circuit, is also applied. A low series volt- ance to the Ialse-difference current, which tends to limit the
age of 0.6 or 1.2 volts is introduced into the differential current through the operating coil and to force more equal
source. Approximately half this test voltage will appear saturation of the current transformers. On interna! faults,
across the voltmeter; the remainder will appear across the where a desirable hígh-difference current exists, saturation
rest of the loop. An open circuit will cause the voltrneter to reduces the impedance. A further advantage of the saturat-
regíster zero voltage or full-test voltage, depending on íng autotransformer is that it provides a very effective shunt
whether the coupler or relay circuit is open. for the de component, appreciably reducing the de sensitiv-
ity of the operating units. At the minimum pick-up current
lll. MULTI-RESTRAINT DIFFERENTIAL SYSTEM of 0.15 ±5% Amp, the restraining coils are ineffective.
Externa! conncctions are as shown in Figures 9-6, 9-7, and This rule does not apply, however, when three feeder groups
9-8. The term circuit refers to a source orto a feeder group. are involve d. Three feeder groups require connections as
For example, assume a bus consists of two sources and six shown in Figure 9-8. First, each prirnary circuit must be
feeders, and that the feedcrs are lumped into two groups. identified as either a source ora feeder. As defined here, a
feeder contributes only a small portion of the total fault
current for a bus fault: ali other circuits are sources. Next,
Restro,nt Windings a number of feeders are lumped into a feeder group by par-
+ R alleling feeder current transformers. Each feeder group
must have less than 14 Amp load current and not contribute
Auto more than 1 O percent of the total-phase or ground-fault cur-
Tronsformer ren t for a bus faul t.
op Restro,nt
Wind1ngs
+ R
':;"
Restraint Windings
+ R
Figure 9 ..e: Connection of One CA-16 Relay per Phase to Protect
a Bus With Six Equivalent Circuits. (Connections for
One Phase Only are Shown).
87 87 87
Posmve
Phose A Phose 8 PhoseC
A~~~~~~~~~~---~~~~~.-~~~i--~~~-A
B 8
e e
Negotive
Device Chart
Type Funcuon
87 Type KAS Bus Differential Relay
868 868 Type WL Lockout Relay
52· Breakers
cores, such as those used in metal-ciad equipment. All cur- suppressor (varistor), an adjustable tuned circuit, andan in-
rent transformers should have the same ratio and opérate on stantaneous current unit (IT). Presently, the voltage-lirniting
the full winding. If taps must be used, the windings be- suppressor is a one-disc varistor , whereas in the past, a fcur-
tween the taps must be completely distributed, and any disc unit was supplied.
high voltage at the full-tap terminal caused by autotrans-
former action should be checked to avoid insulation break- On externa! faults, the voltage across the relay terminals
down. In general, auxiliaries should not be used to match will be low=essentially zero unless the current transformers
ratios. Where auxiliaries cannot be avoided, the additional are unequally saturated. On internal faults, the voltage
impedance and the high voltage which they transform across the relay terminals will be high and will operate the
should be checked, both to ensure satisfactory operation overvoltage unit. Since the impedance of the overvoltage
and to avoid insulation failure. unit is 2600 ohms, this high voltage may approach the open-
circuit voltage of the current transformer secondaries. The
To minimize the impedance from the current transformers
varistor limits this voltage to a safe level.
to the junction point, all the secondaries should be parallel
in the switchyard, as close as possible to the current trans-
formers ( Figure 9-9). Optirnally, the junction point should Since off-set fault current or residual magnetism exists in
be equidistant from all current transformers. From the the current transformer core, there is an appreciable de
junction, four leads connect to the three KAB relays. The component in the secondary current. The de voltage that
high-impedance differential KAB relay consists of an in- thus appears across the relay will be filtered out by the
stantaneous overvoltage cylinder unit (V), a voltage-limiting tuned circuir, preventing relay pickup.
9-10
The KAS relay has successfully performed operations up to The rnargin factor curve, shown in Figure 9-1 O, is based on
externa! fault current of 200 Amp secondary, and down to tests of the KAB relay in the Westinghouse High Power
interna! fault current of O. 27 Amp secondary. Its typical Laboratory. The curve includes a safety factor of 2. The
operating speed is 25 milliseconds. maximum nurnber of circuits that can be connected to the
relay, or the mínimum interna! fault current required to op-
erate the relay, can be estimated from the following equa-
tion.
Thc overvoltage unit is set by calculating the maximum pos-
sible voltage on external fault as f'ollows: (9-6)
(9-4) where
mum voltage is equal to the resístance drop of the second- SF 0 NVK 1.25 ~~
ary current through the leads and secondary winding of the 1.00 "'<~~~t,,;,,......__
saturated current transformer. In practice, the f'aulted cur- :;: '«~~~~~~- ,, ·¡
rent transformer will never completely saturate, and the l<4: ~ ~
RecommendKAB Reloy ~
---..,., "v"; /Unit
0.251-+-1--1--11---1---J::!,'4::.....,M<A, / . / Settin~
. , ~,3 Ared / r/,
... u.7,.,
/.1
source current transformers will tend to saturare. As a re-
O .60 .80 1.00 1.20 1,40 1.60 1.80 2.00
sult, the actual maximum voltage is less than the theoretical
, e- VR
value. The margin factor, K, which modifies this voltage, Mafg1n rOCIOf K= ( Rs + RL) lF
;;¡
varies inversely with the current transformer saturation fac-
Figure 9-10: Empirical Margin Factor for Setting The V-Unit of The
tor, SF. KAB Relay.
1 (Rs + RL) 1F *The knee voltage is defined as the intersection of the extension of
(9-5) the two straight-line portions of the saturation curve. The ordinate
SF - NVk
and abscissa must use the same scales.
9·11
1000 The mínimum setting of the V-unit in the KAB relay , there-
900
Klne Disc Type-¡-, L fore, should be at least 266 V-the larger value for either
-
800 the three-phase or phase-to-ground conditions, as calculated.
700
/
¡¡¡
! 600
¡....,, ....
~
V.B. Setting for the IT Current Unit
--
:i 500
o Four Oisc Type , 1/
> 400
300
~ . The IT setting is deterrnined from Figure 9-12. The higher
200
100
.01
--- 0.1 ,o
value is used as the ordinate as determined from the three-
phase and phase-to-ground fault. Thus for the example, the
ordinate value is;
Amperes l RMS)
1 '" ...
resistance, Rs, is 0.93, and one-way Jead resistance to junc- 400
, )
tion point, RL' is 1.07 ohms. ~lz 350 ....
;;...1 300 .. /
+
~
/
V.A. Settings for the V Voltage Unit s
(/)
250 /
/
200
.
'[
Figure 9·12: Typical Setting Curve for The IT Unit The KAS Relay.
VR > .82 (0.93 + 1 .07) 60,000
- 400
However, econornics and location of current transformers Of the two types, the HU-4 relay is preferred, as it is im-
often dictate that both units be protected in one differen- mune frorn operation 011 transforrner magnetizing inrush.
tial zone. For these applications, either the rnulti-restraint The HU-4 should always be applied for large transformer
HU-4 or the CA-26 relays should be used. banks or for banks associated with 1-IV and EHV busses. A
typical application, shown in Figure 9-13, protects a three-
The HU-4 relay is similar to the HU and HU-1 relays, ex- winding transformer bus with four circuits. Figure 9-14
cept that it has four restraint windings. Also, the rectified shows another typical application used in EHV systems.
outputs of the restraint transformers are connected in se-
ries, providing a higher restraint force when a through fault The CA-26 relay is applicable for relatively small transform-
occurs on the bus. Since the de saturation of current trans- ers remote from generating stations, HV, and EHV busscs.
formers will allow current to pass in the HRU transformers Here, inrush will usually be light and will not cause the
and possibly pick up the IIT, the llT unit of the HU-4 re- CA-26 to operate. If', however, complete security against
lay is set at 15 times the rms tap value to prevent false trip- inrush is required, the HU-4 must be applied,
ping for externa! faults.
With the CA-26 relays, the Iour-circuit bus connections of
Similar to the CA-16, the CA-26 relay has a stronger con- Figure 9-7 are not recommended Ior bus protection, since
tact spring and a higher pickup of 1.25 ±5% amperes to help the relay may have too much restraint when energlzing the
override inrush. Its variable restraint curve is more inverse bus on a f'ault.
than the CA-16, and its operating time is approximately 3
cycles. The bus CA-16 relay should not be used for transformer dif-
ferential, since it is too sensitive to override magnetizing in-
rush.
double line-to-ground fault. The phase-fault components The directional relays close contacts when fault power flows
can cause the current transformers to saturate unequally. In into the bus section. Back contacts on the overcurrent re·
these applications, the C0-2 relay is used with operating lays open contacts when the fault is externa! on the feeder.
times of I O to 18 cycles. While the relay cost is low, the Ali contacts are connected in series, and, when the fault is
engineering cost is usually high, since considerable study or on the bus, the trip circuit is energized through a timer. A
experience is required to assure correct operation. time delay of severa! cycles will perrnit ali the relays to de·
cide correctly the dírection of the fault.
Vll.B. Partial-Differential Relaying
The disadvantage of this scherne is the large number of con·
In this scheme, only the source circuits are differentially tacts and complex connections required. There is also the
connected, using an overcurrent relay with time delay. The remote possibility of the directional elements not operating
relays protecting thc feeders or circuits are not in the dif- on a solid three-phase bus fault as a result of zero voltage.
ferential. Essentially , this arrangement combines time-
delay bus protection with feeder backup protection.
VII.O. Fault Bus (Ground Fault Protection Only)
Where some or ali of the feeder circuits have current-lirniting
reactors, a partial-differential circuit is used with distance- This method requires that all the bus-supporting structure
type relays. These distance-type relays are set into, but not and associated equiprnent be interconnected and have only
through , the reactor impedance. The reactor impedance is one connection to ground. An overcurrent relay is con-
used to select between faults on the bus and externa! faults nected in this ground path. Any ground fault will cause
on the feeders. The scheme is both fast and sensitive. fault current to flow through the relay circuit, tripping the
bus through the multi-contact auxiliary tripping relay. A
VII.e. Dírectional-Comparison Relaying Iault detector, energized from the neutral of the grounded
transformer or generator, prevents accidental tripping. This
Directional-comparison relaying uses individual directional scheme requires special construction measures and is expen-
relays on ali sources and overcurrent relays on all feeders. sive,
10-1
Chapter 10
Chaptcr 10 l. INTRODUCTION
f. Zone distance
l. 1-ligh voltage ()IV): 11 S-230 kV
Number Relative
To these three considerations must be added economic fac- Type oí Protection Basic Relay Type Required Cost (pu)
tors and the relay engineer's preferences based on his tech-
nical knowledge and experience. Because of these many Tirne-Overcurrem co 1 1.00
will focus on basic application rules and coordination pro- Product Overcurrent CWCorCWP 1 2.20
eedures to aid the engineer in the selection of proper pro-
tective systerns for distribution, subtransmission, and trans- Instantaneous and
Product Overcurrent CWC or CWP with IIT 1 2.SO
mission circuits for both phase and ground faults. Also
covered are series-cornpensated transmission lines; and de Directional Time-
Directional Time·
Overcurrent CRD 1 2.85
Nu,n~r Relative
Type oí Protection Basic Rtlay Type Required Cost (pu) lnstantaneous and
Directional Time·
Time-Overcurrent co Overcurrcnt CRD with IIT 1 3.IS
3 1.00
Direclional Time·
Dlrectíonal lnstantaneous
0.ercurrent Overcurren t KRD 1 3.80
CR 2.70
Directional lnstantaneous
lnsuntaneous and
and Oirectional Time·
Directional Time-
Overcurrent IRCor IRP 1 4.10
Oeercurrent CR with IIT 3 2.90
Direcrional lnstantaneous
Directional lnstantaneous
and Directional Time·
O.ercurrent KRV 3 3.40
Overcurrent IRD 1 4.40
U. DISTRIBUTION CIRCUIT PROTECTION Time relaying delays the operation of the relay for a remote
fault, allowing relays and breakers closer to the fault to
Lines from distribution substations are usually radial to the clear it, if possible. In the exarnple shown in Figure 10-1,
load area. Open loops, operating normally as radial lines, relays at H will delay for faults at (1) or (2). lf the fault is
provide alternate supplies to the load from different sub- at ( 1 ), this dela y will allow the R relays and breaker to op-
stations. These loops may be temporarily closed for po wer era te before H. Thus, although H would not open for a
to flow between the substations; that is, in either direction fault at (1) (unless the R relays & associated breaker failed),
in the line. it would operate for a fault at (2). This technique, called
coordination or selectivity , is designed to combine míni-
For the purpose of relay application, a feeder is considered mum operating time for the close-in faults with a long
to be radial if, ata particular relay location, the máximum enough delay for remo te faults. In Figure 10-1, for exarn-
back-feed (fault current in the non-trip direction) is less ple, the relays and breaker at R must coordinate or select
than 25 percent of the mínimum fault current for which the with those to the right (not shown); H must coordinate
protective relay must operate. The following discussion with R, and G with H.
covers protection systems for radial distribution circuits.
Relays are coordinated in pairs. lf, in Figure 10-1, breaker
Il.A. Relay Application to Radial Feeders H relay trip characteristics have already been coordinated
with whatever protective devices exist at R and beyond,
Radial feeders can be protected by non-directional overcur- the breaker at G must then be coordinated with those at H.
rent relays. Figure 10-1 shows severa! sections of a typical For the three critica! fault points-(5), (3), and (2)-the fol-
radial feeder. Because the feeder is radial, each section re- lowing data are required:
quires only one circuit breaker at the source or distribution
substation end. To clear faults at (1) and other faults to a. Fault at (5): Maximum and mínimum fault currents.
the right, then, only the brcaker at R need be tripped. To
clear faults at (2) and (3) and in the area between thern, b. Fault at (3 ): Maximum fault current, which determines
the breaker at H must be tripped. Likewise, to clear faults the required coordination between breakers G and H.
at (4) and (5) and between them, the breaker at G must be
tripped. c. Fault at (2): Mínimum fault current, which determines
when the G relays must opérate to provide backup pro-
tection for faults on line HR not cleared by the breaker
R at H.
ZHR (2) ( 1)
U.B. Coordination
Moximum Foulls e. Select a tap for relay G to operate for fault (2) mini-
(1)-(2) mum and, for a phase relay, not to opérate on rnaxi-
Mínimum ! 11
1
1
( 1 )-(2)
Mox,mum I
1
1 mum load. The fault (2) minirnum should operate the
1
(3)-(4) 1
1
1 relay on at least twice pickup, although compromises
(3)-(4) 1
Mox,mum (5) 1 may be necessary (see Section 11.D. below). For phase
1
1 Mnu;num (5)
relays, the setting must always be above the maximum
1 1 Moximum
1
'1 i load.
Set Points l 1
1
1
1
1
1
f. Select a time lever such that the relay G time-current
t ~
1
curve passes through or above one or both of the set
Curren!
points X and Y and provides the minimum operating
time for maximum and mínimum fault (5 ). This step
Bocl<up Zone Protection
PrimoryZone Pmnory Protecl,on
~ forReloy"H" ~ forRelOy"H" Zonef0<Reloy"G" may require adjusting the tap and time lever settings.
Usually, the maximum fault currenl is the most critica]
~ Bockup Zone 10<Reloy"Cí'
for coordination.
Mínimum FoullS g. Repeat the above steps for each time section "up
r-----;('1')-'(~2')--,~~r,~~--,,~~~~~I~~~~~~~
M1n1rnum , 1 • 1 stream."
• ( 1 )-(2) 1 : ;
I
Mox1rnum : : 1
(3)-(4) 1 l 11.C. Coordinating Time Interval (CTI)
1
M,n,mum (3)-(4) 1 '1
t
!
Mollm~m
'
(5)
Marnmum
'
(5)
1 1
1 Mox,mum Toe coordinating time interval is the mínimum interval that
1 1
'
1
1 '1 permits the remote relay and breaker to clear a fault in its
operating zone, Factors influencing the CTI are as follows:
Curre11t
a. Breaker fault interruption time.
ZBoek ~P ~ Protection
Primoryt Promory Protection~
~one"Hº'.. Zone far Zooe for Reloy "G"
~ Re ~ Reloy"H" b. Relay impulse time-overtravel of the induction disc
I Bockup Zone after the fault current has been interrupted.
I"- forReloy"G"
Figure 10-2: Coordination Setting Procedure for Relays at c. Safety margin to compensate for possible deviations in
Breaker "G" of Figure 10-1. calculated fault currents, relay operating time, and cur-
a .. Determine the critica] fault locations and the fault cur- rent transformer ratio errors.
rent values.
For coordinating at above approximately 3 times mínimum
b. Plot these variables on the time-current graph, drawing trip current, the CTI should be in the tange of 0.2 to 0.3
vertical lines at the various values. sec. Toe larger CTI's should be used on the steep part of
the curve to compensate for errors below a multiplier of
c. Determine the operating time for the next "down- three, A CTI of 0.3 sec. is comrnonly used.
strearn" relay for the maximum and mínimum fault cur-
rents. For relay G, this operating time would be the 11.D. Selecting an Overcurrent Relay Tap
one for relay H on fault (3) maximum and mínimum
(shown as points X and Y, respectively ). This assurnes As indicated above, phase-overcurrent relays must not op-
relay H has been set previously to coordinate with the erate on the maximum load current that can occur on the
line. Situations where temporary overloads may occur,
relays at R and to the right.
such as the cold Joads discussed in the next section, must
d. Add the coordinating time interval (see Section 11.C. be factored into the value used for setting the overcurrent
below) to points X and Y. This step gives two set relays. Thus, it is important for the relay engineer to coop-
points for the characteristic curve of the relay at G. erate with the operating engineers in determining the maxi-
10-6
mum possible load for each circuit. This maximum value- 1.7 times pickup. To prevent tripping the breaker, then,
the short-tirne rnaximum load (STM)-can differ from the the relay operating time at 1.7 times tap value should be
rating of the line, and is the value that should be used for slightly more than 2.3 sec. (about 2.5 sec.). For the C0-9
setting the relays. very inverse relay, this condition requires a time dial setting
of 1.25; for the C0-11 extremely inverse relay, a time dial
The tap (mínimum pickup value of the phase-overcurrent setting of 0.75 is required. Time dial settings of 1.5 for the
relays) should be at least 2 times normal maximum load C0-9 relay and 1.0 for the C0-11 relay are suggested, unless
and generalJy not less than 1.5 times. Assuming that the operating experience indicates otherwise.
STM is greater tban normal rnaximum load, the tap can be
selected as the next available tap greater than 1.25 STM.
Current transformers are normally selected to provide sec- 1 1 ...
ondary currents between 4 and 5 Amp during rated rnaxi- \. Average
ürrent ro Pomr X
X
400
mum load. As a result, the pbase relay taps will usually be
above 5 Amp.
r-..,
-- -
....._ ·x· Reloy Pickup
10 G H R
T,me of()perotionot
Twice P,ckupeurrent
0.8
C0·6 0.33 Secones
C0·7 0.75 Seconds Load Lood Load
e0-8 2.5 Seconds
'2"' C0·9 3.0Seconds
s.
0.6
e0-11 10.0 Secones
11)
s
E"'
¡:: 0.4 ~
¡=: en
i
T en
0.2
Distonce
ºo 5 10
Mul•,ples of P,ckup
15 20
-- -- _., ,,.,,
lf possible, time curves with the same or approxirnately the
same characteristics should be used. ldentical or similar
curves applied at different places in the systern tend to
"track " together as operating conditions change. If differ- o,srance
ent time characteristic curves must be used, all possible op-
figure 10.5: Comparison of Fixed Time Vs In verse Time
erating conditions must be checked carefully to ensure thal Overcurrent Relays on Radial Feeder Circuits
the CTI is maintained for selective tripping. (Using similar
characteristics, in other words, rninimizes coordination to minimum, operating times vary considerably. Even
studies.) though this arrangement can produce very long operating
times for minimurn faults near the remote bus, it is corn-
Fixed-time and inverse-time characteristics for a systern are monly used.
compared in Figure 10-5. Toe last feeder supplying one
load center can be protected with an instantaneous overcur- Line length is also an importan! factor. For a short line-
rent device set into the load. Since no coordination at the one whose impedance is low compared to the source imped-
load is involved, no time delay is required-as shown from ance-the fault currents for the close-in and far-end faults
bus R in both time-distance charts. are essentially the sarne ; that is, the inverse-time character-
istic gives a relatively fixed operating time over the line. In
In lhe upper chart of Figure 10-5, the Iixed-tirne character- such cases, the definite minimurn time characteristic is pre-
istics approximate the definite mínimum time (C0-6). The ferred, since the operating time will not vary as much for
relay at H is coordinated with R, and G with H, as shown. different generation levels as with inverse relays.
The advantage of this arrangcment is that the operating
times are relatively constant and independent of changes in In surnrnary, the ílatter curves (C0-6 and C0-7) are more
fault levels from maximum to mínimum generation. On the suitable when:
other hand, the operating times for heavy faults near the
source are very long. For this reason, this arrangement is a. There are no coordinat ion requirements with other
types of protection devices farther out in the system.
not practica( where lhere are more than one or two radial
feeders from the distribution substation.
b. The variation in current for faults at the near and far
ends of the protected círcuit is too small to take advan-
Toe lower chart of Figure 10-5 shows inverse-time relay
tage of the inverse characteristic.
characteristics, For faults near the relay , particularly for
the maximum conditions, operating times are very short. c. lnstantaneous trip units give good coverage (see Section
Unfortunately. as system conditions change from maximum 11.G.).
10-8
Adding instantaneous trip units to tirne-overcurrent relays For relays at G in Figure 1 0-1, Ks = Zs/Zc1-1; for relays at
provides high speed relay operation for close-in faults and H, K5 = (28 + Zc1-1)/ZHR; etc.
rnay also permit fastcr settings on the relays in the adjacent
section. Recommended values of K¡ are 1.3 for the solenoid or
plu nger units with transient overreach (IIT, SC, IT units),
lnstantaneous trips may be used on a distribution feeder if and 1.1 for the cylinder units w ith negligible transient
the close-in fault (máximum and/or mínimum) is on the overreach (KC-2, KC-4, KO, KR types, IR types). Substi-
order 1.1 to 1.3 or more times the máximum far-end fault. tuting Ki = 1.3 in Equatiori ( 10-1 ),
In other words, the instantaneous unit must operate for as
many of the line faults as possible but to avoid miscoordina- 1 - .3 K8
n= (l 0-2)
tion, must not operate for the far-end fault. The greater the 1.3
ratio of close-in to far-end faults, the more of the line the
instantaneous unit will protect. In terrns of systern con-
If the source and line impedances were equal (Ks = 1 ), the
stants and setting, the reach or coverage of three-phase
instantaneous unit would protect almost 54 percent of the
faults on a Iine can be determined as follows:
line (nearly 82 percent with Ki of 1.1 ), for three-phase.
ing Equations (10-1) or (10-2). As a result , it is difficult to Jays and one ground relay are usecl, thc círcuu should be re·
take advantage of this rcduction. Nevertheless, instantane- moved from service during tcsting and maint cna ncc.
ous trip units still providc faster tripping for the heavy
close-in faults. Thc above arrangemcnt assu mes solid syst ciu grounding.
Other t ypes of grounding are dcscr ibcd in Chapter 11.
Furrhcr information on ground relay application to solid
G H R groundcd systcrns is givcn in Sect ion V of this chapter.
Figure 10-9 shows thc coordination curves í'or Lhe various slation battery. The t ime-current characterist ics of these
protective deviccs on the feeder of Figure 10-8. Rccloscr H dcviccs are differcnt frorn the CO ime-ovcrcurrent
í rclays.
must be set to opérate for ali faults along thc feeder into
branches C and E arid, therefore, must coordina te with fuses As shown in Figure 10-1 O, there are f'our dif'Icrcnt charac-
C and E. Secticnalizer F can be sel lo open during thc sec- ter istics; long delay phase with an inverso characteristic (top
ond or third open period of rccloser H. This arrangement right section of lhc curves), short dela y phase (rnicldle sec-
allows servicc lo be restored to bra nch J f'or pcrmanent tion), phase ínstantancous with no interitional time dclay
faults in thc arca between F anti C and r and i::. Similarly, (lower right scction) and ground (left curve). Thc scttings
secticnalizer J can also be sel to open during the second or are continuously adjustablc and can be easily set anti testecl
third open period of rccloscr 11. ln this way, servíce can be in the ficld with a portablc test set. An opcrating band
restorcd on the F branch for permancnt faults in branch J. rathcr than a curve is uscd to describe their cnaractertstics.
The propcr coordination technique marches tirnc-current where a normally open tic breaker (E) is uscd, the incoming
characteristics anti maintains no lcss than the coordinating (C) and tic (E) breakers havc duplica te scttings except for
time interval (CTl) between dcvices subject to opcration on the shorl time delay. The incoming line breaker (C) is set
the same fault. Thcse conditions require a knowlcdge of to opcratc one time interval longer than the tie breaker (E).
11.L. Coordinating with Low Voltage Brcakers high capacity source, the current limiting Fuse is currcnL
limiting for faulls as low as 33% of a maximum faull. The
Low voltagc breakers, used in eircuits of 600-V and below, fuse curves (D) providc very adcquatc phase fault prolec-
have built-in solid state overcurrent trip dcvices which actu- tion but not for ground faults. These are normally re-
ate a solenoid trip mcchanisrn. Tripping energy is obtained stricted and not isolated by a fusc.
from the prirnary fault current, rather than frorn a separate
.lOO -1-l-+-+-----
200 -1-l-+-+-----
100 l J
-+
,110·· Ch -o, ,1 .. .o r
CuhhrOl~IJ 01 .t '), ú,
n11d IC, 1 ·nt'~ ~,t S,;1•
t, r$.~,
1,011114
1r~1an1:1neoi..• .. P Clo.u~
(ni b,Oh!(1 Cll 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10
03i--l-l-+-++------+---'f----f-+-+-I--~ 011d 12 t ,mes seoso- Ro11,•q
.02
1 ¡
.O? .:l3
.
.~ so 'º roo
Cur1el"\1 .,, r,.,1u111ptes or Sensor Ro1 ng
Figure 10-1 O: Low Voltage Air Breaker Time Characteristics (Type OS)
This fuse prot ect ion is very inadequate for transf'orrner sec- a high side Iuse is very good for pr imary maximu m phase l
ondary faults located between the transfor mer and the rnain phase and thrce-phase faults but vcry inadequate for the
secondary brcaker (C). The rna xirnum secondary fault more probable high side groun d tault s and restricted sec-
would takc approximately onc sccond lo blow hc fusc í ondary faults.
(Figure l 0-12). For a more probable 50'%., fault , lhe fuse
would takc bctwccn 15 to 20 scconds, This illustrates that
10-14
1000
700
~
--'---
I t =-~f-'-: ----+---~-
1
eoo - - --~c~fc·mc, _
•vi LJod
~ -
300 j 1 . l
--::-~ -to .. u
20C
1
-
-ÍJD
·oo 2t:O:.mo o
re
- IOOOKVA \.,A......A.J
4160 480
50
- --·
-
1
~.75°/o
+ l9.G80
I• "
u
-<
16GOnrrip C
se .._ ~>- -.
?O
·o
1
1
1
5
IS¡,, 1
1
..
1
(,~
l. 5
!11 1
~ 2
~-ll l(¡J ven BruO<l" e; ,1
lou6 rrne:>014 ¡-,i '4f.
6 S1·COl'(l :>elOy I JT-80
-
--~+++-- 1
, __ _¡_ _ _¡_t-...,_
i
1 -~
21---f--+-iH
.l ._,_
>-
.07 ,_ 1
.oe 1
- ~Mnx1mum 30
1.
- __ 4l60VOIIS
.05 '
1
.O? 1
\ 1 1 1
5 ·,o 20 30 50 70 100 2CO 300 500 700 000 2COO ~00 5000 10,000
Seote X 100 'Couent ,r A moeres o· 480Volts
Figure 1 0-12: Protection and Coordination for a Typical Secondary Unit Substation and Load Center.
Data on thc use of current-Jimiting breakers and mínimum III. SUBTRANSMISSION CIRCUIT PROTE.CTION
recornmendcd [use size are availablc from manufacturers.
Loads to which these breakers are applicd are protected Subtransmission circuits may be radial, loop with a single
against single phasing by an interlock dcvicc t hat trips che source (a distribution substation bus), or loops with two or
breaker when any onc fuse blows. more sources (two or more distribution subst at ions).
10-15
parallcl lincs In :1 distribution substation const itutc a spccial of the line and rcmorc back-up oí rhe line (IIRJ beyond.
case of Ioops \\ ith :1 single source. Radial subtransrnission In othcr words a dircctional re lay should be used when:
circuits are protcct cd in t he sarne way :.h are radial feeder
circuits, und thc samc applícation criteria apply. Since sub- 11 max
------ > 0.25 ( 10·3)
transrnission cir cuits are thrce-phase, three-wire circuits. 12min or 13min =
ground-Iault protcction is applied as on distribuí ion circuits
groundcd at t hc source only.
b. The maximum load currenr toward bus G is grearer than
the maximum load toward bus H. This cond ition pcr-
111.A. Criteria for Dircctional Relays rnits more scnsit ive set tings, which muy or may not be
required , depe nding on the current through G Ior a rnin-
When there is a source at more than one of the line terrni- imurn fault al the end of the adjacent lines, such as ar
nals, fault ami load current can flow in cit hcr dircction. bus R. This case assumes that the relay at G is used for
Relays protccting t hc linc are thcrcforc subjcct to fault cur- remole backup of section IIR.
rent flowing in both directions. lf non-directional relays
were used, they would have to be coordinated not only For instantaneous ovcrcurrent relays or instantaneous trip
with relays al the remote end of the line but with the re· units (ussurning sufficicnl margin between the close-in line
lays behind t hem. Since directional relays opera te only tault ami thc remole bus). a d ircct ional rclay should be ap-
when fault current flows in the spccif'ied lripping direct ion, plied if thc maximum currcnl 11 t hrough thc rclay f'or a
they avoid both this cornplex coordination antl the possibil- f'ault behind it is equul to or great er ihan 90 percent (80%
ity of cornprornising linc protcction. for source angles >óOº) of the pickup sett ing of ihe in-
staruaneous unit (IT pu). For rclay (; in Figure 10-15. an
instantaneous <ltre..:tional relay should be used iJ":
Figure 10-15 shows a linc, with a sourcc at cach cnd , which
could be a scction of a loop. 'I'he following procedure de·
11 max
termines thc criteria for a directional unit by cornparing rhc -->
ITpu -- 0.90 (or 0.80 for source angles > 60 o )
currents flowing t hrough the relay for faults at cithcr bus.
._.,,.,.,_--IA~-------~
At aJI other locations, current can flow in either direction
-,·
-LoodOu1
through the relays for faults to lhe right of bus G. With
~~2 load taken off at each bus, load currcnt can also flow in
Retoy - Load In
eithcr direction through relays 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. and 8. lf loads
-13
are tapped on lines GH and GT, through load current can
Figure 10-15· Criteria for a Oirectional Unit Requirement also flow in eithcr direction through relays 2 and 9. Thus,
at Relay Breaker ""A'" directional relays are intlicated at ali these loc:itions. Thcsc
10-16
Table 10-111
G H R
Phase-Overcurrent Relays for Single-Source
Loop Circuit Protection
Relays if Relays if
T s Relays if Non-directional D irectional
lnstantaneous lnstantaneous Instantaneous
Breaker Trip Units Are Trip Units Are Trip Units Are
Locations Not Applicable Applicable Applicable
limes for relays 2 and 9. Relay 4 is then set to coordina te Adt3C.ért L re 80:Ju~ ..,/':¡
with relay 2, or relay 7 to coordinare with relay 9, using Pr ~,yP,::Hec11ion
7:}'le S'lOwr $.')!Kl
\y '
Ceo- ;,no· ·'!CJ A
the procedure described in Section 11.B., above. Next. re- f me 111"('(·,'~
The principie of application is shown in Figure 10-17. the relay terminal-parlicularly if Zone 1 must be set so as
Ninety percent of th..: linc is trippcd al high spced. For the not to operate for íaults protcCLcd by thc fusc. Ccnerally,
remaining 10 percent of lhc line, thc opcrat ing lime of t hc Zonc 1 would be set inlo but not through the transformcrs.
51 (CO unit) can be made comparat ively fast (equal loor This arrangcment imposcs no limilation as long as ZT is
less than the coordinating time intervals) since coordinat ion greater than ZL (Figure 10-18). r:ast n:closing and subsc·
is with thc next Zone I instantaneous relay , rather than qucnt lockout of Zone I permits the fuse to clcar trans-
with thc timc-ovcrcurrent u nit , This condition applies as former faults (see Chapter 20).
long as the relay's invcrsc char acter istics maintain a separa·
tion between points A and S ( in Figure 10-1 7) which is lf Zone '.? rea ches chrough the transformer, t he CO rday
equal to or greater than the CTI. Short-line problems will must coordinate with the fuse and low-side breakers (main
be discussed la ter. and/or feeder). 17or faults in and on lhe low sidc of thc
transformer tap. the current from thc remot<' cnd tcntls to
The CO may be set on a tap whose valué is less than rnaxi- make the impedance sccn by thc rclay appc·ar largcr than it
mum load current, sincc thc controlling Zone 2 unit will actually is. The Zone I setting musl ncvcrthi.'lcss be ma<le
not operare on load curren t. This arrangcment provides on the basis of actual ohms. since the infeed effet"t <lisap-
fastcr backup protcction for t hc adjacent section than pcars if the loop is open al sorne point. Also. lhc Zone I
10-18
-
rcach must remain short of both the remote end and of the for such systcrns are vcry complex and frequently require
low voltage bus. cornprorniscs in protect ion. Suppose thal, for lhe systcrn
shown in Figure 10-16. lhcre are sources al each of the
busses (instead of only at bus G). In this case. relays l and
-- -- --- -- l O rnust be direct ional, and two coordinat ion loops will ex-
ist. Relay I must be coordinated with 3, 3 with S, 5 with 7,
TZr procedurc and thc last rclay inevitably <loes not properly co-
ordina te with the firsl rclay. A trial an<l error process is
) ~- CO mus· Coo,d note
y ncccssary to adjust the seu ings. This laborious procedure
rnust he perforrned for both máximum and mínimum opcr-
Figure 10-18: K0-10/CO Protection on Sectíon wíth Fused ating co nditions. as wcll as for rhc various lines in or out of
Transformer Tap.
service.
The Zone 2 setting may also be based on actual ohms un- /\ goo<l st:irtin!! poinl for hc coordinution
í prccess is al the
less thc Zonc 2-(;ontrollcd CO rclays are to actas backup largest sourccs, whcre thc closc-rn fault curren: will be
to thc transformcr sccondary main brcakcr relays. In this large and thc rclay time corrcspondingly short , The corn-
case, thc effect of far-end contrihulion rcquircs that thc putcr coordination program , dcscribcd 111 Chapter 1 2. is an
Zone 2 setting be detcrmincd on the basis of apparent invaluable aid in this proccdurc. Thc progra rn is dcsigncd
transformer impedance. The apparent transformer irn ped- lo handlc more conditions than can usually be rnanaged
anee for a fault on t he low voltage bus is: wit h hand sctting.
where K1 is the current distribution factor at the relay loca- l~ach re lay in a muh iplc-loop system is coordinatcd as de·
tion for a íault in the low voltagc system. A complete dis- scribed in Scction 11.B., ahove. Each loop rnust be coordi-
cussion of apparent impcdancc is given in Scction IV.C. nated within itsclf an<l with a<ljacent rclays in other loops.
The techniquc is illustrated rhrough rhc cxamplc shown in
lll.F. Short Loop Circuits Figure 1 0-1 9. Thc t y pi cal 23-k V loop shown in this figure
has a source at each end an<l loads in the middle. Por sirn-
"Time stack ing" occurs whcn the line sections are so short plicity, only the top load bus is shown. and the two scclions
that the fault currcnt is cssentially the sarne for near and are considered syrnmctrical. Three-phase fault currents are
remole Iaults (Figure 10-5). Since Zone l can provide high shown , and fault locations are marked with an "X." Each
spccd , 90-pcrcent coverage , the long delays for the section fault is indicated with a circlcd nurnber followed by the to·
nearest thc sourcc occur only for end-zone faults. Very tal current in amperes at 23 kV for maximum and for mín-
short lines are essentially extended busses and are best pro- imum conditicns, respectively. Below the breakers, the di·
tected by pilot-wire relays. reclion and distribution of the fault current through that
part of the circuit are shown. For example, for fault ( 1 ),
lll.G. Using Overcurrent Relays to Protect Loop Circuits the current lhrough thc relays and breakcrs at A, 8, C, and
with Multiple Sources D is 250 Amp maximum and 210 Amp mínimum. The
same current would also flow 1hrough E, F', G, and H for
In general, direccional relays are necessary to protect loop fault ( 1 ).
circuits with multiple sources. The coordination problems
10-19
il
(4) i?OO -850
:r )(
!.?KV
t ,,•;:::;o ese
- 2·'100-800 l 2 1000·7:¡Q
'·2:>0·210
1 2·1'00
3 200·180
t Be
5MVA :f;, , r • IA 1120 380 31\ 320·300
23KV 2· 1000· 7~0 800
4·500·400 ® (i~,0·450
r
4
3 200-·90 '1 250 ?I()
IS(•I• ··~;:·,, "¡¡"¡ <D 3)
\ o
?;\KV
1·250·210 -3·200 180
1 500·410
-1·?750·'410
2 1000 7:>0
4·550·400
·-
-
3·3200 \180
2 1100 800
t:-650·450 -
~f-
3·400·360
·~t6()KV 1 2500·1200- 3·?00·'8í) ·- 1·250·210 ... 3 3000·'360
\f• •,JL• HU(
-
Q) 3000·lu?O @!,t:00·1360
-
K .~: í :)~ /.:.,~'
IOMVA 10MVA
(Ali C,ne,ts o-e Arnceres nt23KV: Sow•ce Conne: rec Here Sarre os Top
Figure 1 0-20: Líne Relay Current for The System of Figure 10-19.
No1es:
I P) W 1h "'oql1001 111~01 't,'ond ''t," ;)pen, Tte C011cn1sorc 420· 380'1rrpc,cs
{S) w•nFou1tonLmeo1 "D'iono "D11 Ooen, .... rieCurrernsor~ 3?C-~C0Amce·es Table 10-JV indica tes Eq uation (10-4) critcria for instanta-
neous units.
Figure 10-19: Example of Relay Application and
Settings for Loop System
(4)'200·8!'>0
z sv i_L,, ~o
--i---ll-)(
@21::,0 1550
----+---.--)(-
eso 2-i:00-80G 2· lOOC 750
l 1
1 ?5C·?l0 5·200-180
5'v'IVA <? _ 1• ºA-420 380 3A-320·300
23-<v 2-1000· 750 e e 2 1100-aoo
4 500·400 ® ® 4-650 c50
3 200·180 1·250 210
(SPP·~3'f'' p" • (i) @
A o
23KV ?3-<V -1250-2·0 -3 200·180
- l-2750·141C - 3·3200-1180 ~·~~
· .500.co 2
,: 'ººº
550·<:00
75()
- 2-1100·800
-4-650·'1!>0 -3·400 360
·2500·1?00.... 3·200·18,) 1-250·210 .... !>·3000 '360
Q) 3;)00 • lG20 G\)3<'-00 1360
..,
•, Nores.
[ _ood ~ I?!>.!> A"'lpPrPS ar 23KV fo, 5 V',VA
?.51.0AmoerPSO' 23~V for l()MVA
"ou1· C...rren1 O s1roou11on So-neto, Thc ...owcr L,neof f'ir,¡ure 10·19
~ ?3KV A Fo,·,,:vP ,re ('>Orours •. e., lll ~ouir0_1()lll1near''.A'\\111h 8,eoker"ll"Open
"'-. Sov,cP eo~rec1...o -le•e Scme os -op
Figure 10.20: Une Relay Current for The System of Figure 1O·19.
Notes:
lR) Vb'h :::-ouh :>l'l L nt-01 A11ond A" U:-e"', - ·14..• C.,, rcr,!> ::;,t. ~20 38:.,i.i,'!'\:)et~
IS) W,'"'"ou11on ... ,,eo1"!)'ond 'D" CpPn.TreC,·rpr·~,,p ',, J·' :.~""'"" Table I O-IV indicares l:..quation (10-4) criteria for instan la·
A.H 1000 1300 1150 250 250 = .22 No n-d ircct ional 33 2750 1410
1150
200
D.E 1100 1430 1265 200
1265 = '16 No n-directional 36 3200 1180
The coordinat ing paths are: with 6-1--14 Arnp. IIT ínsranraneous t rip unit.
inverse time charact erisr ic as shown in Figure
a. L with .\1 and I 10-21. For relay L. opcrat ing currcnt is t he
surn of currents in B and C. For Relav K. op-
b. D with B and L; B with H and 1: H with K and F; and F erating current is the sum of currents in C and
with D and J. F.
Use the data from Figure 10-20 and mark on Figure 10-22
.\l.:--- Type C0-8 relay. Hilo CO wit h 1-12 Arnp . the maximum and mínimum fault currcnts for fault (4).
range. with 6-144 Arnp. IIT unir inverse time With tap I O. the equivalent primary current on the 13-kV
characterisric as shown in Figure 10-21.
Si·d e ·IS JO x 200
-
7·2
x - = 1 2~) Amp, ª' "3
L kV . Th. IS va 1 ue .IS
5 23
K.L Partial differential for bus a nd transformcr pro- plotted on the curve.
tection: Type C0-8 relay . 1-12 Amp. r a ngc.
10-2 l
\
Next, assume that an IJT setting of 18 A has been selected 3.0
Pnose Reloy"Mono N"
after analysis of the 7 .2-kV feeders. In this case, the equív- 2.8
co-s 4-12 2001~ e I
200 7.2 2.6 I.T. 10 40Amp
alent 23-kV primary current is: 18 x-5- x = 225 A at
23 2.4
Settings
l.I, 2251\mp o· 23 KV ((20 01 7.2 ,<v)
23 kV. This value is also plotted on the curve. 2.2
2.0
-
\-
\
(Locked Out Alter Firs1 tnstontoreous Irtol
Top 10/\rnps l 125Ampo123 KV)
~,me D,al #?
The time dial setting for M and N w ill be determi.ned by -g is ~-~
the 7.2-kV systern and rernote-end relays, but assurne that ] 1.6 P1c4-uµOI
time dial 2 has been dcterrnincd. From thc time curves of r 1.4 ~ 125t.rno
Figure 10-21, the time curve points for figure 10-22 are:
"'E
.:: 1.2
/ \ :.....-'-- "O)Mm,mom ~
\ l....-+@)
Mox,murn
to
o.e
-, . 1
lns1ontoneous "!'-..
Multiples of
Tap Setting
Primary Current
at 23 kV
Time to Close Contacts
(seconds)
0.6
º·" ¡,
íripoi 225Arnp
/ - -~ t--. t-- 1--
0.2 - -
2.0 250 4.00
0100 200 300 400 500 700 1000 1~()() 2000 3000
-
2.5 312 2.38
P· mo·y /\mpe,es 111 23KV
3.0 375 1.65
Figure 10.22: Relays "M" and "N" Sottings
4.0 500 1.05
5.0 625 0.78
7.0 875 0.58 111.H.2. Se ttíug for Relay L to Coordina te with Relays M
10.0 1250 0.46 and N
16.0 2000 0.36
Figure 10-23 is Figure 10-22 rcdrawn lo illustrutc thc set·
These values are plottcd in Figure 10-22. tingof rclay L to coordinatc with rclays M and N. Relay K
(on the bottorn line oí Figure l 0-19) is assurned to have
the sanie setting as L. Thc máximum and mínimum values
of faults (2) and (4) as seen by rclay L are marked on Fig-
I r
ure 10-23. Fault (4) máximum is thc critica! Iaulr (1200 A
at 23 kV).
3.0
...___ Phose Reloy "L" Se11,ngs
2.8 1.1.15€01\mp (1.3X1200)
C0·8 4 12 200/5 CT
Top7.0Amp
2.G ,_ i.T. lü-40Amp
-1 '-- ( 280 Amps Pr,mory)
1 1 1 Se1 Poin1
4 2.4 1--
22 ...
P,ck upa1-
L - ""º'' ~
\· "M ond N" 0.17""""'"
l?OOAmp (ll.3x)
2.0 2801\mps- ~~_._ íirne D,01 tt?
\ ~)M,,,,mum, (Appro<imo1e)
1.8
\ 1
Full t.coc- ~~~ · 125Amp
16
1.4
\ 1
@Mox,mum
1
1.2 ~
\
1.0
' \ 1 1
@M,n,mum
1-
,...___ \. (VMox,mum
08
'~ r: ~\ 1
M,N ~~ir.
0.6 ~ ~,
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 tO 12 \4 16 20 e;;;
r-,
Mult,ples of Top voroe Currem ~,N
1
0.2
1560
Figure 1 ~21. Type C0·8, IRV-8 Time Current Curves
200 300 400500 700 1000 1500 2000 3000
P,,mory Amperes 01 23KV
The mínimum pickups of L and K are set at approximately The minimum tap 2.0 is choscn on the basis that load will
twice full load: lhat is.'.! x 125 Arnp .. or 250 Arnp. Thc not flow lhrough 8 to A. The relay is directional and <loes
250 not require two times full load setting. Since tap 2 has a
equivalent sccondary current is = 6.25 Amp. Tap 7 is
40 continuous raling of 8 Amp. the load current frorn A to B
selected to give additional rnargin, since this relay encrgiz cs i11 the relay coils is wcll within its rating.
a transforrner bank. Tap 7 corresponds to 280 Amp. pri-
rnary ; this value is plotted on the curve, Tap 2 corresponds to ? x 40, or 80 Amp. primary. The
250,
. . 1 fau 1 t tap mu 1 tiple
. .rs --,
1 200 or 4.3 t1111cs
. . critica! fault múltiple, then, is or 3.13. al which value
TI ie critica pickup, 80
280
the opcrating time (CTI plus 1) should be 0.3 plus 1.0, or
The operat ing time of M and :-J at 1200 Amp., from Fig- 1.3 sec.
un: 10-22, is 0.47 sec, The set point for relay Lis 0.47
plus 0.3, or 0.77 sec. Frorn Figure 10-21, for 3.13 multiplc and 1.3 sec., the time
dial is approxirnately1.75. A time dial of 2.0 may be uscd,
Using thc curve from Figure 10-21 for 4.3 multiple and or the value dcterrnined by tese. Using tap 2 (80 Amp. pri-
0.77 scc., time dial 2 is selected, which gives a time of mary) and time dial 2, the curve points for Figure 10-24
0.95 scc. Alternatively , the mult iple and time requirernents are:
can be spccificd and thc time dial set by actual current in
Multiples of Prirnary Current Time to Close Contacts
the relay. This latter mcthod would give a time: dial of ap-
Tap Setting at 23 kV (seconds)
proximately 1.75, instead of 2.
--~
1 T T
"A''Open
2.5 700 2.38 28 Phose Reroy "B"
l e:.
3.0
4.0
840
1120
1.65
1.05
2.6
r --'.a>-'.m- -=mm-
::E
~
::. -
. "
!: o-
::. ::E
iRV 8 2 6Amp 20Cl5 CT's
:.·. 11 161\n-p
, ee ee
(Orect.0!101 Superv,sed)
2."
5.0 1400 0.78 Serr,ngs
2.2
7.0 1960 0.58 20 -- - f- -- :T !.T. 240M:
rop 2.0;SJAmp
t. 15 X 250)
P, ..,a,yl
"'
o
e
1.B Set Point
The IIT instantaneous trip unit is set ar 1.3 x 1200, or 1560 8 1(,
_ Pck upo, 1 ·.3 Secordsot 25Qt,mp ( 3.13x)
\. \
- me OiiQ P2 l l:.p:,ro:..,motc)
Amp. at '.!3 k V. This selting com:sponds to 39 Amp. sec- "'~
V) SOAmp
ondary. f
.=
·"
1.2 - t 1 ¡ 1
1.0
__ J...¡ 1
::11
[
1 @'Ainimum 1 1
111.H.3. Setting for Relay B to Coordinate with Relays H
1
'\ ®Max,mum
::.B
and 1 (The setting is the same for Relay G to Co or- ,,
,__ ... ' .... ... _
0.(;
dinate with Relays A and l).
~"'"""
0,1.!
I
l
np ot
of 7.2 Amp. on 288 Amp. primary will provide high speed, 3.0
-
Phose Reloy "o"
-J
se, Po,nt
·r
l
sequential tripping. After Amp. opens, the fault current 2.8 CR-8 4-12 200/5 CT's l:°~;~con<Js Ol 800Amp
_ _ (2.8ox) __
increases to 420 to 380 Amp., which is above the instanta- 2.6 - LT. 10-'10Amp
Seumqs T,me O,ol #l.25 ~
neous unit pickup of 288 Arnp. Relay Gis set thc same
beca use of systern symmetry.
2.4 - I.T. l430Amp ( l.3 X llOOl
2.2 Top7.0Amp
"'º~'·'"'
@Mox,mum - 3400- ?00 <1200 -
(280Am~ Pnrnory} @M,n,mum , 1360- 180- 1180
I
2.C
l@Max,~um
III.H.4. Setting for Relay D to Coordinate with Relays B 1.8
C.2
1 -
to give a mínimum pickup of 7 x 40, or 280 Amp. B L ,8
:)100 200 300 400 500 700 1000 1500 2000 3000
:=.r1rnary ArrperP.$ or 23KV
800
The critica! Iault multiple is or 2.85 for rclay D. The Figure 10-25: Relay "D" Coordination {Set 'ºE" Thc Sarne)
280,
operating time of relay L for the critical fault value of 1550
1550 place, therc is little probability of a transfor mcr or bus
Amp. is 0.70 sec. ( = 5.52 múltiple). The set poinl is
280 fault occurring whcn line AB is open. Sccond, whcn rclay
0.70 plus 0.30, or 1 .O sec. at 800 Amp. From Figure 10-21, L operares, it trips C, interrupting line CD,just as does the
for 2.85 mult iple and 1 .O sec., the time dial is approxi-
tripping of IJ.
mately 1.25. The 1.25 value may be used, or the time dial
rnay be deter mined by test. Finally, the 1 IT of CR-8 is set for 1 .3 x 1100, or 1430 Arnp.
(36 Arnp. secondary).
Using tap 7 (280 Amp. primary ) and time dial 1.25, the
curve poin ts for Figure I O- 2 5 a re: Rclay F is set the same beca use of system syrnrnetry.
Tap 2 correspouds to 2 x 40, or 80 Amp. prirnary. The lll.H.6. Setring for Relay A to Coordinate wíth Relays C
200 and L (The set ting is the same for Relay H to Co-
enºtºrea 1 f au 1 t mu 1 tiple
. . --,
rs or 2.5 at which value the op-
80 ' ordinate with Relays F and K).
erating time should be 1 .O plus 0.3, or 1 .3 sec. From Fig-
ure 10-21, fer 2.5 múltiple and 1 .3 sec., the time dial is ap- Sincc rclay L opcrates instan taneously Ior the máximum
proximately 1.25. fault (2). thc critical fault is (2) mínimum. Critica! fault
current is 1550 Amp. for relay L and 750 Arnp, for relay
Uxing tap 2 (80 Am p. pr imar y) and time dial 1.25, the C. Relay A is set for a mínimum pickup of 2 x 125, or 250
curve points for Figure 10-26 are: Amp. primary (6.25 Amp. sccondary ). Tap 7 is selectcd to
givc a mínimum pickup of 7 x 40, or 280 Amp.
l
3.0
2.8 _@le"_, Phose RelOy "e" Multiples of Prirnary Currcnt Time to Close Contacts
MOK1mum _"0"0v1
JRV 8 2-6Amp 200/5 CT Tap Setring at 23 kV (seconds)
?.6 T.T. 4-16Amp
( Oorl'Chonol Superv,seo) ~
2.0 560 2.1
Settings
I.T. 240Amo (l.15X200)
Top 2.0(80Amp Primo,y) 2.5 700 1.2
3.0 840 0.8
"'e: o
1120 0.5
~-::.~~
~~;:~dSot200A'1'1p(2.5K) 4.0
i.,
e:
l ,me O,ol #1.25 ( Appro•1mote)
5.0 1400 0.38
7.0 1960 0.30
r
¡::
1.0 J The instantancous I IT unit is set for 1 .30 x 1000, or 1300
o.e Arnp. primary (32.5 Amp. secondary), Scttings are
@Mo•omum 1---~-
0.6 rounded off to 33.0 Amp. (1320 Arnp. primary).
I
OA
0.2 lf a bus or transformcr fault occurs with linc CD open, re-
0100 200 300 400 500 700 1000 1500 2000 3000 lay A will operate beforc rclay L. Under these coriditions,
Prornory Amperesot 231(\J
both relays receivc thc samc current and are set on the same
Figure 10-26: Relay "Cº' Coordination (Set "F" The Samc). tap; thc time dial for Lis 2.0, however, whilc for A it is
1.0.
The instantancous unit is set at 1.15 x 200, or 230 Arnp.
prirnary (5 .75 Amp. secondary ). A ó-Amp. setting on 240 Relay H is set the same be cause of system symmetry.
Amp. pr irnary will provide high speed, scqucntial tripping.
After D o pcns, the fault current increases to 320 lo 300 lll.H.7. Final Check: Coordination of Relay B with
Amp., which is abovc the instantaneous unit pickup of 240 Relay H
Arnp.
The sctting for relay H is the same as for relay A. Thc in-
Relay F is sel thc same because of systern symmetry. stantancous unit setting of 1320 Amp. primar y means that
10-25
3.0 acteristic compatible with the charuct er ist ics of othcr sim-
Phose Reloy "A" Set Point
2'8
CR·8 4-12 200/5 CT 1.6 Secones ot 75CArrp (2.7()
ilar relays in the system simplifies coor dinat ion .
2.6 I.T. 10-40Amp Ttrre D al !I 1.0 ( Aop,oxunote) -1
Se!!,ngs 1 1 1 1
2.4
r.-.1300Amp(l.30X1000) Q)Mo"mum 03000·?50·2f50 Thc K D-10/CO invcrse tirnc-distance scherne can be modi-
2.2 Top 7.0Amp 2lC- J<:lQ fic<l by replacing the K D-1 O Zonc 2 and CO combination
(280 amo Pr rno-v)
2.0 with a type SD-2 t ime-d istance relay, For all phusc-t ype
~ 1.81------~.-+--~ faults. the SD-::? relay provides an essentially linear relat ion
1
iT, 1.6
P,ck-upot
280Amp +-+--+---!--\-H--·t-----,----1-~ between the operat ing time and the distance of the fault
.s 1.a ,__ ,.__, ......... _-1--1- from the relay location. A t ypical application is shown in
~
¡.: 1.2 Figure 10-28. The time-distance characteristic can be made
101-----1----iH--+--l lo pass t hrough the origin, or it can be given an adjustable
0.8--- vertical offset on the time axis.
o.6~--------+-
s
... __ G H R
e
J
200 JOO 400 ~00 700 1000 1500 2000 JOOO
P•,mo,y Ampe,es 01 2.3-<V
--
Figure 10·27: Relay ··A'' Coordination (Set ··H·· The Samel Zone'
relay II will opera te for (1) line Iaults under bolh rnaxi- 1 1 1 1
mum and minimum conditions. On tap 7, lime dial 1.0. G H
o,stonce
R s
the time unit opcratcs for ( 1) line f'aults in 0.2::? sec .• la) Equ~I L,ne Sectoons
2750 . 1410
(-- = 9.8 mult iple): or 0.35 scc., (-- = 5.1 multiple).
280 280
Both vulucs are wcll with the 1 .O sec. time of I use d in thc
coordination of 13.
Figure 10-28b, for example, assumc that section RS is the rcctional ovcrcurrent rclays, except at the lower voltage
\ast section with type SD-2 t irnc-distance relay protcctíon. lcvcls. Evcn at thc lowcr voltage lcvcls, the trend is toward
Further , assurnc that the protection beyond S has high the distance relays, For the higher voltage lines, onc or lwo
speed relay operation for close-in faults. In this case, thc pilot-type systems are used in conjunction with oras a sup-
SD-2 relay at R can llave a time characteristic starting from plcment to phase-distance relays.
the origin and a slope lhat will provide the rcquired coordi-
natíon al point S and at all points beyond , up lo the termi- Only non-pilot applications will be discussed here. The dis-
nation of its required reach. cussion will cover relaying for three-phase , phase-to-phase ,
and two-phase-to-ground Iaults. Cround-Iault protcction
Thc slopc of the relay at H can now be obtainc<l by sctting: will be discussed in Secuon V.
(1) thc time Ts at S equal to the intercept of the rclay R
curve at S plus Te, and (2) the time al R cqual to T c· A IV.A. Fundamentals of Distance Relaying
linc bctween these t wo points, projectcd lo H, will give the
required intcrccpt for setting thc time intercept T¡. Likc- A distance rclay rcsponds to input quant it ics as a function
wise, for the relay al G, a line drawn bctween T8 = 2Tc + of the electrical circuir clistance between the relay location
T¡ at R and T =Te+ Ti at H, and then projected to G will and t he point of faults. Thcrc are many typcs of distancc
give the required Ti al G. lf thc T¡ intercept at any relay lo- relays, including impedance, reactance, offset distance, and
cation is negative, the curve must be moved upward to Ti= mho.
O. It may be possible to reduce the slope slightly and still
maintain coordination at the point of furthest reach. Basically , a distance relay compares thc current and voltage
of the power system to determine whether a fault e xists
If thcrc is a so urce bct wecn the relay location and the far- within or ourside its operating zone. The pioneer bearn-
end bus of the adjacent scction, the infeed will affcct the re· typc distance rclay can be used to illustrate the operating
lay characteristic, For cxarnplc, if there were a sourcc on principie. Considcr a horizontal bca m pivotcd in the centcr,
bus H in Figure 10-28a, t hc infeed would affect the charac- with a voltagc coil on onc cnd and a currcnt coil on the
teristic of the relays al G. In cffect, the slope of thc charac- other. Thc coils are connected to a powcr line through in·
ter istic will be increased for faults beyond bus H, rcsulting strument transformcrs. Supposc a solid f'ault occurs on thc
in longcr operating times for backup on the adjacent sys- line ata distan ce of nZL ohms from the relay. Sin ce the
tem. voltagc al the fault is zcro, the voltage, V. on the re lay will
be thc nlZL drop from the relay to the fault. This voltage
The slcpe will not increase, howevcr, for faults on the pro- provides a magnetic force or "pull" on onc encl of thc
tected line scction. Thus. lhe opcrating time for faults on beam. lf, for this fault, the current or operating force, \, on
the line, including the end zone is fixed and independent the other end of the beam is adjustcd to equal the voltage
of generation and system changos. Thc infeed effect will or rcstraint force, V, the beam will be balanced. That is,
incrcase adjacent linc operating time and consequently
hclp avoid any miscoordination.
(1 0-6)
Should a fault occur bctwccn thc rclay and the nZL dis·
IV. TRANSMISSION CIRCUIT PROTECTION lance, say at n(ZL - L\Z L) ohms from the relay. lhen Lhc
restrainl force, nl(ZL - 6ZL). would he lcss than the oper·
Transmission circuits are invariably rnulti-source loop sys- aling force at the same current rnagnitude. /\s a rcsulL, thc
tems lo which thc applications and principies describcd beam would lilt down al lhe rnrrcnl cnd. closing the con·
above apply. These key circuits transmit electric power tacts at that end. lf the fault wcre bcyond the nZ L dis·
from the gcnerating sources to thc distribution centers. lance. say at n (ZL + L\Z1) ohms from thc relay, then the
Fault levels are usually high, and, if Iaults are not cleared restraint force, V, would be grcatcr than thc operating
rapidly, they can cause system instability as well as ex ten- force, l. The beam would then tilt down al thc voltagc cnd.
sive damage and hazards to pcrsonnel. For these reasons, and the contacts would not closc. The exprcssion "balance
phase-distance relays are gcncrally used in place of che di- point." which describes this tltreshold locus of opcration
10-27
for distan ce rclays. is still commonly u sed, e ven though pedancc ZL of thc linc is drawn to scale in lhc Iirst quad-
modern distancc rclays opera te on quite clifferent princi- ranl.. (Either per unit or ohms can be used, although sec-
pies. ondary or rclay ohms are gcncrally preferred .) For modern
relays cormcctcd to wye-conncctcd current transf'orrners:
In general, the opcrating torque, T, of a cylinder-type dis-
tance relay is:
(1 O· 7)
ZpriRc
=--- ( 10-1 O)
Ry
At thc thrcshold or "balance point," T is zero. Then,
whcrc Re is lhe current transíormer ratio, and Ry is the
voltage transíormer or dcvicc ratio.
(10-8)
G H
and the reach, or ohms to the "balance point," is:
V
- = nZ
I L
-----n--
(10-9)
Figure 10.29: General Representationof a Line Section
Between Two (21 Busses
The major advantage of distance relays is apparent frorn t.= Bus Volloge
Equations (10-6) or (10-9). Thc relay's zone of opcration f" (Alter note L,ne Stde}
(b)
Zs
Any linc scction in a powcr systern can be represented as
shown in Figure 10-29. In this figure, ZL is the irnpcdance Figure 1 ().30: (a) Representatíon of a Line Section
of the line to be protccted from bus G lo bus 11. Z S is t he and (b) the R·X Diagram
equivalen! source impcdance up to bus G, and Zu thc
equivalent sourcc impedance up to bus 11. Zc could be a Zs, thc sourcc impedancc, can be plotted from e; into the
parallel linc cqual to ZL; but , more generally , Z E reprc- third quadrant : at 11, the sourcc impedancc 7.u can be ex-
sents the equivalencc of the interconnccting systern be· tended, both impcdanccs at their respective magnitudes and
twecn busscs G and H, cxcept for line ZL. angles. ZE in this figure is assumed to be vcry large or in-
finite relative to thc othcrs. In applications involving sev-
Figure 10-30 shows a sirnplificd representation of the pro· era! line scctions, Zu would be the re mote line section be·
tected linc for which distance relays are to be applied at the yond bus H; Zs would be lhe line scction behind the G
bus G line terminal. Thc systern can be plotted on an R-X line relay orto thc Jcft of bus G (assuming there were no
diagram as follows. With G as the origin, the phasor irn- other lines or sources at either bus G or H).
10-28
A nurnbcr of distance relay characlcrislics plotted on the unit operates for a widc arca to the left, and thc left unit
R-X d iagram are shown in Figure 10-31. The operating operares for a wide a rea to thc right of the X axis. To-
zones are inside t he circles for thc types labelled a, b. and gcthcr, the two provide operation in he band shown. A
í
c. That is, whenevcr thc phasor ratio of V:J falls insidc the t ypc a, b , ore unit should be uscd to rcstrict the forward
circle, the distancc unit operares. The bearn-type distancc and reverse rcaches.
relay, described ear licr , would have the non-dircctional char-
acteristic shown in Figure 10-31 a. When used for faull pro- With single-phase type relays=those with ene d istance cie-
tection, a sepárate dircctional unit limils tripping to line rnen! connected to each phasc t hc R-X characteristic of
faults, orto thc uppcr half of the circle in Figure 10-31 a. Figure 10-3 J applies only to the unit on the faulted phasc.
Sin ce the bearn-typc rclay is no longer manufacturcd , litis For three-phase faults, loads, and thrcc-phusc power swings,
charactcristic is obtaincd by olher techniques. ali three single-phase distance rclays havc a reach of nZL
along thc linc (if are resisí ance is neglected). Ali thrce wiJI
By modifying eit her the restrainl an<l/or operating quan- opcratc for any thrce-phasc fault between the relay a nd nZL
titics, thc circlc can be shiftcd as shown in Figures 10-31 b set point. Generally, only ono of t hc t hrcc relays will have
and c. The characterist ics sho wn in Figures I0-3ld ande a fixed reach of nZL for phase-to-phase and two-phase-to-
can be obtained in thc sarnc general way. Therc are a num- ground faults. For cxarnple, for t.l-C faults, relay B operares
ber of mcthods for obtaining these characteristics, thc de- whiJe relays A and C "sec" a largor apparent impedance, at
tails of which are bcyond t he scope of this scction. a different angle. Similarly, for A-13 faults, relay J\ will
have a fixed nZL reach, while rclays-B and C "sec" the
Load can be reprcsentcd on thcsc R-X diagrams asan irn- largcr apparent irnpedance phasor. Fer C-A faults, rclay C
pedance phasor, gcncrally lying near the R axis. The phasor has thc Iixed nZL reach. relays A and .8 will "scc" the
líes to thc right when flowing into the protecied line from largor apparcnt impeclance. This cffcct coultl pose a prob-
the bus and to thc lcft when flowing out of thc line to the lcm with rcactance rclays, where thc wrong phasc-
bus. Load is bct wecn O and 5 Amp. sccondary at or ncar su~crvising unit could rclcase its reactancc unit and cause
ratcd voltage ; faults are gcncrally al much highcr currcnt incorrect opcration.
Jevels and lower voltages, so that thc load phasor usually
falls outsidc the distancc opcraling circles. Since these Thrcc-phasc typc rclays respond to ali faults, rcgardlcss of
conditions do not hold for the reacrance type shown in the specific phascs involvcd. For example, the K-DAR re-
Figure l 0-31 d, this unit cannot be uscd alone. Also, be- lays have two operating units. Onc unit responds to any
ca use the rcactance unit is not directional, it would, with- three-phase fault bctwccn thc rclay and the set reach of
out supervisión, opérate for faults bchind thc rclay. The n7.L; thc othcr rcsponds to any phase-to-phase fault (A·B,
reactance unit then, nceds vcry carcful supervisión and is B-C. and C-A) between the relay and thc set rcach of nZL.
not a particularly dcsirablc characteristic for most applica- One or both of thc two units will rcspond to ali two-phasc·
tions. to-grouncl (A-8-ground, 8-C-ground, and C-A-grounc.I)
faults from the relay to thc set reach of nZL.
The blindcr charactcristic (Figure 10-3 1 e) is csscntially
two rcactancc-typc units shifted to thc linc anglc. The right
X
X L,ne
Forword
Reocn
ÍOfword
Reoch
-r---
1~~---Re11erse
Reoch
o..ecaonollJOII
(When Used)
(a) lmpcdancc lb) Mod,hed lmpedance o, Offset Mho (C) Mho (d) Aeactance (e) Bhnders
[V.B. The K·DAR Phase-Distance Relays This delay is long enough to allow the insrantaneous (Zone
1) three-phase unit to opérate and trip a breaker for zero-
K-DAR phase-distance relays use linc drop compensators volt three-phase faults. For backup (Zone 3) and other
that produce two phasor voltagcs, which are i.n phase when fault applications where continuous to rq uc is rcq uircd , a
a íault occurs at the balance or reach set point. This condi- different unit with added currcnl-only torquc is applicd ,
tion produces no out put . Faults insidc thc balance point This arrangcmcnt rnakcs thc units no n-dircct ional f'or the
shiít lhe volt agcs in a direction to pro vide operalion; faults heavy , el ose-in Iaults. These are thc K D-41 & K D-1 1 re·
beyond the balance point produce a shift in the opposite lays.
direction to pro vide restraint (Figures 10-32 and 10-33 ).
The operat ion of thc phase-to-phase unit of the K 0-1 O
Figure 10-32a i.llustrates the operation of the t hrce-phasc phase-distancc rclays is shown in Figure l 0-3 2b. Wilh three-
unit of thc K0-4 and K0-10 phase-distancc rclays. With phase applied voltagcs and current I A. 18, and le from wye-
three-phase potcntial A. B. and C applicd wit h linc currcnt conncctcd curren! lransformers,
(1 A - 310),
( 10-1 2)
() 0-11) lhe compensa ter is set so lhat 7.c cquals t he posit ive se-
qucnce impcdance frorn rhe relay to thc balance point
Thc 10 componen! provides double-phase-to-ground fault (nZL). With a phase-to-phase fault al thc balance point ,
coverage for systcrns wit h a very low z0 rclative to Z 2. the XYZ trianglc has LCTO arca for an A-B. B·C. or C-A
For these faults, t he three sequen ce networks are connected fault. Figure 10-32b shows t hc phasors Ior vurious B-C
z
in parallcl. lf, in thc limit , 0 gocs to zcro , lhc negativo faults. At the balance point , a 8-C fault (3) rcsults in
sequence nctwork is shortcd out, leaving only the positive "v z: bcing cqual to zero. For 8-C faults bcyond (4) or be-
sequence nctwork , as for a three-phasc fault. Fer very low hind ( 1 ), a restraint triangle X YZ is produccd , ,111 opcrat ing
z0 systcms, thcrcforc, doublc-phasc-to-ground Iaults triangle XZY is produccd fer interna! 0-C [uult s (2).
"look likc" thrce-phasc faults, and thc thrce-phase unit re-
sponds. The 310 helps cover thcse faults but does not enter Thc K 0-1 O phase-to-phasc unir will also opera té í'or most
into the phasors of Figure 10-32a, which are for thrce-phasc double-phase-to-ground faults. Togcthcr , thc two units
faults. providc complete coveragc for all typcs of doublc-phasc-
lo-ground faulrs from the rclay to thc balance point sctling.
The compcnsator is set so that Zc cquals the positivc se- Wilh lhc threc sequence nctworks in parallcl for thcsc
quence impedance from the relay to the balance point faults, thc fault tcnlls to "'look like" a phasc-to-phasc fault
(nZL). For the three-phase fault at thc balance (fault 3), when z0 is largc comparcd to z2. lf z0 goes to infinity.
Vx terminales o n thc Jinc betwccn Y and Z. The result is the Llouhlc-phase-10-ground nt!twork bccomes cquivalent to
a zcro-arca trianglc and no opcrat ing t orquc on t hc cylindcr the phase-to-phase fault network.
unit connected to X, Y, and Z (see Chapter 3). Faults be-
yond the balance point (4) and behind the relay (!) pro- ~kmory a..:tion is nol rcquircd for this unit. and high tor4uc
vide an XYZ triangle lhat produces opening torque. Faults cxists for thc solid. zero-volt. phas1:-to-phasc fault al thc re-
(2) inside the balance point produce an XZY triangle and lay. Assecnin Figure 10-32b.when Y8c c•qualsO. Vzy
operati.ng torque proportional to thc arca of t he lriangle. and Yyx are large, providing a large opcrating XYZ tri-
angk
Close-in. solid thrce-phase faults produce an ABC trianglc
with a very small area. That is, Y and Z would collapse to A similar sc:t of relationships cxists for lhc solid-state
thc origin with vcry lit tlc orno operating arna. To avoid K-DAR rdays: types SKD, SKDU, SP, etc. The phasors
this. memory action is provided by delaying thc collapse of for th.:sc relays are shown in figure 10-33.
Y ami L whcn B and C voltages approach or equal zero.
10-30
I Botonce Po1n•
/i 1
1
1 1
1 1
18olonce
Foull Behind Reloy Foull Wrlhin Bolonce Po,nl Foull ot Balance Pomt Fou II Beyond Poin1
r.,-------. /',
'
'
' X
..l.------...J
l{·l4Zc) ~~}\//\ Ve
{Vy
¡ ----1
I
I
'
'
'
(-[AZcl: / ,'
''
'\
1\ ,/
/ >; Á<:::-J.-----,---
I /
[4 ... ...,,_---1.,....,...... !4 • 11 / A'o::--:-....,,r--• lA
I I I
&.1,-~•y \
Zf"'--+--'7 t._.¡ 1,.
1 /. I
-,L--'--'-'",-9 y'.
\
/ I
I
l. ---~ ¿_ L \
{~~ {~~ 1
t.
1 _
X
VB
{Vy
(1) ( 2)
Note:
The VolloQe TrionQleso1 Eoch ~o.~ ¡
l4·3Io• ·Ua+Icl
~Comoensoro, Zc
Foult Locor,on ( l, 2,3ond 4 l
-_ --·==-rvvvvv-._---_::
---_-_-_-_
Represer11 TheV01toges see-
Dy T~c K·OAR Reloy Terrnmo1
Locored 01 The Shaded Breoke,
ToVOIIO(le
Tronsformers
:: __ _.i-r-_-_
-_
-_ ToCyllnoer
far 3 Phose Foults Occurir19 01
or Oev•ces Unit
Eoch t.occnoo \l,2,3or1d4)
Phoso,s Shawn Z • Z ~
Figure 1 0.32 a Phasor Diagrams of K 0·4 and KD· 1 O Phase Distance Relays for Faults at Various Locations (Three Phase Unot I
o~j~ol- -x*-¡--
.""onti l ~_,t'iO,
r'v:. Bus
~l~l J. )<l1c .)1 1 ,n,, <)ec- on
2 3
.....--+-4-:'.-~-Y-
/';
!
[;/1!~ íittlO) 1:'0'•(•1"
¡
1<. 1
be,nQ 11'•,•.J,,,,., 801nn: t Po,·,1
1
'
,
1
'
23 Fo,1• w,rh,n BolMce Poinr 23 roult 01 Balance Po,n, 23 Fou II Beyon°d Bo tooce Po,nr
rt1Zc
.:
le
·H \\"
1
'.r •. - - -e ' z
'il-~
·ltc·Iel~: v,z
(l) ( 2) (3) (4)
No1e.
Ttir Vn11ngr ·,,n'i(.;IPso1 [ocr
¡;-n1, 1 LOCO! 011 1 l.~ , ? :Jt10 -1 1
I,~,\:-----,;>--t--------·---,yy-.ryy-,
~ co,--~e,,,oro, Zc
. J'
P.en•e5{>n1 1 ... ~ ·.,::>'fCY.Jf·•> ;Pf' ..
t;.·,. ... h,c, i\- ~•• ",':, r<P üy Tp,m,-,o
To VOIIO:.JP j O :,:
U >------4>---------- --------<lv TcC;1,f'der
~~= ~
T,·(Jri,,1orm1-,,
t.ocoieo :J' I" r,e S"ICC·e<J ~,eoke,
to- Pr-..1se 10D'iCSe í 01,...l'S 'Jcr. ... ,1ri9
OI ~:Jrt'l 1 :)CO'•O"" , ',:>. ',;)nj t: 1 co~-----<O>-~t---------1•----~~.,....--,----...,..-o~
;.3 ~ Gom~~nso-or Zc
3 t "e :a\
Figure 10.32b: Phasor Diagrams of KD-4 and KD-10 Phase Distance Relays for Faults at Various Locations (Pnese-Phase Un,t)
10-31
Figure 10-33a applies to lhe threc-phase unil for which With thc relay set so that Zc equals thc positive scquence
the volt a ges are: linc impedance lo thc balance point (nZ L) a t hrcc-phase
fault (3) at thc balance point will produce V X y = O ancl no
torque. For faults beyond (4) or behind (1), Vzy leads
V xy-a rcstraint condit ion. For faults insidc thc balance
point, (2) Vzy lags V xy-an opcrating condition.
(10-13)
Tolkl11ooe
Trunsfo,me,s
o, Oevees
R Phose
Ang1e
es Compo11ror
RS
¡__
~-!,
'
·le ·O
e
110-18!
,' r,
I
I
:,;
I
'
/
/ C B
I -z- ;/(Vy VAH
ZY º J ' ( PPIOsor s Not Sno..n l
Rest,o,nt Cond1•,on Becouse ~"P Cono,·,on Becouse Bolonce Po1n1 ~es1,o,nt Cor>d111on Becouse
Vz v t.eecs Vxv Vzy l ogs Vxv I No To,gue Vxv-Ol Vzy teces Vxv
/1} (2) (3) (4)
1 ~
y
X5
Figure 10.33a: Phasor Diagrams of Solid State K-DAR Distance Relay for Various Fault Locations (Three Phase Unit)
10-32
Figure 10-33b is for the phase-to-phase, solid-state relays would apply for A-8 and C-/\ faults. The B-C fault at the
where the voltages are: balance point (3) produces V zy = O and no torque. For
faults heyond ( 4) and behind (1 ), V z y Jeads V xy-a re-
straint condition: and for faults within the operating zone
(2), V zy lags V xy-an operat ing condition.
(10-14)
The operation of the K-DAR relays on the R-X diagram is
The compensator is set so that Zc cquals thc positivo se- given in Figure 10-34. The three-phase unit is a mho circle.
quence line irnpedancc to thc balance point (nZ L). Al- where the reach at any point on the balance point circle is:
though the diagrams are for a B-C fault. similar diagrams
. -
2reach - 1 /2C2c
. - le. l!Lo > (10-15)
L
11 F
To 'iOl•o~~ ~'1ose
-,on,fo,~s llo~IC
<:1-, ee~·.c~~ Coni~o, 10,
~
11 L
r .--~~~~-l!-..r,-v-,-vv·~ !
~ C~fl·~r,tO'Ot
·.,, le-lb
~-x---o-t-d~~~-x- ~--~x-o-+-o,---x~~-
Zone l RPlny ~1e1 9ou·o CI L (!{" t.Ht1:)•
.3 4
l
le
I
I
'
Restroonr Condrt,on Beccose Tnp Condmon Becouse Bolonce Pomt R~tro,nr Cooomon Because
Vzv t.eoos Vxv Vzy LO<JS Vxy ( No To,gue Vzy00) Vzv Lecds Vxy
Figure 10-33b: Phasor Oiagrams of Solid State K-OAR Oistance Relay for Various Fault Locations (Phase-Phase Unit)
10-33
~*
Botooce G H
________ ,--------- :,,o,r1
~-
G F
~
!
¿L , L,1~
---z
X
I= 71 .1
Figure 10.35: Effect ot lnfeed on lmpedance Measured
by Oistance Relays
Thee ;>oose un, t When there is a source of fault current within t he operating
zouc of thc distancc rclay , its rcach will be rcduccd and
variable. This inf'ccd cffcct can be secn from Figure 10-35,
where there are ot her lines and sources feeding current to a
Figure 10-34: The K·DAR Relay on The R-X Diagram. fault at F' from bus 11. '!'he relays ar bus C. are set beyond
this fault point to r·. With a solid zcro-volt fault ut F. thc
This defines a circlc wh~se center is offset 1:rom e; at 1 /2Zc voltagc for thc rclay al C is thc clrop along thc lincs from
and whose radius is l /'2.Zc. ~Vhen O is oº.
~reach is O al the Iault to the relay , or
thc origin. Whcn O is 180°, Zrcach equals Zc, t he Iorward
reach or set point. For the phasc-to-phase unit , rhe reach ( l 0-17)
at any point is:
Sin ce relay C reccivcs only currcnt le, thc impcdancc ap-
ireach = l /2(Zc - Z s> + 1 /2(Íc + Zs)l.(/ (10-16) pcars to be:
The first terrn is thc offset, and thc second is the radius of VG
the circle. For thc phase-to-phase unit , lhc circle does not 7,G apparcnt = Ic
pass through thc origin and.varies with source impedance,
except at the sel point. lf Zs cquals O, thcn í hc character-
istic is a mho circlc through thc origin , as Equation ( 1 0-16)
(10-18)
reduces to Equat ion (10-15). Whcn 8 equals 180º, a re-
verse reach is establishcd. This function has no practica!
significance, since t hc curren! reversa! that occurs whcn thc
ZH
fault moves from thc linc sidc of the current transf'orrncrs =Z +- (10-19)
L K
to the bus side always produces restraint [ Figures 10-32 anti
10-33, faults (l )). As a result , the relay is direct ional, and where K is the current distribution faclor (phasor), which
the opcrating arca cxists only in the Iirst quadrant. within equals le/( 'e + 111). This apparcnt impcdancc compares to
thc arca of the sector of the curve frorn Zc to the R axis. the actual impeclance to fault F of:
\Vhcn 8 equals ?º, the terms containing 7.5 cancel, so that ( 10-21)
Zreach equals Zc. Thus. thc phase-to-phase charactcr istic
is fixed ar the set point and variable at ali others. This vari- lf 111 is zero (no infeed), Z apparent equals Z actual. As the
ation poses no disadvantage , sincc ncither load, power infeed increases in proport ion to le;, Z apparcnt incrcascs
swings, nor any type of balanced conditions can produce by the factor (111ilc)ZH. Since this impedance , as "meas·
operating t or quc. In other words, the operating and sel· ured " by the distance relay , is larger than thc actual, the
ting of thc phasc-to-phase unit is cornpletely indcpendcnt reach of the relay decreases. That is, the relay protects
of load and swings. lcss of the line as infeed increases. Since the reach can
10-34
never be lcss t han l L in Figure 10-3 5, Zoncs 2 and 3 pro· Since K is always less than I when 'u = O, Zc; apparent is
vide protection for thc linc. However , remete backup for always greater than the actual irnpedance to thc fault,
the adjacent line(s) may be limited. Since infeed is very (nZL + ZT).
common and can be quite largc in modcrn power systerns,
the trcnd is lo local backup (see Chapter 18). Similarly , relay H would "sec" a higher apparent impedance
of':
Note lhat. thc infecd effect varies with system configuration ZT
and changes, and that the apparcnt impedance may be a z11 apparen t = (1 - n) ZL +1-K (10-23)
rna x imu m under either maximum or mínimum system con·
ditions. The Zone 1 relay al G must be set for 90 per ccnt of the
smallest value of the actual impeda nccs, ZL or nZL + ZT,
IY.D. Effect of Tapped Transformcr Banks and not for the apparent irnpcda nccs. Other wise, Zone I
may overreach either t he transformer or bus J-1, which
Thc cf'Icct of a transformer bank tapped off a line must be would rcsult in miscoordinalion. When ZT is less than
considercd , ulthough it often presents no problern. Thc (1 - n)ZL, relay G cannot protect as rnuch of the lineas it
typical case is shown in Figure 10-36. The infecd fault cur- could without the tap. Usually, t hc tap bank is relatively
rcnt from bus II causes the relay al bus G to "scc" an ap- small, so that ZT is large cornpared Lo Z L·
parcnt impedance for faults in the transformer and low-
side systern circuits. As describcd above, for a fault at F, Zone 2 must be set grcatcr than ZL to protect t hc linc,
relay e; "sees": When ZT is lcss than (1 - n)ZL For thc rclay at G or the
setting for Zone 2 is grcater than nZ L + Zy, thcn Zonc 2
vG requircs coorclination with thc rclays in the low voltage sys-
ZG apparcnt
,
= -1-G tcm. As long as II is in scrvice , the apparent infce d will
shorten the reach. Whcn Hisopen, howcver, t he infeed cf-
fcct d isa ppcars.
nZLIC + ZT(IG + IH)
IV.E. Zone Application of Distance Relays tance relays, with thcir fixed reach and time, is much
easier than coordinating overcurrent rclays.
Ilistorically, three zones of protection have been used to
protect a line section and provide backup for the remote For directional-comparison pilot rclaying, Zone 3 is used
section (Figure 10-3 7). Each of the three zoncs use in- to start carrier. lt rnust consequently be set with reverse
stantaneous operatíng distance rclays. Zone I is set for 90 reach-in the opposite direction to the protccted line sec-
percent of the line impedance. Zone 2 is set for 100 per- tion. T3 must be coordinated with relays opcrating on the
cent of the line plus approximately SO percent of the lincs behind , rather than ahcad.
shortest adjacent line. Zone 3 is set for 100 percent of
both lines and approximately 25 percent of the adjacent An application of distance relays to parallel lines is shown
line. These classical settíngs define the protective zones in Figure 10-38. Here, thc T2 settings on each parallel
only if there are no infeed effccts. In practice, there is al- line should be the same. Thus the remole ends of both
rnost always an infeed effect al the busses, which reduces lines will trip if a fault in any end zone is not clcared by the
the reach as described a bove. near-by brcaker and relay opcration. Suppose that, for
fault Fl , the H-end breakcr does not clear as ií should on
Sincc the Zone 1 (Zl) tripping is instantaneous, the zone Zone l. At G, both the top and bottom line Zone 2 relays
must not reach the remote bus: hence the 85-to-90 percent "see" this fault and operate in time T2. A similar opcration
settings. Thc 1 ü-to-I S percent rnargin provides a safety would result if the fault occurred at F2.
factor to accommodate differences or inaccuracies in relays,
current and potential transformers, and line impedances. lf both T2 settings were not the sarne, the unfaulted line
Toe l O-to-I S percent cnd zone is protected by the Zone 2 would be cleared first. lf T2 on the bottom line were
(Z2) relay, whích operates through a timer, T2, set with a greater than T2 on the top line, for example, the top line
CTI, as for overcurrent relays, Two zones at each terminal Zone 2 relay at G would opera te to clear the F 1 fault first.
are required to protect ali of the line section with 70-to-80 But if the fault were at F2, the top line Zone 2 relay at G
percent of the line having simultaneous instantaneous pro- would operate, even though the bottom line Zone 2 relay
tection. This protection is independent of systern changes should clear this fault.
and loading.
Where severa! rernote lines have different lengths, the Zone
Toe backup Zone 3 also operates through a timer, T3, set 2 and 3 settings involve compromises (Figure 10-39). Since
as shown to coordinate with Zone 2. Coordinating dis- line HV is short compared to lines HS and HR, setting Zone
Z3(X)
~~---- Z3(Y)
S..sH
T2 r2
BvsS
Zl(X) ZIIZ)
y
ZHR) ZHO)
T2
T3 T3
Z2(01 Z2(Pl
23(0) Z3(Pl
2 at G for SO percenl of line IIV providcs a maximum of and IIV probably would not provide T3 coverage for line
5.5 percent coverage for linc HR and 8.4 percenl for line HR. This fact rcemphasizes the need for local backup in
HS. This coverage is further reduccd by the infeed ef- modero power systerns.
fcct. Additional coverage could be obtained by increasing
the G Zone 2 setting and increasing the correspondíng T2
setting lo coordina te with the T2 times on lines HV, VW, IV.F. Distance Relays with Transformer Banks at the
and WX. Thc rcsult would be long end-zone clearing for Terminals
line G. lf pilol rclayíng is used for prirnary protection, 10-
creascd backup with longer T2 times could be used. The reach of a dístance relay is measurcd from the Iocatíon
of the voltagc transforrncrs: the directional sensing is from
Setting Zone 3 to covcr line HR would provide coverage the location of thc currenl lransformcrs. Voltage and cur-
lhrough severa! scctions HV, VW, WX, and XY-requiring rcnt transforrners are usually al approximately the same lo-
a longer T3 sctting. Again, the infeed cffect from lines HS cation for most applications.
-----Z3
22 Z2
Zl
-----Z3
Z2 Z2
T2 Zl
72
1
Z2----~---'
Z2
Z3------------'
,__-------------11---------------...j
16
5.5
G
T n
T2
H R
4.5 8.1
5
13
74
s 3.6 T
4
7.5
4.5
3.6
Note:
~ues ,n Secondory Orvns 40
Figure 10·39: Distance Relays Looking into a Bus With Various Length of Adíacent Line Sections
10-37
Where the line includes a transformer bank without a per unit Ilowing through the low-side current transformer
brcaker on the line side , there are severa! ways of applying and (1 - K) per unit flowing from the far bus to thc right.
distance relays (Figure 10-40). Using I H and V 1-1 for the Then,
line distance relays is preferred, since the rcach is a f'unc-
tion of nZL only. Alternatively, IL could be used with v11,
which would also make the reach a function of nZL only.
In seuing the relay with high-side primary ohms nZL' the and
curren! transformer ratio, Re of Equation (10-1 O) must in-
KvL (1 - K) llT
elude thc ratio of the power transformer (Re= RcL_K __ ) Z apparcnt = KI
VH
and the ratio Rv11 of the high-side voltage transformers.
Taps on the power transformer will change this ratio and, -(1-K)
- -K- 2T (10-24)
therefore, the reach. Unless t he relay settíng can be
changed each time the taps are changed, Zone I must be set Norrnally, ZT would be larger than nZL for Zone 1 appli-
al 90 percent of the minimum secondary ohms using ZL. cations, limiting the instantaneous protection. Zoncs 2 or
Zone 2 rnust be set al more than 100 percent of the maxi- 3, however, could be in thc order of ZT
mum secondary ohms. The first requirement prevents Zone
I from overreaching the remote bus. The second require- A more comrnon method is to use V L sincc it may not be
ment provides end-zone coverage. economical to provide high-side potential. lt is more con-
vcnien l with VL and I L to use prirnary ohrns on the low-
síde (V L) base. With single-phase type zone distance relays
., Bus
H
set through wye-delta banks, it is necessary to shift both
the currents and voltages to provide high-side quantities
equivalent to those that would be measured at IH and V H'
VH{Roho RvHl
Otherwise, for high-side faulls the distance relay would
Power
Tronsformer ~ Voltoge Tronsfo<mers "see" a complex impedance, which would be a function of
t VL(Roho RvLl
Volloge Tronsformers
the line transformer and source.
--10
e~~~-+-~-tt-~+-f-+-'t---+-~~---~-;---.~
CAB
Rc:L • Volloge Ro110, ~ RcH nRc:H
lnRCL e
KVH /3KVH RcL RcL
l 1A-JB N=KVL' n= KVL
n
N"._13
RcH=n73Ñ
RcL
(a) Delta on The High Side (ANSI Standard Ccnnectlon}
CTRaflo RcL rA=~·Ic)
A
B --
le= n (lb-la)
le= n nc-lbl
e
Turns Ratio= n
Low vonoce ( L ) High Voltoge( H l Voltoge Rot,o = N
c<J
A o
B
cAb N•KVH n•~
KVL' ./3KVL
N=./3n
Figure 10-41: Connections for Low Side CT'S to Provide Equivalent of High Side CT'S.
Subtracting the ZT of I O ohms, lea ves only 0.8 ohms of tíon on another tap. This assumes that thc scttings are not
the line protccted or 80% rathcr lhan 90%, if high side volt- changed with the taps.
age V H wcrc u sed.
Taps on the bank can change the value of ZT and the re- Zone 2 should always be set for the maximum apparent
flected value of ZL such that setting Zonc I to never over- ohrns so as to protcct the line for any tap. This may cause
reach on any lap can result in very little orno line protec- considerable overreach for other taps.
10-39
The third possible arrangement is to use V L and IH" There The voltage impedance characteristic defines how the relay
is lillle advantage in this method, since the ohms are still will deviate from the ohm value indicatcd by its setting.
measured from the low-side bus. Directional sensing would The droop at low voltages reflects the energy necessary lo
be from the line current transformer location, rather than overcome either the spring restraint in the cylinder unit or
from lhe bus-side current transformcrs. the forward voltage drop of solid-state components.
When the line terminales in a transforrner bank at the re- Two characteristics exist; both are quite close in the K-DAR
mole end, Zone I can be set into the bank to provide 100 relays. The steady state or static curve is deterrnined with
pcrcent high speed linc protection. Only with the K-DAR voltage gradually decreased lo cause operation. The dy-
relays can Zones 2 and 3 be set lhrough the bank with an namic curve rs deterrnined with normal voltage suddenly re-
accurate balance point of ZL + ZT + ZLV systern for aU duced to produce operalion. The steady-state curve applies
phase faults. With single-phase type relays, the reach with line-side potential when a dead line is cnergized into a
through wye-delta banks is variable. fault, while the dynamic curve applíes when a fault occurs
on a pre-energized line.
Light internal faults in the transformers will probably not
produce enough varíation in current and voltage to opera te Low balance-point faull voltages can occur on a very short
the remote distance rclays. Consequently, transformers line supplied by a very weak or high irnpedance source,
should have individual protcction. Such protection does This is not a problem in most applications. Consider a
presenta problem, in that remote breakers must be tripped solid three-phase fault at distance nZL from bus Gin Fig-
to clear the fault when the local transformer relays opérate. ure 10-30a, where the source impedance behind bus G, is
Remote trip systems suitable for this application are dis- z3. Then, with ZE infinite,
cussed in Chapter 15. V
r -----
G - Zs + nZL
[V.G. Distance Relay Characteristics or (10-26)
• Grcater sensitivity
(,/3-q)
point impedance is negligible for ali voltages from rated
120 V down to less lhan 5 to 10 V-the voltage available to
Zg> -q- nZL
the relay for faults at the balance point, or "reach," of the
unit. This voltage, then, is the threshold or decision-point or
voltage rather than the voltage available for faults within
the operating zone.
nZL -s(JJ~ )zsq (l0-29)
1040
T
r eo -1
Locot,onot Foulr ,nPercenr ot Aeloy Se11,ng
i~ "º
0% 67% 90%
~
.~
30
s
'J
--J .....,. 20
!:
1 s
~ 10
~ 1
Foult o
1
-•- i.~---
1
V¡,
0o .o5 -A,~-.,.,~~----....,.., 1 '
Peioy \..\:)ltoqe,n ee- t.,n11
'º
-ls --Jnz,._f. º1 2 10 100
(r.e,qy Level I lZcl
200
(al Vollage lmpedance Charac1ens11c (bJ low Relay Voltages for Balance Po,nt Faull (e) Tome of Oper auo«
Usmg q = .OS as a typícal value , the application wou1d be center of thc charactcrísuc (l- igure 10-31 ). Thus, for the
questionable if thc source impedance were more lhan 33.6 mho clcment, Lhc opcrating energy is zero on the circle pe-
times the balance point impedance. In other words, the riphery and maximum at the cenlcr. For this reason, mern-
balance-point impcdance should not be less than 3 perccnt ory action or currcnt-only torque is required to operare lhe
of the source impedance, relay for close-in, three-phase faults as the circle goes
through lhis point. Ihese close-in unbalanced phase faults
This rather extreme ratio bel wcen linc and source imped- are gcnerally near the center of thc operating circle for the
anee may sometimos occur at short periods of light load K-DAR phase-to-phase unit , providing large operating en-
requirernents, when a mínimum of generation is connected. ergy.
lf the voltage-irnpedance curve falls off towards zero, as it
does for the K-DAR relays, the reach is reduced during Distance protection for a short line is a function of the
these periods. llowever, the fault current is also low during voltage avaitable for an accurate decisión (Figure t 0-42b),
these periods, and probably less severo from a system stand- the operating energy (Figure 10-42c) and the reluy sctting
point. Zones 2 and 3 will also providc protection for the dcrivcd from Equation ( 10-1 O). lf the rclay rangc is in
rcduccd arca, since these zones are set beyond the line sec- qucstion, the use of a larger current transformer ratio,
lion. eithcr in the main current transformer or through an aux-
iliary current transformer, in creases the secondary ohms.
The opcrating lime of distance relays is a function of the
energy available to thc units during thc fault. The tirne- The transient performance of a distance relay is its ten-
distancc curve of the instantaneous distancc relays is rcla- dcncy to overreach its setting bccause of the de offset
tively flat from thc rctay out to ncar the balance point. component of the fault current. This tendency is particu-
Here, the gradicnt of the curve increases rapidly as time larly important on Zone 1 applícations. K-DAR relays have
increases, approaching mfinity al the balance point. The negligible transient overreach because the compensators are
time-distancc curve for the solid-state relays is faster and air-gap-type transformcrs.
flatter than for lhe elcctromechanical relays, which have a
somcwhat more inverse characteristic. Phase-distance relays wil1 not opera te on line-charging
transients, which are short-duration currents at, or near, full
Figure 10-42c shows the operating time for the K-DAR re- voltage. As a result, the irnpedance phasor is high and out
lays as a function of the IZc product and the fault location. of the forward-looking reach of Zones I and 2. Very long
lis the fault current, Zc is thc retay reach or setting. Thcse settings for Zone 3 relays might produce mornentary oper-
curves, which can be obtained for each distance unit and ation, but such relays have a long enough time delay to
type of relay, can be applied to any system and any setting. override any such operation.
less than 19 .8 ohrns secondary to avoid operating on 5- Phase-distance relays may respond to single phase-to-ground
Amp. load at 30° lag. lt is for this reason that 20 ohrns is faults within their operating zone and, hence, offer addi-
selected as the maximurn for the 0.75-to-20-ohrn K-DAR tional protection. Although this proteclion will usually be
relays, Relays with a longer reach (1.1 to 30 ohms) are for clase-in faults, (approximately 1/3 of the phase fault
available for special applications. reach for the K-DAR relays) it should not be relied u pon.
The actual reach for these faults is cornplex and varíes wilh
Irnpedance lo the distance relay can be related to three- system conditions.
phase kV A or MV A as follows:
Single phase-to-ground faults externa! to the phase-distance
relays will not cause the K-DAR relays to operate except
for one special case. That is a solid line-to-ground fault,
just behind and externa! to the K-DAR relay protective
zone where there is a very large zero sequence current reía-
or 1000 kV (10-32) tive to the positive sequence current through the relays,
y31
Applications of this type that can cause a problern are: (1)
relays using V L and 1 L and set looking into a wye delta
1000 kV
I=~-- bank that is grounded on the bus or relay side or set into a
.,/3 zpri
grounded auto-transformer ; (Figure 10-40); (2) the remate
source ahead of the relays is predominantly zero sequence,
kVA=V3kVI
with little or no positive sequence; and (3) a tappcd line
(Figure 10-36) with the bank grounded on the line side and
_. ¡;; 1000 kV
-v3kV -Ji z . operated with the remole H terminal open.
pn
Since only the three-phase unit of the K-DAR relays is ad-
1000 kV2
(10-33) versely affected, the solution is to modify the externa! con-
zpri
nection as shown in Figure 10-44 which removes zero se-
quence from the three-phase unit. This modification re-
kV2
MVA=-- {10-34) duces the phasc-to-phase and three-phase overlap for
zpri
double-phase-to-ground faults. In the majority of applica-
tions, the phase-to-phase unit provides complete two-phase-
to-ground fault protection without the three-phase unit.
Applying Equation ( 10-1 O), the kVA, MVA, or secondary
The additional coverage is also less important when pilol re-
impedance in ohrns "seen" by a distante relay wilJ be:
laying is used.
1000 kV2 (Re)
kVA= - Phase rcactance relays can overreach on forward single
2sec Ry phase-to-ground faults. This can occur with short lines, low
zero sequence impedance, and fairly long starter unit reach.
or
The overreach becomes worse as the fault angle decreases.
Relays can also opérate on reverse faults for low zero se-
= 1000 kV2 (Re)
( 10-35) quence current. Ali these problems can be avoided by re-
zsec kVA Ry
stricting or carefully secting the starter unit.
kV2 R )
MVA=-(~ IV .H. Are Resistance and Phase-Distance Relays
zsec Ry
ln general, are resistance either has a minirnal effect on dís-
or tance relay protection or presents a very serious problem.
Are resistance is usually insignificant. This is substantiated
by many years of field experience where different types of
( 10-36)
distance relays are in use on similar applications with good
performance.
10-43
~
\.-<">--<~------+-- ¿~
"'
s:
\.-<>--1------+--0
lo
/7i"o
Breoker 15/!:>CT(Not Requored ,fT,onsfo,mer figure 10.45 Representation of Are Resistance for Phase Faults
rs Delta Connected on Bus Side
-
IG Mo-
Are Res,s1once ~·lorK•0.5
Apporenf Effect
------ Reoc1once
Ltne Z•0.259+ ¡0.786 Ohms/Mlle
K·DAR100Unil
a) Single Llne System Diagram
--
LV
1
thc remole bus. Studies on short lines with very heavy in· I
I
I
fecds havc shown lhat the reactance unit can overreach I
more than 25 percent. On short lines, the K-OAR phase-
to-phasc unit operating circle expands approaching in ap-
pearance a straight linc lhat lilts al lhe line or adjustrnent
angle. This characteristic offers incrcased are coverage and G
is quite secure. b) Otstance Relay Setting on The R X O,agram
2.48 r
z
Set 1 = 0.9 x 4.13 S.37 = 4.13 +QT
= 3.72 ohms al 75° relay anglo where r is thc rcach into linc llR. Solving, r cquals 0.25, or
25 percent rcach into linc Z¡fR·
At 11:
z
The 2 sctt ing at G of 5.37 ohms with 25% coveragc of
z
Set 1 = 0.9 x 2.48 linc HR wilh infecd will give mínimum opcrating time for
end-zonc Iaults on fine Zcu· Alternativcly , z2 al G could
= 2.23 ohms al 75° rclay angle be set for ZGI-I + 0.75 ZHR• or 6.00 ohrns secondary. This
setting provides 37 .5 percent L11 R line coverage with IH in·
With the line GH at 7 l. 7º and the relay at 75°, thc error feed.
from Equation (10-31) is cos 3.3°. or .9983, quite negli-
gible. With módem brca kcrs, typical T2 times for Zonc 2 will be
approximately 0.20 to 0.30 sec. An average value of 0.25
The infeed effcct at bus H will reduce the z2 rcach into the sec. is recornmended. With no other lines or equipment off
ZHRsection for relay G. At G, the actual irnpedance set- bus R, Zone 2 at H can be set for z11R + 75% ZT, or
ting for z2 would be:
z2 = Z actual
z2 actual= 4.13 + l/2 (2.48)
= 0.78 + j 2.36 + 0.75 U 2.28)
= 5.37 ohms secondary
= 0.78 + j 4.07
Frorn Equation (10-18) or (10-19), the apparcnt ohms
from G for a fault at 50 percent of line ZHR would be: = 4.14 ! 79. J 5° ohrns secondary
10-46
For the z3 at G:
There are two basic types of ground relays: overcurrent
and distancc. The directional or non-directional overcur-
Z actual: ZGH + ZHR + 1.25 ZT
rent types are used widely at mosl ali voltage Ievels, In ad-
dition to their lower cost and complete independence of
= 2.08 +j 9.14
load, the power systern provides more rapid attenuation of
current with distance, and a relativcly higher independence
= 9.4 ! 77 .2° ohms secondary
of system changes. This makes t heir application and setling
easier than for íhc phasc rclays. Distance relays, though
Z actual just through the bank
more cornplcx, provide a longer anti Iixed instantaneous
coverage, which is esscntially indepcndcnt of systcrn
Zi = 2.08 +J 8.57
changes. Because of this facl, the trend towurd using tlis-
= 8.8212_6.36° ohms secondary tance relays is growing.
rent does ílow through the onc or more phasc rcluys. Thc
= 2.86 +j 14.35 prirnary rcason for this indcpendencc is thal thc ground re-
lays are set onc-fifth to one-tent h more scnsitivcly lhan thc
= 14.63 J 78. 7° ohms secondary phase relays. lf t he sensitivity ratio is incrcascd hy using
higher ground rclay taps or lower phase rday taps, some
Z apparcnt through bank ZT only miscoordination betwccn lhc phase and ground relays may
result. The more scnsitive scttings obtain.1ble with ground
= 2.86 +j 13.21 relays may mean a higher burden on the curren! transforrn-
ers and their performance shoultl he chcckcd as described in
= 13. 5 2 !11 .8° ohrns secondary Chapter 5.
V.A. Distribution Circuit Protection V.B. Subtransmission Circuit Protection
A distribution circuit rnay be prolected with a single, non- Radial subtransmission circuits can be protccted in the samc
directional ovcrcurrent relay, as shown in Figure 10-48. way as distribution circuits. For loops with a single sourcc,
Positivo and negative sequcnce currents are balanced out al direcuonal overcurrent relays are applicd in the sarnc way
the current transformcr neutral, so only 310 currents pass as phase relays; instantaneous trip units are used whcrc ap-
lhrough the ground relay (SON/51 N). Since, under normal plicable. Again, if the instantaneous trip need not he direc-
balancedconditions, 310 is al or approaches zero, a vcry tional, relays such as the C'R line can be uscd. lf the instan-
low pickup current IS used, typically 0.5 to 1.0 Amp. taneous trip must be directional (using thc same criterion as
While ground-fault currents on distribution circuits are for phase relays), relays of thc IR line musí be used. Non-
generally higher al the substation than phase-fault currents, directional rclays, with or without instantaneous trip, may
they decrease ata much greater rate wilh distance from the be used for lhe source bus breaker.
x
substation because 0 is considerably larger than X 1 for
the feeder circuits. With the exception in fault-current For loops with both positive and zcro sequence sourccs, co-
values, application and coordination of the non-directional ordination for ground relays is usually not so difficull as for
overcurrent relays is the same as for the phase relays, as phase relays. The zcro sequence sources do not usually
given in Section TI above. change much with system changes, since these sources con-
sist of grounded wye transformers that are left in service re-
gardless of any transrnission system change, except an erner-
CO IIT
gency outage. For these strong, local zero sequence sources,
the total driving point impedances at the sources (Z0 plus
CO IJT CO IIT
Z plus z2) do not change nearly so much as they do for
I
50N/51N phase faults.
CO IIT
50/51
Directional overcurrent relays can be applied to tbese loops
in most cases. Although non-dircctional instantaneous trip
units can sometimes be uscd, directional instantaneous trip
units will generally be required. The inverse tírne-distance
schemes, described in Section 111.D., cannot be applied to
ground relayíng.
Figure 10-48: Connections for Overcurrent Ground Reley.
V.C. Directional Ground Relay Polarization
As wlth phase relays, instantaneous trip can be used to irn-
preve rclaying, particu larly for close-in faults. 1 nstantane- To determine the direction of a Iault, a dircctio nal relay re-
ous trip unils are more applicable in general with the higher quircs a reference against which line quantities can be corn-
attenualion of the fault currents with distance. High tran- pared. This reference is known as the polarizing quanlity
sient overloads and unequal current transformer perform- and, in this context, reference and polarízing are synony-
ance can givc rise to "false residual currents" and, hencc, mous terms. With zero sequcnce line current, either a zero
misopcration. scquence current or voltage or both must be used. In
modern power systems, with their mutual induction prob-
The choice of a relay lime characteristic is usually limited lems, the trend is toward the use of ncgative sequencc quan-
to thc invcrsc or very in verse type (C0-8 or C0-9). The titics for the ground directional unit.
very inverso type is the more commonly uscd, since its char-
acteristic fits well with a wide range of fault current, provid- V.C.l. Voltage (Potential) Polarization
ing good coordination. However, where coordination with
fuscs and/or series trip reclosers is required, an extremely The zero sequence voltage around any bus in an inductive
inverso characleristic (C0-11) would prohably be preferable. power system can be used for polarization (Figures 10-38
and 10-39). The voltage measured on the bus or just out on
any of the four lines al station H will be essentially the
10-48
same as ~r a fault on the bus itself', or out on any of the the fault. (An exception with high mutual induction will be
lines. Howcver, thc currcnt lhrough any of the four discussed below .) Thus, a current transformer in lhe neu-
breakcrs will change direction according to the faull lo- tral measures 310 for current polarization, the polarizing
caí ion. current shown in Figure 10-SOa for a wye-delta bank and
that shown in Figure 10-SOd for a zig-zag bank. Wye-wye
Thc polarizing zcro sequence voltage is oblained frorn the banks, cithcr grounded or ungrounded, cannot be used for
open-della secondary of grounded-wye voltage Lransformers polarizing (Figures 10-SOb and 10-SOc). The groundecl-wye
(Figure 10-49). Phase voltages are also required for the of three-winding wye-wye-delta banks can be used ( Figure
pilase relays, instrurncntotron, and so forth. In such cases, 10-SOe).
cit hcr a double-secondary voltage transformer or device, or
a sel of aux iliary wye-groundecl, open-delta auxiliary trans- The separate neutral currcnts of the thrcc-winding wye-
Iorrncrs can be uscd , Thc SO- or 60-Ht voltage across the dclta-wye transforrners cannoí be uscd for polarizing, but
open delta is always VX y equals 3 V0, or VaG plus VbG current transformers in cach grounded neutral must be par-
plus VcG· alleled with in verse ratios, as shown in Figures 10-SOf and
10-SOg. Assuming lhat both thc high voltagc and low volt-
agc sides connect to a ground so urce, ground faults 011
lhe low voltage side (Figure 10-SOg) result in current flow-
H,gh Vo11oge
ing up the low voltage neutral and down thc high voltage
===t==L ===E ~===.===: neutral. Convcrsely, for faulls 011 the high voltage side (Fig-
ure 10-SOf), currcnt flows up thc high voltage neutral und
down the low voltuge neutral. Hencc, lhe reversal in either
vo11oge Transfo,mers or Dev,ces neutral does not provide a rcfcrcncc. By paralleling thc two
G
'-+---il-4>----t---t--1h neutral current transforrncrs, howcver, 1 pis always in lhe
sarne dircct ion for faulls on cithcr side sincc, on a per-unil
basis, the currcnt flowing down he neutral is always less
í
vcAvb
X
Al1ern01e ,f Double Seconóory quencc network.
vonoce Transfarmers or
Devices Nol Ava,lable
Va Thc tcrliary or della winding can also be uscd as a polariz-
v,, JVo-t>, ing sourcc. 1 r there are no externa! circuits from the delta,
one cu rrcnt transformcr connected in any lcg of the delta
will provide 10. A current transformer is requircd in each
Ve
of the thrcc-windings if lhc delta is connected lo externa]
PhOsars far o Phase "o" lo Ground Fauli
circuits, so that positive and/or negative sequcncc currents
Figure 10-49: Zero Sequence Polarizing Voltage Source
can exist during load or faults, These current lransformers
musí be connected in parallel lo cancel out positive and
V.C.2. Current Polarization ncgative sequence-and provide 310 only.
The currcnt polarization rcference clepends on lhc availabil- Autotransformers should not be used for currcnt polarizing
ity and the connection of the power transformer at lhe re- without careful analysis since they are frequently unreliable
lay location. Various bank connections are diagrammed in as a rcference. Autotransformers that are ungrounded or
Figure 10-50. The current in the neutral of a wye-grounded- withoul delta tertiary cannot be used. Such units can by-
delta power transforrner can be used for polarizing. Foral- pass zero sequence ín roughly the sarne way as can the wye-
most any ground fault on the wye-side systern, Lhis current wye grounded banks. Groundcd autotransformers with ter-
is always flowing up the neutral when current is flowing to tiary are shown in Figure 10-51.
10-49
Tlne Phose Oioorams Zero Sequence Network Three PhaseDiogroms Zero SeQuence Network
Neu1rolBus EotherWyeor Delta
,.........._.,
-r,-
NeutralBus
- _r_
~¡~ ~
___:r- ! h ~!~
Neutro!Bus
FoultsonWyeS.de r-
Polor1z1ng Curren! far~ -
Polaroz,ng Curren! for Foults
on The Right Hand Star S,de '::!J,_¡:;..__
(al DeltaWye Grounded Bank
(e) Wye or Oelta-Detta Wye (Grounded Bank)
(Ground Source Suotable for Polarmng Relays) Ground Source Suotable for Polarizing Relays
NeuorolBus
I _ 4 ~ - \
Foull ZoofH
.._ ThreeUnots Sysrem
far Polarizinc¡¡
-Ip•3
{g) Wye Grounded (Delta·Wye Grounded Bank)
Ground Source Suitable for Polarozing Relays
(di Zog Zag
For ground faults on the high voltage side (Figure 10-51 a), From the zero sequence network:
IOFII is the zero sequence currcnt in amperes, at kVH in
the Iault. The current flowing through the high voltage
( 10-41)
wmding of the autotransformer is thus KolOFII amperes.
The current flowing in the low voltage circuit will be
PolOFH(kV HfkV L) amperes at kV L· Because of the phys- Substituting:
ical connections, the current in the neutral of the bank is,
kVH
1NH = 3 (Ko10FII - Po kV 10FII)
L
(10-42)
kVH
= 3JOFH(Ko - P0 W) amperes (10-40)
L
10-50
-+KolOFH
tl>
lrH"EQuotoon (10·43or 45)
(H}
ZoLS
Foull
(L}
---+ KolOFH t. z:»
H<o
-e-
l 1,..H • Equot,on(10·40o,42)
1.0
Foul!.,__ SolOFL
1 ZoLS
+--SolOFL
1[? (H}
1-So
-
--- $olQFL lrL •Equo1,on 110-490,51) Foull
(L}
~ loFL
RoKvH !
-= t INL'CQUOhOO (10·46o,48)
10
ZoLS + ZL kVII
ITH = KolOFI 1 <z +z +z ) "3k V amperes
OLS L T V~ T
(10-45)
( 1 0-48)
amperes at kV T
A small kVA autotransformer with a negative equivalen! irn-
(10-51) pedance connected in a very solidly groundcd systcm can
produce a negative ZL larger than ZoLS on a cornrnon
Table JO-VIII shows an evaluation of the above analysis, as base-ora negative ZH larger than ZoHS· Thcsc situations
il affects lhc use of either the neutral or tertiary current for are Case 2 or Case 4. As both thc neutral and tcrtiary cur-
polarizing. rents reverse for high- and low-side faults, vero scquencc
current polarization is not possible.
Most autolransformcr installatíons will be reprcsented by
Cases I and 3 shown in Table 10-VJII. In these two cases, For autotransformers, then, curren] polarizution is frc-
the autotransformer mayor may not have a ncgative equrv- quently unreliable. Parallcling thc neutral and low voltage
alent impedance branch. lf they do, t his irnpedance, on a current transformers with differcnt ratios or using auxiliary
cornmon hase, usually will be less than the systcm irnpcd- current transformers may help give proper polarization in
anee, Thal is, ZL is of'ten negatrve ami less than ZoLS• thc specific applicalions.
low voltage system impedunce. In recent years, autotrans-
z
Iormers have bcen built with ncgativc 11, rather lhan ZL. The zero sequcnce voltagc is corrcct in ali cases: al either
For these autotransforrncrs, z.11 will gcncrully be smaller the high or low termina Is of the autotransf'ormers, E0 or
than ZoHS· In ali of these situations, the neutral current 3E0 will not reverse for high- or low-sidc faults. Howevcr,
will always ílow up lhe neutral for all low-side faulls, but tero scquence voltage can be quite small whcn ZOLS or
may vary for high-side faults, depending on the bank and z011s are low. The prcfcrrcd method. in fact, is to use a
the low-side systcm impcdancc and the voltage ratio [ Equa- negative scquencc dircclional unit.
TABLE iovm
Evaluating Use of Autotransformer Neutral or Tertiary Current for Polarizing
Value of
ZT Value /::,. Value t:,.
( ) = B
2oLs+ZL+2T of of
Value of
or 1NH 1TH
<20Ls+ZL) =A Value of Value of
or ZT kVH kVL or or
Case Fault ( 2ous•ZH+2T ) = D
Number Location Equations (ZoHs+ZH) =e kVL kVH 1NL 1TL
b, Ncgative current indicates a flow in t he oppositc direction from that shown in figures.
* Could be negative or zero, but probably nol practical.
10-52
-
V.O. Mutual lnduction and Ground Relay As the fault moves from G to H, thc induced current loRS
Directional Sensing in line RS will decrcase, reverse, and then mercase in the op-
posile direction. For example, when o plus K0 equals 1,
Transmission lines on the sarne tower or paralJeled along the 'ons will be zero. lf n plus K0 is greater than 1, then
same right-of-way are rnutually coupled, For positivo and lORS reverses.
negative sequeuce, the mutual irnpedances are less than 10
pcrcenl of lhe self-irnpedances and can be consiclered negli-
For sorne conditions and fault locations, it may be difficult
gihle. For zero scqucnce, however, thc mutual impedancc
to sel the overcurrent uníts to distinguish between faults on
can be SO percent to 70 percent of the self-impedance and
Une Gii and those on line RS. Mutual induct ance will also
is, lherefore, significant. Tl:e mutual írnpedance affects lhe
cause incorrect directional sensing on line GH for faults on
magnitucle of ground-Iault currcnts ami can result in incor-
line RS. A similar analysis applíes.
rect dircctional sensing, as describcd bclow.
r-
AY G H YA than the current, resulting from induction, ílowing down
2
--1 ->
K, l to,
.
1 Ko
thc neutral. Hence, paralleling the currcnt transformcr pro-
vides a net currcnt up the neutral for any fault.
R
T 2()t,' i s YA
AY
t--
3 Zor.s 4
--} • -+ Mutually couplcd lines, with al least one common bus, pro-
z()!l !Zos vide no directional sensing prohlems as long as ali breakers
Figure 1 0.52 Mutual Coupled Transmission Lines With are closcd (Figure 10-53a). Whcn one breaker is opencd,
Zero Sequence lsola11on howcver, zero sequence isolation and íncorrect directional
sensing can occur. In Figure 10-53b, for examplc, a fault
A ground fault al or ncar G on line CH in vol ves no dircc- near G would be cleared by breaker I relays. When brcaker
lional sensmg problcms al cithcr station G or H, as shown I opens, line GS curren! flow reverses, and incorrcct direc-
by lhc primary current directional arrows. The 310 currcnt tional sensing occurs at S.
ílowing from H to G induces a zero sequence voltage in line
RS, causing current to ílow as shown. Thc polariz ing and As systems becorne more complcx and more lincs are paral-
operating currents are propcrly oricntcd to opera te the di- leled on a cornrnon right-of-way, thc mutual effcct can re-
rcctional rclays ar both R and S, so that litis current appears verse current in the grounded neutral of a star-delta trans-
asan interna! hne RS faull to lite relays at 3 and 4. former bank (Figure 10-54 ). This problem is occurring with
increasing frcqucncy.
The current in line RS induced by uniform mutual coupling
(Z0M) for the length GJ-1 will be: The zero sequence net work for a mutually coupled trans-
mission system is drawn in Figure 10-54b. Current flow ar-
- Ko10F n 2oGH +( I - Ko) 10F (1 - n) 20Gli rows are for a ground fault ncar or at bus G. The voltage
10RS = 2oR + 2oRS + 2os drop between the zero potential bus along line RS starting
from the transformer at S is:
[ 1 - (n + Ko)l IoFZOGH
-
G H Yt.
Foult ZQGH 2
t:.Y t- by Zo4·
4 s
r-
ZoM Yt,
3 ZoGS 4
..... V.E. Negative Sequence Directional Units for
Ground Relaying
-
Breoker l Open ingly necessary because of mutual induclion problems. The
G H Yt.
~ Foult ZoGH 2
D.Y
!
f----- directional unit is a cylinder unit operated by Lhc product
r-
ZoM s Yt. 2
3 ZoGS 4
... scribed in Chapter 3. Typical relay sensitivity is approxi-
mately 0.75 V A at the maximum torque angle, wherc t2
leads V by 98°. Thus the opera le zone is for 12 leading
2
ib1 Breaker One Open Caus,ng Zero Sequence tsotauoo and lncorrect V from 8° to 188°. Frorn the sequence current and volt-
Drrecnonal Sensmq on L,ne GS 2
age charts of Chapter 2 (Figures 2-46 and 2-47), it can be
Figure 10-63· Mutual Coupled Transmission Unes With One
seen that 132 is 180° from 132, or 132 \eads V
Common Terminating Bus 32 by 90° for
a 90° system. This directional unit torque-controls zero se-
This expression reduces to: quence overcurrent units for ground-fault detection and
coordination. The directional unit is also applicablc: ( 1)
where systern economics do not permit the equipment nec-
essary for zero sequence, and (2) when the systern's opera-
tion reduces or limits the application of zero sequcnce po-
larization.
1oR20R - 1o 1 2oM2 -1022oM
1os = (10-53)
A lypical application of directional ground rclaying wilh
negative sequence polarization is shown in Figure 10-55.
los will reverse and llow down the transformer bank neu- lligh-side voltage transforrners are not available for voltage
tral al slation S if the mutually induced voltages are greater polarization, and the transformcr bunk is delta connected.
than the drop across the bank at R. los, then, will reverse Negative sequence d irectional ground relays protccting the
when: two lines can use the low-side voltage transforrners, together
R loMl
loo!
-
loo! Z()R Zoo ZOH Zos
IQI Perfec1 Tronsto,mers
! 'm~
Z()4 Zo1·2-0M1·Zot.12 /"'\
\~
R
-
G u
n
--+ "' ZQM1
; ~Foul, 101 H !los
Zo2·ZOM·loMl Io1+Io2
e
n -
102
ZorZQM-ZOM2 lQM2 loM
s
los 102+ los
(b) Zero SequenoeNetwork
Figure 10-54: Heavy Mutual Can cause Reverse Normal Zero Sequence Current Flow in Line as:
G TABLE 10-IX
nZoL-----..,¡,I Summary of A vailable Directional Ground Relays ( 6 7N)
)(
Faull Sensina Unit Oper1ting Quantilie$
Directlonal Unit Time
Po lamina Overcurrent lnstantaneous lnst1nuneous
Re lay o, Operatina (Jlo> (310> (310)
Type Quantlties (1) (2) (3)
1
BusG :
A<~··~"'""]\
CRC' 'o X X
Reloy Locot1on----: Equol ot Foult fo, Two
1 ("RI) lo ani.1/or v0 X X
1
1 C'RP Vo X X
1
CRQ 12 and v2 X X
1
1 cwc 'o (4)
1
1 CWI' Vo (4)
1
1 CWl'-1 VO (4)
1
X X
1 IRC
'o
IRD 10 und/or v0 X X
Foult IRP Vo X X
IRQ 12 and v2 X X
KRC" 'o X
Orsrcoce KRD.SRGU lo and/or v O X
KRP Vo X
Figure 10-56: Typical Voltage Profiles for Negativa and Zero
KRQ, SRQU 12 and v2 X
Sequence Voltages for Ground Faults
mutual induction. Neither are they subject to switching iso- NOTES: (1) Directionally controlled dísc unil
laüon, which produces mutual reversa]; they require neither (2) Non-directional clapper unit
a transformer bank grounded neutral nor zero sequence (3) Directionally controlled cylinder unit
voltage transformers. (4) Product disc unit
V.G. Fundamentals of Ground-Distance Relaying Unf'ortunately, this method is not useful. It measures tite
source impedance and the current distribution factors, both
The general representation of a line section, given in Figure of which are variable, rather than the protected line im-
10-29, is expanded in Figure 10-57 for a line-to-ground pcdance.
10-56
Rt.tov---1l
(K1l1+K2l2l nZ1L+KolonZoL
vor ¡, -'+c..l
Subst11u11ng
lo
nKoZOL
VaG (K1l1+Kzl2l nZ,L+KolonZoL
10• K111 + K2I2+K01o <+.l.~ ,._F:_o __,
Figure 10-67; A Line to Ground F11ulton Line Section "GH" = 'aG + (q - 1) Kolo
2oL
V.G.2. Using Modified Phase-to-Ground Voltage and q---
-zl L
Zero Sequence Current
and
This method depends on voltagc compensation. By using
only VaG and 13G:
vaG
Zrelay = --
1aG Subslituling:
In thesc 'rormulac:
The directional unil, o0, is a cylinder u111l, as prcviously
Re= are plus tower Iooting rcsistance and inc.:ludes dcscribed. Norrnally, it is a dual-polarized tero scqucncc
unit in the KRT.
ground wires, whcn used:
current flows: be uscd. The KDTG is set cithcr for 30 ohms or for three
limes or more !he Zone 3 positivc scqucnce impedance set-
10 = total zero sequence current, of which K010 is ling. This arrangement assures operalion 011 ali single line-
thc portion through the relay. to-ground faults. The unit does nol operat c on three-phase
loador swings. lt is not subject to wrong dircct ional sens-
V.H. The KDXG Reactance Ground-Distance Relay ing from mutual induction. nor does il require poluriz ing
quant it ics. which can sometimes be difficult lo ohlain
Since ground faults involve tower footing and Iault are re- correclly.
sistance, there are theoreticaJ advantages to using the KDXG
reaclance distance relay. The KDXG permits three reac- The ratio discriminator selects the faulted phase by cornpar-
tance zones of protection. It also avoids the problems of ing the three-phase currents 13, lb. and le: no settings are
lhe single-phase mho unit overreaching on two-phase-to- required. Current-derived voltages, obtained through auxil-
ground faults und thc possihle conflict between prot ectíon iary transformers, are rectified and corn parcd on the dc side.
und supervisión. The reactance units rnust he closely super- Thc currcnt in either adjacent phase applies a block ing volt-
viscd by two units: ( 1) a directional sensing unit and (2) a age to the phase-operat ing coi! (R D) of the faullcd pilase
rallo discriminator to determine the faulted phase. Other unit. The Iaultcd phasc currcnt must be at leust 1.43 times
reaclancc types use a mho elcrncnt for lhis supervisión. the maximum of either of lhc lwo unfaulted phases, so lhat
the unit will not operute 011 doublc-phase-to-ground faults.
The K-DAR compensator principie is used. Neglecting (These Iaults are protected against by the K-DA R phasc
fault resistance, the faulted phase-to-ground voltage is tero rclays.)
at lhe fault. For a fault at the balance point, this condition
can be rcproduced at the relay by subtracting the line drop fhe m101murn pickup for thc ratio discriminator is I Amp.,
vía the cornpensator from the line-to-ground voltage, as with zero in lhe other two phases. Both load and fault cur-
measured at the relay. The torque on the cylinder in this ren! flowing in lhe unfaullcd phases on thi: lini:-lo-ground
case is zero, defining the balance point. faults must he considcrcd, hut should pose no problc111 in
most applications. Sevi:r,tl condillons c;1n preven[ operation
Thc phasors for this and ot her Iault locat ions are shown in of thc ratio discriminator: vcry high rcsistance faults, faulls
Figure 10-58. Bccause a single-phasc rcactance unit is pro- remole from thc rclay, and sources lh:it conlrihutc vcry lit-
vided for each phase, Y LG rcprescnts the phasc-to-ground th: positivc sequencc currcnt.
voltage at lhe relay location for the particular faulted
pitase a, b, or c. Correspondíngly, IR is the faulted phase A ternunal consists of thrcc KDXGs (rcaclance and ratio
relay current of Equation (10-60) for a, b, or c. The com- discriminator units) and one KRT or onc KDTG (directional
pensator setting, jX, is the reactance to the balance point, unit and t•vo zone limers) wilh arcar panel-mounled auxil-
which equals the reactance part of nZ 1 L in Equation iary transformer. The hasic trip :ind control circuits are
(10-61). Thc flux </>y in the cylinder unil results from shown in Figure 10-59.
10-58
Compensotor
.{IR•k~'""
Switchong C,rcu,ts VLG
Cyhnder Unot
( One Poir of Poles Recaves V)
IR)
T
(One Poirof Poles Rece.ves Bosoc Reoctonce Un,t Phosor
(Un11 Opeeotes When 0v Logs01
Mo.. rnurn Torque ot 90º)
~ 01---1~~ ~ Bus G
xoxo
IKDXG Reloy Sel 80% of Lone Sectoonj
Retoy
Locot,on Beong
Cons,dered
I
1
Balance Poon1 /'
-l1
1
Oi---j~o~--~ --
Bus H
T
¡·
Foult Behond Reloy Foull Within Balance Point Foullo1 Balance Po,nt Foull Be~ Balance Poont
4::·
VLG
0v V I
Figure 10.58, Phesor Diagrams for KDXG Relay for Faults at Verloua Locations
------------<-----------------------------------------Positive
1 I 1 1 RDa I RDcl
es
o 0 ....- Phose Torgets
S1or1 $101,c T ,mers TA2 for
Zone2ond TA3forZone3.
TA2 ond TA3 lnuoote Swnch,ng
of The Thtee Reactonce Un,ts
,n Corcu,ts Not Shown
TA2
O Z3 - Zooe Torgers
TA3
To TropC,rcu,ts
The relay is set for positivc scquence reactance, nX 1 1 Equa- nitudes of the operaling and restraining voltages. Trip out-
tion ( 10-6))] for ali three zones in the lhree KDXG relays; put is supplied only when V OP is greater than thc minimum
and for thc proper current factor, z0L - z1 L/3X1L ( Equa- of V XN• V YN• or V zN· The response of the relay for vari-
tion ( 10-62)). Thc factor of 3 is used because of the con· ous fault locations is shown in Figure 10-61.
venicnce of using 31() in thc relay. Thc K D XG ground-
dislance systerns offcr a numher of advantages, including: Thc SDG is a zonc rclay packaged as a thrce-phase type.
Onc rclay will provide complete phasc A·, B-, or C-to-
a. Jligh security through the use of ratio discrim inators and ground Iault protection within its operating zone, as detcr-
a dircclional unit. mined by Zc, the positive sequence ohms of the protected
line. Thus, one relay will provide Zone I protection,
\\. Simp\ified trip circuits without interlocking make-and- another rclay with timer will provide Zone 2 protection,
break contacts. and so on.
c. No tripping on loss of voltage. Thc reta y includes a detector which operates on two low-
phasc voltages with one higher-phase voltage to reduce the
d. No susceptibility to tripping on load and systcm swings. reach approximately 20 percent for two-phase-to-ground
faults. Otherwise the relay tends to overreach as a result of
c. Ncgligihle transient overreach. the out-of-phase conditions of the two phascs. The relay
also rnay have a frequcncy verifier circuit where there rnust
f. lnherent reach stability and high measuremenl accuracy be more than 4 or 5 ms between "operating voltage" zeros
lhrough the K-DAR static compensators. to trip the relay. This time dela y prevents operation caused
by high frequency line energizing and deenergizing tran-
g. Wide ohmic tange: from 0.2 to 11 ohms for Zones l and sients, both of which are particularly evident on EHV lines.
2, and from 0.5 to 27.5 ohrns for Zone 3. AH settings The rclay has negligible transient overreach.
are within 0.5 percent of desired values.
To prevcnt operation 011 a false zero sequence voltage pro-
h. High operating torque for close-in faults. duced by Ioss of voltage, the relays have a static V unit
010
to prevent operation with V and not 10. Faults will always
O
i. Fast Zone I operaling times-usually within I O to 20 ms produce both VO and lo·
except at very low energy levels.
The operaling characteristic on the R-X diagram is a rnodi-
j. Sepárate static timers of 0.1 to 1.0 sec. for Zone 2, and fied mho similar to lhe K-DAR phase-to-phase u nit charac-
0.5 to 3.0 sec. for Zone 3. teristic of Figure 10-34. The characteristic is fixed at the
cornpcnsator anglo and setting but variable at othcr anglos,
V.1. The SDG Solid-State Ground-Distance Relays dcpending on source and fault currcnl distribution faclors.
The equation for lhe reach al any poinl around the line
For a phase-to-ground fault, the magnitude of lhc zero se- anglc, ncglecting mutual and fault impedance, is:
quence voltage drop is equal to the rnagnitudc of thc posi-
tive and negativo sequcncc voltage drops. Frorn Figure
10-57:
comes larger (Figure 10-62). The characteristic is actually tancc effcct can be quite signif'icant, relatively Iew problerns
made up of three circles, one for each phase. Frorn thc havo been encountcred in many years of íield experience.
standpoint of relay performance, the importan! circle is the
center one, describcd by Fquation ( 10-64) and shown pass- Overhead ground wircs substantially reduce the line zero se-
mg through thc Zc scttmg. The other two circles are aca- quence impedancc and the tower footing resistance cornpo-
dernic and occur whcn the operating voltage ( Figures 10-60 nent. To the relay, howcvcr, thc cffcct is anything but a re-
and 10-61 ). Vwo· exceeds the unfaulted phase restraínt sistance cornponent. For fault calculauons, thc ground wire
voltages. For a phase-Aeto-ground fault, these t wo vouages is assurncd to be in parallel with thc earth In pracuce, its
would be V YN and V z . The current reversa! also makes irnpedancc is parallel with the cart h through thc tower Ioot-
the characteristic in the third and fourth quadrants irnprac- ing rcsistancc al each tower. This cffcct tcnds to force more
tical, since the relay rs truly dirccuonal. of lhc rcturn current in the ground wire , dccreusing thc
carlh return currcnt. Ficld studies have confirmed this find-
ing and ind icate that the carth rcturn portion of the curren!
becomes cornparatrvely small about a mile from the fault.
Al lhis poínt , ground wire currcnt approaches a constan!
val u e.
G H
Polo G.._ ZoL•6.0+ J22.3 ___.
H z,s e o Z¡u
Z1L•2.1+ ]10.8 Zw
Z2s
138 Kv Wolh 2 Ground Wires Zos Zou
-+
Koio Sameas G
K1I1
K2l2 Riull
A ZoL B
Zos•l.5+j5.7 P0z05,0.32+íl.20 Ko•0.25
Z1s•O+j17.1 RrF • 10.0 Ohms K1'K2•0.40
IX
Zi_ • Effec1ive lmpedance
No
G +-+ H
nZoM (l·n)ZoM
-+
Polo -+ Faull _ -
(l·PoHo
SDG Offset•l.02+]5.61
Rodius• 1.18+ ¡5.19 n(Zol."ZoMl !(l·nHZoL-ZoM)
Io
Figure 10-64: A Parellel Line Section and its
Zero Sequence Network
1.20~----~----~-----~---~
For any overreach lo occur, PO m ust be less than O. 1 5 Operot1119 Llm1tonCurve Oes19noted by Leller
(P0 < 0.85-1 ). In other words, there would be a very weak Breokers Breoker lmpedonce Relohons
ollln BOpen
source behind the relay at bus G. A Zos. lOZou 'lOZoL
B 81 Zos = Zou• ZoL
When breaker B opens for faults at F, the current through
e Cl 2os =0.1Zou•ZOL
o 01 Zou•CO
the parallel line flows from B lo C, causing an overreach of E El Zos•Zou•lOZOL
F1 Zos•Zou•O.lZOL
relay A. 1 n this case, overreach is desirable, sin ce it will of- 1.00
ten cause Zone 1 to opera te sequentially for 100 percent of
thc linc.
:,t
1
The response of ground-distance relays under various system
J 0.90
Nom,nol Reoch
conditions is given in Figure 10-65. The three curves for -2'
differcnl values of K0:K show the rcach of relay A on line &!
1 :§ o.eol-----+------+__J~c----+------,
AB. The mutual induction effect is shown as a function of
P0:K0 current distribuí ion ratio. Curves A to E are super-
!
e
imposed, showing the system constraints for various values
of zero sequen ce source and line im pedancc relationships. 2
The abovc discussion applies to SDG, KDXG, and similar- d. Mutual compensation must be uscd with caut ion when
lype reactance relays without mutual compensation. Al- "looking into" a weak source. In these cases, K010 flows
though ground-distance relays can use the parallel line cur- from A toward B, and, for faults near C, the large mu-
rent to cancel the mutual induction effect, thís method is tual compcnsation current from the parallel line can
generally not recommended, particularly for Zone 1. cause misoperation.
In sumrnary, for the parallel line cases shown in Figure To use mutual cornpensation, the parallel line must termí-
10-64: nate in the same station in order to havc its current avail-
10-64
able. This cross connection is cornplex and increases thc same for positive and zero scquencc, but the line zero se-
possibility of a wrong connection or testing mistakc. quence impedance averagcs 3 to 3.5 times t he positive se-
quence impedances. For a ground fault at X, most of the
1.60,~---~---~----,.----,.,.Ko-l""K:-¡---,
fault current will be supplied through ZTH· Depending on
the relativo valúes of the severa) irnpedances, little faull cur-
2
ren! will be supplied through the parallel branches of ZTG
and ZoGII (affecting the relay at 1). and through ZTS and
ZoHS (affectmg the relay at 4).
0.5
G H s
0.25
loGH
Figure 10.66. Required Zone 2 Setting to Provide Complete ZrG ZrH Zrs
Cover19e of The Protect1d Line
loGH Foult X ZoHS Foul! Y
V
{\
-"
lf currcnts flow in thc source direction in ali thc lines, addi- Figure 10.67 The Shunting Effect of Ground Sources
tional parallel lines can cause greater relay underreach for
end-zonc faulls. In this situation, the rclay must be mutu- For a ground fault at Y, most of the fault current will pass
ally compensatcd with ali parallel currents, Howevcr, mu- through ZTS• lcss through breaker 3, and even lcss through
tual compcnsation with thrcc or more hncs is inordinately brcakcr 1. As a rcsult, ovcrcurrcnt instantaneous units can
cornplcx. lf cornpcnsation of a given line is necessary, 11 be uscd except on very short lincs, Al thc sarne time, re-
should thcrcfore be limitcd to the insertion of current from mole backup of thc adjacent ltnc can be difficult or involve
just onc parallel line. While this arrangcment rmnimizcs long opcrating times. In other words, the current through
cornplcxit y, as long as mutual compensation is employed, relay 1 for fault Y may be very small. Since ground rclays
ovcrreach hazards still exist. do nol respond lo loads, however, typical tap settings of 0.5
to 1.0 can protcct against the remole fault.
V.L. Transmission Circuit Protection
Both instantaneous and time-ovcrcurrcnt relays for ground-
Directional overcurrent rclays are most comrnonly used for fault prolection are set and coordinated in the same way as
ground-fault protcction. On múltiple solidly grounded sys- described for pilase relays, except that the tap selection is
terns, the presence of a ground source at the bus produces notdependentonload.
largc currcnts for close-in faults. These fault currents are
rapidly attenuated by the line impcdancc as the fault loca- Phase relays will respond to ground faults, however, coordi-
tion moves toward the remole bus. In general, transformer nation between the phase and ground relays is rarely a prob-
banks are not switched with load changes; ground-fault cur- lem. The primary reason is that pilase relays are set on taps
rent, consequenlly, does not vary as muchas does phase- above load, while ground relays are set on taps arou nd one-
fault current for systern generation changes. As a result, fifth to one-tenth of the pilase tap. Using higher ground
inverse-type overcurrent relays for ground faults can gener- taps or lower phase taps can increase the possibility of mis-
ally be set and coordinatcd with satisfactory operating coordination between thc pilase and ground timc-ovcrcur-
times. rent relays.
This shunting effect of ground-fault sources is shown in Fig- Where transformer banks are part of the line, as shown in
ure 10-67. The impedance of the transformer banks is the Figure 10-40, there can be problems with ground relaying.
10-65
lf the bank is wye-delta-connected with the delta on the tional sensing will result. Note, however, that thc relay
line side, the line ground relay at G <loes not receive zero zone will be shortened for line ZLR in Figure 10-68b, or for
sequence current for ground faults on the line. Hence, it linc ZLL in Figure I0-68c.
cannot respond to these faults. Zero sequence voltage is
available from VH at G, but is not selectíve. lt is impos-
G Xc
sible, therefore, to determine from V O whether the fault is
on the line or in the systern to the right of bus H. Zero se-
~-..----~~~~~=-~--+-
E
P ZLR
quence voltage from VII can be used with a pilot relaying Relo y 3 I• Reloy 1
VI. SERIES-COMPENSATED TRANSMISSION (b) Relay al Bus ""G"' (e) Refay at "P" on Line Side of Capacitor
LINE PROTECTION Figure 1 0.68: Distance Relay and The Series Compensated Line
VU.A. Principie Types of Direct-Current Relays between soºc and l 90°C. (Other operating temperature
ranges are also available.) This type of relay may also be
There are six principie types of de relays: used for ac machine protection.
Because of the large currents involved and the high cost of Figure 10-69: Over·Temperature Protection of Machines
ac transductors, relays are usually operated by means of de
shunts in the de power circuit to the equipment. The out- When de machines are operated in parallel, currcnt in one
put of a de shunt is normally 50-m V at rated current, al- or more machine can reverse as a result of excitation failure
though 100-m V shunts are also available. In either case, a or operational error. Reverse-current protection is normally
relay capa ble of operating on such a low energy source is applied using a de overcurrent relay with more sensitive
required. pickup, polarized to opera te u pon current reversal.
The 03 relay with ad' Arsonval-type unit requires only a VU.C. Circuit Protection
few millivolts for operation. Because of the high operating
speed, however, the D3 can only provide short-circuit or Circuits are generally protected by overcurrent devices inte-
current-reversal protection. A supplemental thermal-type grated with the circuit breakers used for the distribution
relay, such as the type DT3, provides overload protection. system. Where necessary, supplernental protection can be
The sensing element of the relay operates from a wheat- provided by either plunger-type relays (up to the circuit-
stone bridge formed by three resistors (within the relay rating limit) or by shunts and d' Arsonval-type overcurrent
case) and a resistance temperature detector (RTD) em- relays. These high speed relays are set in the same way as
bedded in the windings of the machine. high speed or instantaneous trip units in ac systems.
This arrangement is shown in Figure 10-69a for a de operat- Voltage relays can be used to detect overvoltage and/or un-
ing source, and in Figure l 0-69b for an ac operating source. dervoltage. Typical applications include protecting a bat-
In the ac supply scheme (Figure 10-69b), the series resistor tery from too high a charging voltage, or sounding an alarm
and shunting zener diode in the input to the wheatstone when the station battery voltage approaches a value that
bridge actas a de voltage regulator, providing constant volt- might result in a failure to trip on protective relay opera-
age to the bridge. These relays are normally calibrated for tion. D' Arsonval-type voltage relays are the same as current
use with I O ohms (at 2sºc) copper, 100 ohms (at oºc) relays, except that extemal resistors lirnit the current to the
platinum, or 120 ohms (at oºC) nickel RTDs. The cali- normal values when they are used as a current relay.
brated scale allows a winding temperature operating point Plunger-type relays may also be used.
10-67
Since de systerns are normally ungrounded, except for the acteristics are not available. lf, for coordination or other
now practically cxtinct three-wire de systerns, ground detec- purposes, time dclays are required, externa! timing relays
tion is important. Although a ground on one wire does not rnust be used. Since such devices have fixed time delays,
prevent operation of the system, it should be detected and coordinating them with fuses or break ers may be difficult.
removed as quickly as possible. A ground on the other wire The sanie type of dc-operated timing relays used in ac pro-
would rcsult in a short circuit. tcctive schcrncs can also be u sed to protect de systems.
A comrnon type of ground detector system is shown in Fig- While plunger rclays are less expensive than the d' Arsonval-
ure 10-70. The relay devicc 64 could be either a plunger re- type, their use as ovcrcurrent relays is limited to circuits of
lay orad' Arsonval-type, which has greater sensitivity. The low normal currcnt ratings. The d' Arsonval unit is a rnuch
resistor valucs limit the current for a fault to ground to very more precise relay with directional sense and repcatability
low values. A re lay such as the type 03 (or DG F) is avail- of performance. D'Arsonval units can be applied to circuits
able for operation at currents as low as 1 O m A. The de sys- with very large current capacities.
tem is effectively ungroundcd under normal conditions, al-
though there is a path to ground through the ground detec-
VII.O. High Voltage Direct-Current Transmission
tion systern.
Chapter 11 l. INTRODUCTION
111. Reactance Grounding Solid grounding is neccssary to meet these standard criteria,
A. High-Reactance Grounding particularly with overhead lines where the X0/X I ratio aver-
B. Resonant Grounding (Ground Fault Neutralizer) ages between 2.5-3.5. In solidly grounded systerns, the neu-
C. Low-Reactance Grounding trals of the wye-delta power transformers are directly con-
nected to earth through the station ground mat. Consider-
IV. Resistance Grounding
able design effort is expended to keep the resistance in this
A. Low-Resistance Grounding connection to a mínimum: rypical values of ground mat re-
B. High-Resistance Grounding sistance to "earth"* are on the order of 0.1 ohm or less in
V. Sensitive Ground Relaying areas of low ground resistivity. Typical values are higher in
high ground rcsistivity a reas, resulting in a large station
A. Ground Overcurrent Relay With Conventional ground mat risc (voltage gradient) between the station area
Current Transforrners
and remole grounds during ground faults.
B. Ground Product Relay With Conventional
Current Transforrners
C. Ground Overcurrent Relay With Zero Sequence This chapter will cover protective relaying schernes for non-
Current Transformers effectively grounded systerns. These systems fall into one
VI. Ground Fault Protection for Three-Phase Four-Wire of t hree categories:
Systems
a. ungrounded
A. Unigrounded Four-Wire Systerns
B. Multigrounded Four-Wire Systerns
b. reactance grounded
c. resistance grounded.
*"Earth," "remete ground," and "true ear th " are difficult terms to
define prccisely, sin ce the earth is a very heterogenous mass, The
terms represent a muthemaucal fiction needed to identify the zero
potential earth plane. In practice, they are considered to cxist
within the earth at anv point remate from the influence of the
power system or where current can reasonably flow in the earth
structure.
11-2
,r
1 '1
11.A. Ground Faults on Ungrounded Systems .l. ;;,
1
1
1
b
The term "ungrounded" is strictly one of definition, indi- 1
:
tem neutral and ground. Since, however, there is distrib-
:Pe I pb Po
uted capacitance between the three phases of the system Xco ;}: ;¡~ Xco
and ground, the system is effectively grounded through the : :
g
capacitance. On such systems, charging current flows be-
tween each conductor and ground under normal conditions.
In the event of a single line-ground fault , the corresponding
la ---"""---~ Vbc
line to ground capacitance is shunted out. \
\
\ le( 90° Leod,ng Vc0l
~
Vco'Vcg
YC:, G Foull
XL Figure 11-2: Phasor Diagram· of Currents and Voltages During
or >-----f~ft------=----4'-----
Single Line·Ground Fault on an Ungrounded System.
xr
Positive SequenceNetwork
Since the ground fault current returns through the shunt
capacitance, the unfaulted phase currents are not zero (Fig-
X1c ure 11-2). The phase b and e voltages are shown as the pre-
fault line-to-line voltages or -./3 V LG· This relation holds
X1L F
-11 true only for the steady-state condition with zero fault re-
Negotive Sequence Network
l,
Breoker Conrocts
Zero Porenr ,01 Bus N0
-1
Xoc
G
XoL F
e
-10
Figure 11·1: Sequence Networks for Phase 'ºa'"·to·Ground Fault Equivalent Circuit
on an Ungrounded System.
Une Voltoge
Using symmetrical components, Figure 11-1 shows the net-
~ 1
works and fault representation. Here, XI e equals x2c.
XI C' x2c, and Xoc are the total distributed capacitance of
the system to the fault. While they are shown here lumped
together, equivalent "T" or "Pi" representations could be
shown on more extensive systems. XI e and x2c can be
neglected, since they are very large compared to XI G• X2G,
Voltoge BreokerContocts _,
XT, XI L and x2L For practica! purposes, Xoc predomi-
nates so that approxirnately,
-3
3V
I = 31 = GEN (11-1)
a o X oc Figure 11-3: Over-Voltages Dueto Are lgnitions and Re·Strikes.
11-3
3R 1\101 Recommended
The result is a high frequcncy transient voltage, whose first
peak overshoots the -1.0 valu e by -2 .O ( the difference be- Resistor .J3ELL
.I
Vpr'~
tween -1 and +l ), giving a peak voltage value of -3.0. If 3·x¡:
the are is again extinguished, the trapped charge on the line
produces a voltage of -3 .O per unit. If a second restrike oc-
L
(al
3Vo0lo(3Rl
CV·8(59N)
(b)
curs at the next voltage positive maximum, the peak voltage
will overshoot to +5 per unit as it goes from -3 per unit to Zero Sequence Network
11.B. Ground Fault Detection on Ungrounded Systems lf the relay burden is too small for the system voltage class,
the transformers in this scheme rnay be subjected to ferro-
Since the fault current for single line-ground faults on an resonance. It is preferable to shunt the relay with a resistor.
ungrounded system is very small, overcurrent relays cannot Typical resistor values in use are:
be used for fault detection. Voltage relays will detect the
presence of the voltage unbalance produced by the fault,
but will not selectively determine its location in the system. Voltage Transformer Resistor
Ratio in ohms
The unbalance phase and zero sequence voltages which oc-
cur during ground faults are essentially the same throughout
2400 to 120 250
the system. Since selective isolation of the fault is not pos-
4200 to 120 125
sible, relay schemes are only useful for providing an alarm.
7200 to 120 90
14400 to 120 60
Figure l l-4a shows the preferred ground fault detection
11
system. The voltage transforrners rnust nave a primary volt·
age rating equal to the line-line voltage, since this is the volt-
11-4
While the primary fault current may be low, high secondary 111.A. High-Reactance Grounding
currents can flow. This should be checked with the short
time or continuous rating of the voltage transformer and Up to the early 1940's, sorne utilities operated their unit
resistor. system generators with the neutral ungrounded. Their pur-
pose was to keep the interna! line-to-ground fault current in
Applying a grounded-broken-delta transformer without the the generator very low and prevent the iron from being
shunt resistor is eq uivalent to very high irnpedance ground- damaged by arcing. Unfortunately, when these generators
ing, Any shunt resistor, even as high as 20 :\:, is better were connected to long, high-voltage transmission lines, the
than none. It will darnp any high transient voltage oscilla- result was a high insulation failure rate in the machine
tions and will usually hold the peak values to less than windings.
twice normal crest voltage to ground.
These failures were caused by high voltage transients, simi-
The alternate ground fault detection scherne (Figure l l-4b) lar to those discussed earlier. This problern was com-
is not recommended and should only be applied with cau- pounded by an inability to detect single line-ground faults
tion. The CVD (27-59) relay in this systern has SPDT con- in the generator. As a result, the faults persisted, causing
tacts for operation on either over- or undervoltage. Line- undue damage.
to-ground faults on phases a and b produce an overvoltage
on the relay; faults on phase e produce an undervoltage. For The initial solution was to connect the generator neutral to
the scheme to work, the capacitance to ground of the lines ground through the prirnary of a voltage transformer and
must be fairly closely balanced and high enough to keep the put an overvoltage relay across the secondary. In theory, a
neutral of the system at close to ground potential. single line-grcund fault would simply cause the generator
neutral voltage to shift with respect to ground, activating
This scherne can also produce ferroresonance or neutral in- the relay and tripping the machine or sounding an alarrn. In
X practice, however, this system actual!y increased the ma-
version. When ___:_ is 3 .O, V PT theoretically would be infi-
XL chine failure rate. The cause was arcing grounds-a phe-
nite. Even without faults on the system, the high rnagnetiz- nomenon similar to the restrikes that can occur when
ing impedance of the voltage transformer can approach res- switching a high capacitive reactance.
onance with the line capacitance to neutral, causing a high
overvoltage a cross the secoridary. Neutral inversion can oc- The arcing ground phenomenon can be e xplained using Fig-
cur during a line-ground fault on a phase other than phase c. ure 1 1-5. The equivalent single-line diagrarn shown in Fig-
Such a fault produces unbalanced impedances to ground ; ure l l -5a is for a generator grounded through a high reac-
the resultant current flows can drive the systern ground tance, Xn, with a line-to-ground fault near one terminal.
point outsid e the delta. A loading resistor across the relay Xc is the distributed capacitive reactance of the windings to
or, less desirably , in series with the transformer primary ground, connected half way between the generator reac-
may prevent these problerns. tance (Xg). If the are is extinguished when the small fault
current passes through zero, the voltage across the are path
must go from nearly zero to normal crest value. In doing
III. REACT ANCE GROUNDING
so, it must oscillate around the steady-state normal value.
In this system, approximately 75 percent of line-ground chine terminals equal to a three-phase fault. (A reactor
faults are self-extinguishing. The remaining faults must be 2X - X -X
value of I o 2 was used.) In general, low-reactance
cleared by a line breaker. A partía! schema tic for one such
grounding was applied to large industrial plant systems with
protective system is shown in Figure 11-6. Ground faults
radial distribution feeders, and ground fault protection con-
of sufficient magnitude are picked up by a sensitive instan-
sisted simply of overcurrent relays. Gradually , this type of
taneous current relay (50), which is connected to a current
generator grounding has been replaced by resistance
transformer in the grounding lead of the neutralizing reac-
grounding.
tor. The relay's contact energizes the opera te coi! of a latch
or toggle-type auxiliary relay (50X-O). Normally closed
Low-reactance grounding is still applied in the neutral of
contacts (50X) open the operate coil, and two normally
autotransformers. A large autotransformer becomes a
open contacts (50X) set up the reset coi) (50X-R) and start
strong zero sequence source and, at its location, the X0/X¡
timer 2. lf, after a preset time, typically JO to 15 seconds,
ratio is often substantially less than unity. A reactor in the
the fault has not cleared, timer 2 contacts close the breaker
neutral connection to ground can make this ratio equal to
5 2N, solidly grounding the neutral so that conventional
unity, limiting the line-ground fault at the terminals to the
ground relays can selectively clear the fault. Breaker 52N
three-phase value. While not used extensively, this scheme
also energizes 50X-R to reset the toggle relay and sound an
is applied by sorne utilities.
alarm. If the fault clears before timer 2 contacts operate,
the normally closed 50 and 52N-b contacts will energize
Another type of low-reactance grounding provides ground
50X-R to reset the toggle relay.
fault relaying for systems supplied from a delta source. The
reactance grounding scherne should:
In theory , resonant grounding should reduce line outages
considerably. This systern does, however, have a number of
a. Supply sufficient ground fault current to operate relays
disadvantages:
for a fault where the line value (X0 + 2X 1) is the highest,
shown in parallel are on the same core leg. With the polar-
ities shown, the positive sequence impedance of the bank is
very high and equal to the magnetizing impedance. When
zero sequence passes through the bank as shown, the im-
pedance is equal to the leakage reactance.
Whenever low impedancc grounding is dcsired , resistancc of the generator windings, cable connections to thc trans-
groun<ling is generally preferred to the low-reactance sys- former, low-voltagc transformer winding, and station service
tems described above, Specifically, low-resistance ground- transf ormer. This resistor value will lirnit generator iron
ing is used for syste ms fed directly at generator voltage
(Figure l l-8a) or fed through a delta-wyc transformer (Fig-
ure l l-8b). When a line-to-ground fault occurs in the sys-
,:;, ~
tem, the current flowing in the ground resistor results in a
PowerTronsformer
sudden change in generator load, causing severe generator
~ mC,-8<59J
angular swings and high peak shaft torques. To keep the T Sronon Se-vice
gro u nd resistor loss low, t he resistor is generally sized to
limit the single line-to-grou nd bus f'ault to aroun<l 400 am-
peres. Ground relaying using overcurrent relays may be ap-
p!ied but zero-sequence type current transformers will pro- O,s,ribu11on Transforme,
KV/ 120 or 240Volls
vide greater sensitivity.
(a) Unit Connected Generator-Transtormer
leo¡
Dismbuted
High-resistance grounding is applied to the generator-
Xco System
transformer unit systems by connecting a resistor across the Gene,010, Copo e, tone e
ond Leods toGround
secoridary of a distribution transformer in the grounded Xo
generator neutral (Figure 11-9). The resistor value is se-
(b/ Zero Sequence Network (e/ Phasor Oiagram
lected so that its KW loss for a solid line-to-grou nd fault at
the machine terminal is equal to or greater than the charg-
Figure 11·9: High Resistance Grounding of The Unit Connected
ing kV A of the low-voltage system. In this case, the charg- Generator-Transformer.
11-8
buming frorn ground faults; darnp out oscillations; and lirnit Thus, using Equation (11-3),·the line-to-ground fault cur-
the peak transient overvoltage to around 2.5 normal line to rent is:
neutral voltage, or less. The ratings of the resistor and trans-
former are: Ig = 0.06613,p (! 1-6)
R
or xº ~ 2.0 (11-3) Sorne years ago, a utility conducted tests on a l O-Ioot
o length of no. 4 bare copper wire energized at l 2kV and laid
on a variety of surfaces such as dry grass, green vegetation,
For a neutral resistor R,
dry base soil, and asphalt. Of 1 28 tests, 7 percent showed
Ro= 3R currents of less than one ampere, 7 percent showed currents
of over 1000 amperes, and SS percent had currents in the
Assurning that Xo = 20X 1, and Ro= 2Xo, then range of ISO to 600 amperes.
1. Ground relay in the common neutral connection of the Higher burdens, however, may also decrease the relay sensi-
line current transformers and/or grounded source (Fig- tivity on light ground faults, depending on the quality of
ure 11-10). the current transformers. False residual currents do not oc-
2. Ground relay in the common neutral connection of the cur in the scheme shown in Figure 11-1 Ob , or 11-13 and do
line current transforrners, with a product-type relay to not cause relay operations in Figure 11-11.
avoid operation on false residual currents (Figure 11-11 ).
The CWP scheme (Figure 11-1 lb) provides increased sen- With the application of a ground relay set on the 0.5 am-
sitivity which the CWC scheme may not. (See also Fig- pere tap, the fault current in the relay should be not less
ure 11-12.) than twice pick-up, or 1.0 amperes secoridary. Taking Kas
3. Ground relay with a zero sequence (ring) type current the primary current transforrner rating, and using Equation
dens of the ground relays on the mínimum tap, the relay current should be at least three times the primary current
pick-up current multiplied by the current transformer rating of the highest current transformer of all the feeders
ratio will not be the prirnary ampere pick-up when using on the bus. Alternatively, the highest current transformer
lower quality current transformers (see Chapter 5). To primary currcnt rating should be less than one-t hird the
hold the exciting current to a reasonable mínimum, the mínimum thrce-phase fault current. Since K usually is
mínimum CO relay current tap se tting should equal slightly greater than maximum load curre nt , a mínimum
!OVA three-phase fuult of less than three times maximum load
-V--,( 1 1-7) approximatcly, where V A is the volt- will seldom occur except on ver y long, extended fecders.
T
ampere burden of the ground relay at tap setting, and
For increased sensitivity, the ground relays should opera te
VT is the current transformer accuracy classification
on IO percent of the maximum ground fault curre nt, with
voltage.
mínimum source (maximum source irnpedance ). Thus, the
mínimum ground current for a solid ground fault should be
Circuit Power Trcnsforrner
at least ten times the relay sensitivity. This assurnes that
Phose Reloys
Not Shown 6~ the normal load unbalance is less than the relay pick-up
A which is often the limiting criteria. Frorn Equations 11-3 1 ,
50/51 and 114, it can be seen that the system reactance has only
N 1 1
a minor effect on the ground fault current; that is, the max-
50/51 imum and mínimum currents for solid ground Iaults are es-
G
fa) Three CT's ,n ThP. (b) One CT in The Grounded sentially the same.
Protected Circuit Neutral Circuit
Figure 11 · 1 O: Ground Protection With Conventional Current With the 0.5 ampere tap, the maximum ground fault should
Transformers and Protective Relays.
be 5.0 amperes secondary or more. Using Equation 11-6:
Unequal performance of current transformers during heavy
phase faults or the initial asyrnmetrical motor starting cur- .066 I3,i,
o/ :: 5 or 13</> :: l 5.2K (I 1-9)
rents may produce false residual currents with the scheme
K/5
shown in Figure 11-1 Oa. Where these currents cause relay
operation, an instantaneous relay with a higher pickup Here, the mínimum three-phase fault current should be at
should be used, or the time overcurrent relay should have a least 15 times the primary current rating of the current
larger time dial and/or pickup. Increasing the burden on transformer or should approximate the maximum load.
the current transformers in these cases causes them to satu- These values will require more sensitive relaying for most
rate more uniformly, reducing the false residual current. noneffectively grounded systems.
11-10
=~~=B~us===========~r=~i==~
The greatest ground fault sensitivity is provided by the
CWP-1 (32N) relay. The relay pickup is adjustable and
, , 1 e
1 1 1 equal to 5, 7, 10, 14, 20, 28, or40 milliamperes with 100
: / 1
volts across the potential coi! at maximum torque. Maxi-
: -, !
RorX
: r--,: mum torque occurs when 10 leads -V by 45 degrees
,. ._..,n '
1 ,1 ,, O
(Figure 11-12). For the scheme shown in Figure 11-11 b,
~J Optionol the mínimum pickup is:
---------·~
(+)
-----r----r
~ ......~,, _ _,..,_.......,
:::,
-L
Alternote When System
(11-10)
~--~~~~~~~~~~~~~----~~~~~~~-o
Bus
~-+-~~--~~~~~~~~~~--1--~--~~~~~-b
g]es approaching the maximum torque angle of the relay
can be obtained by increasing R0 and the fault resistance.
Figure 11-11: Sensitivity Ground Protection Utilizing Product V.C. Ground Overcurrent Relay With Zero Sequence
Type Relays.
Current Transforrners
V.B. Ground Product Relay With Conventional
The scheme shown in Figure 11-13 provides máximum sen-
Current Transformers
sitiviry. There are no false residual currents. The zero se-
Increased sensitivity may be provided by the schemes shown quence type current transf'ormer has the conductor cables
in Figure 11-11. These schemes will not operate on false passed through the center hole. Secondary current is the
residual currents; the relays require current in both wind- system zero sequence current, or 310.
ings to operate. No system ground or zero sequence current
or voltage will exist for phase faults or motor starting o b e
currents.
per coil impedance is 0.42 ohrns, while the lower pole coil
impedance is 3.52 ohms. For maximum sensitivity, there-
fore, the upper coil should be connected to the three par-
allel current transformers orto the lower accuracy class cur-
Figure 11-13: Ground Protectiorr Utilizing The Zero Sequence
rent transforrners. (Ring) Type Current Transforrners.
11-11
('0-11 ~.5 ~4 .O 24.0 700 •100 Figure 11-14: Ground Differential Scheme Using a Type CWC
Relay. (Protected Equipment can be a Generator,
t 4-J/4 JI) and 7-J/-4 ID .ir c t hc mvtdc di.unct cr ol tht.• wmdow in 111dh.'' Transtormer. Reactor, Feeder, Line, etc.)
When the maxirnum Iault current e xceeds the maximum faults frorn phase-to-ground, the current rcturns through
val u es shown , the ou tpu t wave form is nonsinusoidal. Rela y the earth to the substation neutral.
timing will tend to becorne variable and longer than indi-
cated in the published literature. There are three different relay schemes for grou nd fault
protection, as shown in Figure 11-15. Figure 11-1 Sa shows
The above schemes are for feeder circuits. For ground pro- the conventional scheme used on three-phase , three-wire
tection of equipment, a ground differential scheme can be systems. For a four-wire system, the load un balance cur-
used with a differential type relay ora product type (CWC) ren! would flow through the ground relay, requiring a set-
relay as shown in Figure 11-14. This is also applicable to ting above the unbalance value to avoid operation on the
short run feeders with three conventional CT's ora zero se- maximum load unbalance. This scheme is generally not rec-
quence type CT at each end of the protected zone. The ommended. The four current transformer scheme shown in
CWC relay is recommended as it provided high sensitivity Figure 11-1 Sb provides much higher se.nsitivity, since it does
and is relatively independent of the current transformer not measure the load unbalance residual current. Even
performance. greater sensitivity is provided by lhe zero sequence type cur-
rent transformer shown in Figure 1 1-1 Sc. Cornparative sen-
VI. GROUND FAULT PROTECTION FOR sitivities for various relays in this scheme are listed in
THREE-PHASE, FOUR-WIRE SYSTEMS Table 11-1.
VI.A. Unigrounded Four-Wire Systems If a line-to-neutral fault occurs on the system, only the con-
ventional scheme (Figure I J-15a) will respond. The connec-
Unigrounded, four-wire systems have insulated neu trals; the tion of the current transformers in the other two schemes
only ground connection is at the substation. Loads gener- results in cancellation of the fault current, unless it involves
ally are connected phase-to-neutral, and the net load unbal- ground. The phase relays will provide protection, however,
anee retums through the neutral as a residual current. For since-if the neutral conductor is the sarne as the phase con-
11-12
Chapter 12 l. INTRODUCTION
•
As described in Chapter 1 O, setting and coordinating pro-
Application and Setting by tective devices in a power system is a tedious and time-
Computers
consuming job, particularly for loop networks and cornplex
Authors: V. F. Wilreker and R. A. Wilson systerns. Ensuring acceptable operating times and selectiv-
ity for the various generating levels and for the anticipated
changes in system configuration is usually a trial-and-error
l. lntroduction process. A well-designed computer prograrn, however, can
relieve the relay engineer of much routine, tedious, and
II. Protective Device Coordination Prograrn Structure
time-consurn ing work. In addition, the computer facilitates
A. Application Data Currents/Impedances system-wide studies, encourages consistent relaying prac-
B. Device Coordination tices throughout the system, and provides complete, up-
C. Device Operation Check
dated results of changes in systern pro tection.
III. System Response Map
Pioneere d in 1960, the Protcctive Device Coordination Pro-
A. Desensitized Devices
gram (PDCP) described in this chapter represents the rnost
B. Coordination Mapping
C. lmproving System Performance comprehensive and complete prograrn for applying, setting,
and checking the coordínation of many types of protective
IV. Prograrn Application relays, fuses, and reclosers. The program makes it possible
A. Data Check Study to analyze a wider variety of fault and operating conditions
B. Coordination Study than are normally considered when settings are derived
C. Final Coordination Study manually.
· 1000 kV
Z = . ¡;; ohms primary (12-1) Final
v3l Results
The load and eight fault conditions shown are defined in Figure 12· 1: Block Oiagram of The Procedure for a Complete
Table 12-1. Coordination Study.
Stotion L
Stnnon O 0
17
© Legend:
83
t----<8 o
68
Sto1ion N
>-----<
(
t.,___
Generotor
0-BusNumber
Figure 12-2: Typical Fault Data Print-out for One location in a Protective Device Coordination Study of a Power System.
12-3
Table 12-1 faults within the primary protection area. These settings
may not provide selectivity in clearing faults outside the de-
Application Data Currents
vice's primary protection area. Adjustments must be made
to provide the required backup protection. (This adjust-
Positive current flows out of the bus through the protec-
ment process is discussed in Chapter 10.)
tive device, and negative current flows into the bus
through the protective device. The following numbers, 1
through 9, correspond to the typical data in Figure 12-2. The prograrn uses branch topology to establish a list of the
overreaching and associated overreached device pairs. In
1. Maximum Close-in Fault-the maximum current
through device location for a fault on the line termi- Figure 12-3, for e xam ple, there are three device pairs for
nals of the device. device 5 ut station D. The overreaching device is number 5;
the overrcached devices are 7, 20, and 16.
2. Maximum Far Bus Fault-the maximum fault current
through the device location for faults on the far bus.
o
Sta11on D Stonon L
3. Mínimum Far Bus Fault-the mínimum curre nt
through the device location for faults on the far bus.
For multi-terminal lines, where severa! buses re pre-
00 Stotion J
sent the far bus for a relay location, the far bus maxi-
mum fault and far bus mínimum fault m ay not be 0 0 Unit Generoror
from the same bus.
5. Mínimum Fault-in the phase progrum , half the míni- To coor dinate euch device pair, six data pairs are developed
mum fault current for any fault up to two buses
from thc voltagcs and currents of the short circuit results.
away (in the positive direct ion) from the dcvice loca-
tion, or the positive load curre nt , whichever is greater. A data puir is eithcr the current through or the impedance
In the ground-overcurrent prograrn, a quarter of the seen by both the back-up device (overreaching device) and
mínimum fault current for any fault up to two buses the primary device (overreached device) for a specific fault
away (in the positive direction) from the device loca-
tion, or the positive residual current, whichever is condition. For exarnple, in Figure 3 there are six data pairs
greater. The half and quarter factors approximate the for device pair 5-7, six for 5-20, and six for 5-16. Tables
effect of fault resistance. 12-11 and 12-111 define these six data pairs for phase and
ground protection, respectively. Two examples of the data
6. Mínimum Backup Line-End Fault-the mínimum
fault current through the device for a remote line- pairs are shown in Figures l 2-4a and l 2-4b.
end fault (a fault with the breaker open between the
fault and the bus). The six data pairs are used to coordinate the pair of devices.
7. Near Bus Fault-the maximum current flowing For each of the six data pairs, the device's operation time
through the device location for a fault on the near is determined. The operating time is a function of the cur-
bus. rent through (e.g. overcurrent relay) or the impedance seen
by the device (e.g. distance relay). When allowed, adjust-
8. Mínimum Line-End Fault-the mínimum current
through the device location for a fault at the far end ments of settings are made as discusse d in Chapter 1 O. Fig-
of the line, with the far breaker open. ure 12-5 is a typical printout showing the coordination of
two overcurrent relays and two distance relays of Figure
9. Load out of the Bus-the maximum current through
the device location, as given by input information. 12-4.
II.B. Device Coordination The Device Operation Check prints the operating time of
every de vice within a t wo-bus radius of every fault in the
The application data outlined above allows the program to short circuit program. The fault numbers refere nced by the
select device settings that ensure fast operating times for application currents and coordination sections are specified
1.l-4
in this section of the program. Figure 12-6 shows a sample fault must be moved to the line side of the local breakers
printout of the device operation check. This is for a fault to check the operation of relays 6, 7, 16, and 20. The re-
on bus 2, Station L, with the transformer breaker (9) out lays on breaker 20 are the transforrner differential which
of service (FaultNo. 26). For the relays at Station L, the operates instantaneously.
The fault is then moved back to the bus to check the opera-
Table 12-11
tion of ali the remete devices that respond to the fault. Lo-
The Six Data Pairs for the Phase Protective cations 3, 13, and 14 are not listed in the printout since they
Device Coordination Program*
do not trip under these fault conditions.
CP # 1-The largest current through the overreaching de-
vice for a fault one bus removed from the over- III. SYSTEM RESPONSE MAP
reached device, including line-end faults. For im-
pedance relays, the coordination pair consists of The development of the System Response Map is an inte-
the impedances for this condition, as measured
at the overreaching and overreached locations. gral part of a complete PDCP study. The map shows t he
©/is' 000j 0 @
L-..>< :f CP1,CP2,CP6 1---------. CP1,CP2,CP6
1 \ O l ~1----1oc~-3-e~-~ T CP3 CP4
Overreoch,ngOevice Overreoched Oevice
.
CP2
1
CPl
CP2 CP6 CP4
1
1
¡-,.- Locotoan 9
"'E E
..=
CP3
..= 1
1
1
.....- Lccetoo 11
l
1
1
1
1
1
Currenr lmpedonce
1·
a) Overcurrent Relay Coordination with an Overcurrent Relay b) Distance Relay Coordinatoon With a Distance Relay.
1
Figure 12-4: Location of Data Pairs for Two General Cases.
S. Se!ect a device not included in any previous chain. Coordination mapping traces the coordination paths in the
Repeat Steps 3 and 4 as necessary until the list of de· system using critica! coordination pairs. A critica! coordi- ¡ 1
Legend:
1 Amps • Amperes operatong tome of 99 99 seeonds means the device
2 FN • The fault number appearmg in the devoee operauon w,11 not tnp An operat,ng lime of 777 77 seconds
check secnon mdicates a current ,n the devrce ,n the range of 1
3 MT - The multiple of tap for the relays. for fuses and to 1 3 tomes the tap current {for a relav). or 1 00 to
reciosers: thrs ,s mean,ngless and is set to zero about 2 50 for a fuse The deviee may operate. but
4 FBN · The fault bus number that produced this current the operatmg tome cannot be aeeurately g,ven
paor 6. Z lmpedance as sensed by the relay 999 99 ,ndieates
5 OT - The operat,ng tome of the device Note than an ,nton,te ,mpedance
Sronon J
0@
Stouon W Stonon O
@ 00 0
0 0 f--+-~
,___ 'v
Figure 12,6: Example of Oeviee Operation Check for One Fault Condition.
the systern response map. Device K, in turn, forms a device vice I) plus additional devices that may not from their set·
pair with L and M. K·L is the critica! device pair and also tings appear to be causes of coordination problems (devices
forms a link. Device L forms only one device coordination K, L, and N).
pair, link L-N. This sequence of links forms an uninter-
rupted path connecting all devices to the slow operating 111-C. lmproving System Performance
time of device l. The three-link chain (I-K, K-L, L-N) is
shown in Figure 12- 7b. Note that the System Response System protection is measured by the operating speed of
Map includes ali devices in the desensitized device list (de· thc back-up devices while maintaining coordination. Once
12-7
Stonon S
Tie to System
StotionW
-
a) The Critica! Coordination Path:
Links IK. KL. and LN to Form Chain l·K·L·N.
<l i Srcuon L
~f.--0-+-1::}-~~~~~~---~~~~~-{;....-0f--~~__J
Stonon S
@ @
m OD "-..,
S1011onW @
12
00 Equ,volent
Generotor
m @)
® Stouon J @
20
©
Stcnon O
[fil
© [E] ® @]
0
[D 'v
0
'v
Generotor
Generotor [fil
O- Bus Number
LJ - BranchNumber
Generotor O_ Protection Device Number
and Location
Figure 12·9: Topology and ldentification for The System of Figure 1 2-8.
-- __ ..,..._ ~
12-8
In the example of section III-B, the chain represented by The point(s) at which a chain is broken must be chosen
devices 1, K, L, and Nis eliminated by reducing the operat- carefully. Where limited miscoordination may be tolerated,
ing time of device N. This can be achieved by replacing de- the breakpoint is chosen to minimize disruption of customer
vice N with a more sophisticated protection scheme. This service. If miscoordination cannot be tolerated, a more so-
change reduces the settings of 1, K, and L. phisticated protection scheme must be applied.
Table 12-V
Input Data for the Existing Protective Devices and Their Settings for the System
Shown in Figure 12-8, before the Addition of the Generator and Line Tap
Tap
Current Inst. Trip Setting Time Dial Tap Range
Transf. Trip Direction or or or or
Location Near Ratio and lmpedance lmpedance Step Time Impedance
Number Bus (X/1) Device Type Impedance Zone Angle Setting in Sec. Range
IV. PROGRAM APPLICATION performed to obtain a magnetic tape listing the fault cur-
rents and voltages in the short circuit solutions. As shown
The application of the PDCP program is illustrated for the in Figure 12-1, this tape is accessed for the Data Check
system shown in Figure 12-8. The addition of a generator Study, the Coordination Study, and the Final Coordina-
at Station N and a line tap into Station D requires new re· tion Study.
lays at these two stations. Furthermore, the protection
schernes in the surrounding system must be investigated. IV-A. Data Check Study
The system topology and identification as shown in.Fig- The Data Check Study establishes the appiication currents
ure 12-9 are prograrnmed into the computer. Note that ali and checks the settings and coordination of the existing re·
lines, buses, and device locations have been numbered. lays. Typically for the Data Check Study no changes in de·
Fault buses are established at severa! points for the pur- vice settings are made. Discrepancies between the existing
poses of fault calculations. A digital short circuit study is settings (shown in Table 12-V) and the computer-determined
12·9
Table 12-VI settings for the modified system are printed in the format
Computer Cornmentary on Existing Protection and shown in Table 12· VI. As indicated in Table 12-VI, the re-
Settings for the Modified Systern Shown lays most severely affected by the changes in system con-
in Figure 12-8 figuration are those at locations 2, 16, 17, and 18. None of
these protective devices will operate properly in the new sys-
Loe. 2 tem.
Loe. 17
IV-B. Coordination Study
A directional-overcurrent relay would be preferred.
The instantaneous trip setting of 60.00 is too low.
The Coordination Study determines settings for optimum
This relay should have a directional instantaneous
unit set at 71.2. device coordination. The comment section of the Data
The tap setting of 4.50 is too low. Check Study (Table 12- VI) indicates that changes in device
Maximum fault produces 129.03 amps in secondary types are necessary at locations 2, 16, 17, and 18. From this
of C.T.
An impedance relay set at .55, (Zone one), might be cornmentary, directional instancaneous and time-overcurrent 1
a better choice for line protection than the instan· IRV-7 relays are selected. The Coordination Study is then
taneous trip unit.
~ - -34.5:llSkV
Loe. 18
Amps, 507. (FN 17) MT 5.64, OT .61 Amps 2534. (FBN2) MT 4.22, OT 1.06 Not Coordinated
Arnps, 219. (FN 23) MT 2.44, OT 1.13 Arnps 1030. (FBN 2) MT 1.72, OT 2.76 Not Coordinated
Amps, 809. (FN 83) MT 8.99, OT 0.00 Arnps 8500. (FBN 7) MT 14.17, OT 0.00 Not Coordinated
Amps, 618. (FN O) MT 6.86, OT 0.00 Amps 2899. (FBN 2) MT 4.83, OT .98 Not Coordinated
Amps, 419. (FN O) MT 4.65, OT .68 Amps 2091. (FBN O) MT 3.48, OT 1.21 Not Coordinated
Amps, 439. (FN 23) MT 4.88, OT .66 Amps 2060. (FBN 2) MT 3.43, OT 1.23 Not Coordinated
-··· ······--···· -··········· .
12-10
run to observe the effects of the changes and establish new ternatively, the devices at the same locations could be re·
settings for these devices. Study results are given in Table placed with two-zone impedance relays, such as the type
12-VIII.
KD· l O. In this case, the relay's reach is effectively con·
trolled by the second zone impedance unit.
Table 12-IX lists the desensitized protective devices for the
system shown in Figure 12-8, and Figure 12-10 shows the
IV-C. The Final Coordination Study
System Response Map. The System Response Map shows
that coordination through the 34.5/ 115-kV transformers
For the example system, it was decided to replace the re·
is the major remaining coordination problem. Devices 8
lays at locations 7 and 14 by two-zone K D-1 O relays. A
and 9 are located on the 115-kV side of their respective
Final Coordination Study provides the settings listed in
transformers. To coordinate through the transformers, lo·
Table 12-X; these settings are quite low and ensure fast op-
cations 7 and 14 as well as the remainder of the devices in
erations for faults. A comparison of the settings listed in
the chains shown must be set high. Severa! solu tions are
Tables 12-VllI and 12-X indicates improvements in tap
possible. First, the devices at location 7 a nd 14 could be
and time dial settings.
replaced with impedance-controlled overcurrent relays,
such as KD/CO types. This solution eliminates the problern
of coordination through the transformer by controlling the A detailed explanation of all three studies is beyond the
reach of the overcurrent relay with the impedance unit. Al· scope of this book.
Table 12-VIII
Revised Settings Determined by the Coordination Study for the System of Figure 12-8
Tap
Curren! Inst. Trip Setting Time Dial Tap Range
Transf Trip Direction or or or or
Location Near Ratio and lmpedance lmpedance Step Time Impedance
Number Bus (X/ 1) Device Type lmpedance Zone Angle Setting in Sec. Range
Table 12-IX
· Desensitized Protective Devices for the
Systern Shown in Figure 12-8
Table 12-X
Final Choice of Devices and Settings for the System Shown in Figure 12-8
Tap
Current lnst. Trip Setting Time Dial Tap Range
Transf. Trip Direction or or or or
Location Near Ratio and lmpedance lmpedance Step Time Impedance
Number Bus (X/1) Device Type Impedance Zone Angle Setting in Sec. Range
Chapter 13 l. INTRODUCTION
11. Protection of Network Systems c. Autornatrc transfer of load from one source to another.
A. Grid-Type Networks
1. Secondary Network Relaying H. PROTECTION OF NETWORK SYSTEMS
2. Network Relay Characterrstics and Operation
B. Spot Networks
1. Spot Network Relaying Low voltage networks co nsist of interlaced loops or grid
'.!. Effect of Non-dedicated Feeders syst erns. They are always supplied by two or more power
sources so that the loss of any one source will not result in
III. Protection of Utility/lndustrial Plant Ties
an interruption of power. These systems provide the highest
A. Single Line Terminating or Tapped into Trans- leve! of reliability possible with conventional power distribu-
formers tion and are normally used to serve high-densit y load áreas.
B. Single Line Terrninating or Tapped into a High-side
Breaker Primary applications are in central or downtown city áreas:
C. Industrial Plants Served from Loop Systems large buildings (using vertical networks or spot networks);
D. Double Lines Terminating or Tapped mto Trans- in shopping centers; and m sorne industrial plants. 1 etwork
formers
E. Plant Substation Termination systems are either grid type or spot: service is three-phase,
F. Plant Protection three-wire or three-phase, Iour-wire at 208 Y/ 1 20 V or
1. Plant Systern Protection with No Local Genera- 480Y/277 V.
tion and No Automatic Reclosing
2. Plant System Protection with No Local Genera-
tion but with Automatic Reclosing 11.A. Grid-Type Networks
3. Plant System Protection with Local Generation
but No Automatic Reclosing A schematic of a typical grid or secondary network system
4. Plant Systern Protection with both Local Gen-
eration and Automatic Reclosing with four sources of supply is shown in Figure 13-1. Each
5. Single-Phase Protection source is a dedicated feeder supplying the network unit,
which consists of a hígh voltage switch, a network trans-
IV. Automatic Transfer Schernes
former, anda network protector. The transformer, usually
A. Automatic Transfer of Bulk Loads a three-phase core-type unit, is designed for underground
B. Autornatrc Transfer at Utilization Voltage service. The primary winding is rated in the nominal distri-
C. Optional Features for Automatic Transfer Schemes bution voltage range of 4.16 to 34.5 kV and is usually delta
1. Automatic Return to the Normal Source
2. Transfer Switch in Control Circuitry connected. An oil-filled high voltage switch on the trans-
3. Lockout Devices former tank provídes for no-load interruption. This switch,
4. Autornatic Load Interruption which can be equipped to interrupt magnetiz ing current, has
D. High Speed Automatic Transfer of Critica! Loads
three positions: open, close, and ground. The transformer
secondary is 1 20/208 or 267 /460 V, wye connected for
three-phase, four-wire servíce to the network through the
network protector. The protector consists of an air circuit
breaker, fuses, and relays.
::rr":',._.
Protecroe'\----.
¡
Network
sou_,c_e
l
Network Un,t Network Unit
~H!=:~.
Transforme, /Protector
h~M~
Protector Tronstorrner
Network Unit
To Orner Un,ts To Otner Un,ts
systems, as well as for the grid tie points, the connection relays and the feeder breaker. At the network end the fault
from the protector to the grid is often direct, with no over- will be cleared by opening ali the network protectors of the
current protective devices. Direct connection is possible be- units fed by the cable. The remaining cables and network
cause any fault will be single line-to-ground and, at 120· units have sufficient capacity to pick up the load normalty
volts-t o-ground , will burn itself clear in the cable when the carried by the faulted cable and its network units. After the
fault current exceeds a certain mínimum. Where there is cable has been repaired , it is restored to service by closing
sorne doubt as to whether the fault will burn clear= and for the substation breaker. If the system and network voltages
ali 267 /460-volt networks-connections are made through are in correct relationship, closing the substation breaker
limiters installed in ea ch secondary main junction. * causes ali the protectors on the associated network units to
close automatically.
The function of the network protector is: ( 1) to open the
circuit to the network automaticalty when the primary cable 11.A.2. Network Relay Characteristics and Operation
is deenergized from the substation end, (2) to close auto·
matically when the prirnary cable is energized and the sys- To obtain the operations described above, the network pro·
tern and network voltages are within prescribed limits, and tector incorporates a master relay , a phasing relay , and , op-
(3) to trip automatically for pr irnary cable and/or trans- tionally, a desensitizing relay.
former faults. Protector fuses, connected between the cir-
cuit breaker load terminals and the network protector ter· The master relay , a three-phase directional relay, is specially
minals, provide back-up protection for the protector circuit designed to provide highly sensitive directional tripping and
breaker during prirnary feeder or network transformer faults. to close the protector if the network voltage is favorable.
Fuses are sized to coordinate with the circuit breaker trip- The type CN-33 network master relay consists of three elec-
ping for transformer or primary cable faults and with the tromagnets acting on a single induction drum. Each elec-
secondary cables or limiters, when used, for secondary cable tromagnet has a current coi! and two potential coils, one of
faults. which is energized by the network line-to-ground voltage
and the other by the phasing voltage ( voltage a cross the
11.A.1. Secondary Network Relaying open breaker).
A fault on a primary cable that feeds a number of network The network line-to-ground voltage and the reverse current
units will be cleared at the substation end by the protectíve through the protector provide the idealized trip character-
istic (shown in Figure 13-2) for balanced three-phase condi-
*Conventional limiters are a special type of fuses consistjng of cop-
per sections sizcd to protect particular cables. Silver-sand limiters, tions. The protector will trip when the current into the net-
which have current·limitingcapability, are also used in some net- work lags the network line-to-ground voltage by from
work systems.
13-3
250% Of
~..::::::::::::===.-~~-1-~--""r'-';::;:~Fu~IIL.ood
Tnp Contoct
Ctoses
Un,ty PF Curren!~
mro Network O 8 Logg,ng PF Current
into Network Figure 13-3: Master Relay Trip Characteristic.
t) '"'"'
F~
Un,ty PF Curren!
Pumory Feeder
30 Foult Correot
Out of Net work
¡
Currem o.,ec11on
tor Moxomum Torqu e
Under certain system and network conditions, starting with protector, at which time the current through the protector,
the protector breaker open can result in protector breaker lx, will lag the original phasing voltage by an angle approxi-
pumping if only the master relay is used to control reclosing. mately equal to the system impedance angle. The theoret-
That is, when the breaker closes it immediately trips out and ical limiting value of this angle is 90°, but even in this case,
then recloses setting upa pumping action. Such a condition the protector would stay closed , as Ix is within the CN-33
is shown in Figure 13-6. The network voltage and the phas- master relay close area. A lagging phasing voltage, VY' on
ing voltage phasors are in an angular relationship that closes the other hand , would cause a resultant current, !Y' provid-
the protector breaker. When the breaker doses, the result- ing protector purnping conditions except it is outside the
ing load current is at an angular relationship with the net- phasing relay's operating zone.
work voltage shown by the current phasor. As a result, the
load current will cause the breaker to trip with resultant
purnping.
Network vottoqe
Network
Vollage ( Reference)
CNJ
Supply S<Jpply
.i, Ne1work ,. voncqe CN·33
'T
VOl1oge,,.. »> .,.
Phos1ng vcnoce
f
Lood Curren! otter Characteristics
BteakerCloses
Figure 13-7: Combined Master and Phasing Relays Characteristics.
To Ne1work
~ ífi:.
If the master relay trip contacts are still closed after a time
delay of one to f'ive minutes, the timing contacts will close ,
tripping the protector. lf', on the other hand , the master
relay contacts open during the timing cycle, the thermal
unit will be deenergized and will reset. Thus, the protector
,P~ ~ ,P Tronsformers
f f "'~"
will override low reverse current flow of short duration but
will trip for low values of sustained reverse flow. If the re-
verse current flow in any phase exceeds the corresponding
instantaneous overcurrent unit setting, the protector will ~'"'""
trip immediately. In this way , tripping is assurcd for pri-
mary fault conditions. L.ood
Large concentrated load areas, such as commercial buildings A blown prirnary fuse can also cause problems. A fault in
and shopping centers, are frequently served by spot net- t he primary cable or transformer should cause the associ-
works-two or more network units fed by two or more pri- ated protector to open. However, in installations with fuses
rnary feeders. A typical two-unit spot network is dia- or single-pole interrupters in the primary circuit, the stand-
grarnmed in Figure 13-9. The network units may be in- ard network master relay may not trip. A "Wa tt-Var " relay
stalled in vaults, like the secondary network units, or on can solve these problems. With this modified master relay ,
surface pads. In either case, they are fed through under- the máximum torque occurs when the current leads the net-
ground cables. Typically, the spot network prirnary cables work line-to-ground voltage by 120° instead of 180°. The
are tapped from non-dedicated feeders, either overhead or characteristics for balanced three-phase conditions are
underground. The cable taps are made through fused cut- shown in Figure 13-10. (Note that the maximum torque
outs or other overcurrent devices, so that prirnary cable or line is shifted 60° from that in Figure 1 3-2.)
transformer faults will not cause outages to other loads fed
by the feeder. Complex calculations are required to analyze a fault fol-
lowed by one or more open phases as a result of the fuses
ll.B.l. Spot Network Relaying blowing. Positive, negative, and zero sequence networks are
set up for the system in a conventional manner. The net-
Generally, the spot network protector has the same type of works are interconnected to represent one of the unbal-
relays as those used for secondary network protectors. How- anees using isolating ideal (no-leakage/no-loss) transformers
ever, other loads tapped from the feeders between the sub- to interconnect the sequence networks for the second un-
station and the spot network may cause a circulating cur- balance. Frorn this complex network, simultaneous equa-
rent in the network units. As a result, one protector can tions can be written and sol ved.*
open and may then be subjected to continuous pumping if
the phasing relay is not set properly.
*The technique for calculating simultaneous unbalances is presented
in Chapter 2, Section IV.F.
I l
13-6
r
1
30° .00040 + j 00398 1
1< \
q, \
13 2Kv Bus .00234tj.00373 1/1 Ideal
lsolot,ng i
i\ .00234 + j.00373 Tronsformers
t
1
I
\\
~ \ r------------ 1
? \
Un,ty P F Current
r----------
Open Fus~ 1
1
1 001214+ 100035 001214+ J 00035
\ i nto Nelwork
J ...J
1
\ 1
\ 0.6 Lagg,ng PF Current 1 0107 +¡ 0487 .0107 • ¡0487
\ i nto Netwark 1 Nz Neqonve Sequence Network Load Bus
\ 1 ( All l,\Jtues Sorne Sorne os Pos,1,ve Sequence l
- - - - - - - - -270° 1
1 13 2KvBus
\ Network
Load
_
1
._,
\ 1
1
\
\
\
,- Open Fuse t1 ~1
\ t I
't\ _J I
":.,- \ 1
~\ 1
~ \ 1
'\ \ N0 Zero Sequence Network
.-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Load Bus
.......,__....
I
1
210°
0004 • j 00398 Network 1
t r.
Load l 6i, 1 2 1
Watts Out of Network Watts Out of Network 13 2Kv Bus
Vors Out of Network Vars into Network 00942+ j.0174
00942•¡ 0174 1
1
Simultaneous equations can determine the currents through Where O a- Ob, and O e are the anglcs by which the respective
the two network protectors and the network line-to-ground eurrents lead the eorresponding line-to-ground voltage. For
voltages. The results are shown in Figure 13-12. Sinee the the Watt-Var relay:
currents are unbalaneed, relay operation cannot be fully
determined from the phasor diagrarns, which apply to bal- T = -K (V a\ Cos Oba + Vble Cos O cb
+ Vcla Cos O ac) (13-2)
13·7
rp p rpp
Faulted transformer: T = -0.0868 K (Trip)
Nelwork Unfaulted transformer: T = 1.7533 K (Non-t rip)
l~ransformers 11,
and for the Watt-Var relay
) ) ) Network Prolectors ) ) )
Faulted transformer: T = -7 .8637 K l Trip)
lb [~ ¡~ la lb le Unfaulted transformer: T = 9.5805 K (Non-r r ip)
L L i) Seeondory Fuses L ¡) ¡)
Thus, although either relay type will respond correctly , t he
o
1
b operating torque for the Watt-Var relay is over 90 times
1 1 e
that of the Watt relay. Clearly, it will operare rnuch Iaster.
1 1 1
Similar calculat ions for line-to-line and double line-to-
Nelwork Load
ground faults, wit h two Iuses opening , also show greater
16' 8.584~0 Ve '.9934 lEQ.º
torque for the Watr-Var relay=approximately 12 and 9
times greater, respectively.
Ext ensive invest igat ions on spot network syst crns cornpar-
ing Watt and Watt-Var master relay response under unbal-
anced fault conditions have led to t h e following co nclu-
sions:
the Watt relay will always trip under this condition, re- 11.B.2. Effect of Non-dedicated Feeders
gardless of the relative values of le and IM.
Unlike a dedicated network feeder, which supplies only net-
b. A false trip operation is possible when too many un-
work transforrners, a non-dedicated feeder supplies other
switched capacitors are left on the network bus during
non-network load, as well as network transformers. When
light load periods. As shown by Figure 13-1 O, the Watt-
a spot network is supplied from non-dedicated feeders, un-
Var relay will trip if the power factor angle of the net-
equal loading and unequal impedances in the primary feed-
work load is greater than 30° lead. Again, the Watt re-
ers may cause one network unit to experience a reverse cur-
lay will opérate correctly.
rent. For exarnple, in Figure 13-13, a heavy load tapped
c. The Watt-Var relay cannot replace the Watt relay in ex- from the upper overhead feeder may cause a reverse current
isting installations. The relay connections differ, and, in network unit 1. This is illustrated in Figure 13-15. A
more importantly, special interference mounting studs reversa! such as shown for unit 1 will occur when source
on the protector prevent the insertion of a Watt-Var re- breaker 1 is opened or may be caused by circulating cur-
lay on a protector originally equipped with a Watt relay, rents.
and vice versa, on Type CM-22 network protectors. The
new Type CMD drawout network protectors are pro-
vided with a Type CN-33 relay that wil! exhibit either a
V9
Watt or Watt-Var tripping characteristic depending upon
how the protector is wired. This Type CN-33 relay is 2
used exclusive!y on the Type CMD protectors and can-
Zt
not be used on the Type CM-22 protectors".
z,
u 1!ly
¡L
O H Feeder Cobre Ze
Unit Unit
1x¡1y
2 Zr Zr 1
Un,11
Ctosed
VN
f
Un,1 2 l
IN
Figure 13-13: Spor Network With One Breaker Open.
Nelwork
Voltoge
When source 1 opens, the associated protector for unit 1
0.8 Logg,ng PF Nelwork will open and interrupt the tapped load. Network unit 2
l.DOd Curren! would then carry the total network load, which crea tes no
serious problern if network unit 2 is properly size d and the
protector relays are properly calibrated.
of circulating current. The protector will again open. Con- Assuming the Watt relay is used, the protector will trip
tinuous protector pumping is thus theoretically possible un- when the real component of ly - le given by Equation
til the load changes to a point where the net current through ( 13-11) is negative in sign. Since the impedances in
the protector is in the forward direction or the phasing volt- Eq uation ( 13-1 1) are complex numbers, it is difficult to
age prevents the protector from closing. However, it is usu- develop a simple expression showing when the real part
ally possible to adjust the phasing relay ro prevent pumping. of Iy - le is negative. A simple expression can, however ,
Having the protector trip and stay open is pref'erable to be written if the resistive components of the impedances
pumping, but the advantage of the spot network is lost . lf, are assurned to be zero. Under this assurnptiori, the real
however, the other feeder trips out. the initially open pro- componen! of IY - le is negative whenever
tector will close, thus restoring service to the load after a
mornentary outage. (13-12)
The ne t resultan! curren! ly - le can be rletermined by Where <R symbolizes "the real component of, "ÍL and iN
equating the voltage drops of the t wo paths in Figure 13-15. are the scalar values of the currents, and 8L and 8N are their
angles with respect to the network voltage (negative for cur-
rent lagging voltage).
(Ix + le) (Zd + ZT) =
(!y - 1cJ (Zf + z, + ZT) + I L 2r {13-5 J
Equation ( 13-13) permits a quick check of the Watt master
Rearranging. relay performance under various load and imped ance condi-
tions. lf the inequality given by Equation ( 13-1 3) is satisfied,
+ IN (Zd + ZT) -IL Zr (13-9) Similarly, the criterion for a trip operation of the Watt-Var
re lay f or the system of Figure 13-1 5 is
IN(Zd+ZT)-ILZf (13-1 O)
(13-14)
IN (Zd + Zr) - 1 L Zr
I -I =~~~~~~~
y e zd + z, + Zr + 2ZT ( 13-1 1)
13-10
A comparison of Equations ( 13-13) and ( 1 3-14) leads to the III. PROTECTION OF UTILITY/INDUSTRIAL PLANT
following general conclusions for the system in Figure 1 3-1 5: TIES
a. The Watt-Var relay is a better choice if the tapped load The electrieal interconneetion bet ween utility and indus-
angle is algebraically greater than the network load angle trial plant is importanl bot h lo the utility and to the eco-
(a lag ang]e of lower magnitude is the algebraically nomic operation of the industrial eompany. Early and
greater). careful planning, with close mutual coordination, is the
key to protecting the tie between utility and plant.
b. Both types of relays have the same response if the
tapped load angle and the network load angle are equal. Arrangernents used to serve an industrial plant depend on
the size and type of the plant load and the importance of
c. The Watt relay is a better application if the tapped load service continuity. No n-int errup tablc power is not possi-
angle is algebraically smaller (greater in magnitude) ble without stand by facilities, although utilities do pro·
than the net work load angle. vide e xtrernely high service continuity. Factors which af-
fect protection includc the presence of local generation;
A balancing transformer can be used, as shown in Figure high inertia loads that can contribute significant fault cur-
J 3-16. * in cases where each type of r elay can present a rcnt; connections an d grounding of the supply u ansf'orrn-
proble m. The cross cormection adds only a small irnped- ers, whcther or not thc feeders or supply lines are dedi-
anee for the t hrough curr ents lx and ly, and the leakage cated: and reclosing requiremcnts.
impedance is only about 0.5 percent on the net work trans-
formcr rat ing base. On the other hand, the impedance to Severa! typical three-phase supply systerns will be dis-
t hc crrculat ing currcnt , IC' is very large. lls value is t wice cussed, emphasizing thc protcction of the plan! or syst e m ,
thc magnctiz ing impedancc of one of the balancing trans- rather than of the apparatus and the lincs or f'eeders. Thc
formcrs. which is approx irnat cly 1.5 per unit on the sa m e protection of apparatus and Icedcrs is covercd in Chapters
base. The ef'Iect i~ to reduce t hc circulaling curre nt to 6 t hrough 10.
very Jow valucs, pract ically eliminating the possibility of
t ripping. Severa! systcrns are in general use lo suppJy powcr toan
industrial plant.
[><TI) ¡ry
' i
~~-~ ~~
'~~1 ~1
( (
Utility Util,ty
Substohon SubSIOhon
Figure 13-17: Plant Fed by Single Line Terminating Figure 13-18: Plant Fed by Single Line With Transformer
into Transformers. HV Breakers.
high-side fuses, transfer-trip is still desirable to provide heavy loads, it may be necessary to delay the closing with a
back up, should the fuses fail to clear the fault. type SVF-1 relay set to drop out at 25 percent of normal
voltage. At this voltage level, automatic reenergization of
If the transformers have no protection except for the high- the motor is acceptable.
side fuses, the substation line relays must then provide
back up. Generally , these relays will not be sensitive enough 111.C. Industrial Plants Served from Loop Systems
to operate Ior light interna! faults.
Used to provide the plant with an alterna te supply, a typical
With two plant transformers, as shown in Figure 13-17, system of this type is shown in Figure 13-19. The two lines,
the low voltage bus is usually split into two sections con· supplied from different utility substations, improve plant
nected through a bus tie breakcr, normally operated open. service continuity. These circuits are usually non-dedicated,
This arrangement reduces the low voltage feeder breaker with severa! other loads sirnilarly connected or tapped by a
short-circuit duty and results in only a partial plant outage single connection terminating at the plant, as in Figures
if one transformer fails and its high-side fuses open. The 13-1 7 and 13-1 8. The loop may be open at one of the
darnaged transformer can then be isolated by its high volt· plants, normally operating with one of the high-side break·
age switches and the low voltage main breaker. ers open. This arrangernent limits the short circuit kVA at
the plant bus and avoids undesirable power exchange, with
By closing the bus tie breaker, the load on the bus can be its inherent losses, between the two utility substations.
transferred to the other transformer and bus. This bus tie (Note that these lines are distribution circuits and are not
breaker can be closed automatically if three conditions are intended nor required for transmission.)
met: (1) one bus voltage is normal, (2) the other bus volt-
age is zero, and (3) the transformer breaker on the dead lf the loop is opened at the plant, it provides stand by serv-
bus is open. ice rapidly available by automatic transfer, or by supervisory
control or local transfer control after a short outage.
111.B. Single Line Terminating or Tapped into a
High-Side Breaker
11
Shown in Figure 13-18, this system provides the transform-
ers with separate protection, so that transformer faults can
be cleared without tripping the utility substation breaker.
Toe low-side bus tie breaker may be operated either nor-
mally open or normally closed, depending on the equipment
capacity and operating requirements. If normally open, thís
breaker should be equipped with a high speed automatic T, T,
transfer scheme to close as soon as the corresponding trans- __ t.. __ro--1-
former secondary breaker opens upon loss of voltage on one
bus section. To avoid damage to motors operating under Figure 13-19: Pl11nt Fed by Loop System.
J 3-12
111.D. Double Lines Terminating or Tapped cated, as shown, or there may be other taps. To justify this
into Transformers arrangernent, plant power requirernents generally involve
lines from 69 kV up. The plant would have local genera-
As illustrated in Figure 13-20, the high-side paralleling dis- tion, and lines would be protected by one of the many
connect switch in this system is normally open except when schemes described in Chapters I O or 16.
one line is out of service. It is then !limilar to the systern
shown in Figure 13-17. If the load cannot be balanced con·
~---+--_:~ ~
veniently on the two bus sections, the low-side bus tie
breaker, if present, is normally closed, as long as the switch-
gear has adequate interrupting capability.
itt:~(
Closed Open
u1,111y
1------~~-J - 1
Suos1011on lnduslriol Plon1 Figure 13-21: Modification of System of Figure 13-20.
111.E. Plant Substation Termination The recommended protection for this system consists of an
undervoltage and reverse-phase type CP relay (device 27/47),
A substation is used for large industrial plants, as shown with a multi-contact auxiliary type WL (device 94). Since
typically in Figure J 3-22. The supply feeders may be dedi- this type CP is a three-phase relay, only one is required.
13-13
On loss of utility supply at a plant bus, the type CP oper- not to be restarted automatically are tripped on loss of sup-
ates through the WL relay to trip the transformer rnain ply. Ali the other feeder breakers would remain closed.
breaker(s) and/or ali the motor feeder breakers. The latter Upon restoration, the main plant breaker would close auto-
operation prevents ali the motors from re-starting sirnultane- matically if the source-side voltage is normal and the plant-
ously on restoration or on automatic transfer of service. side voltage is low.
Motor feeder protection is not necessary if the utilíty's oper-
ating instructions require the utility operator to obtain a The circuit for this arrangement is shown in Figure 13-23.
clearance from the plant before restoring service, either by Typical setting for the SV-1 (59S) overvoltage relay would
closing the substation breaker or by transferring toan alter- be 95 percent of normal voltage. Its drop-out at 40 to 80
nate source. Even in this case, however, automatic tripping percent of rated voltage should avoid opening the contacts
of the transformer main breaker(s) is desirable. Should a when the source voltage drops because of inrush. The
phase reversa] of the supply occur on restoration , the CP SVF-1 (29L) undervoltage relay is typically set for a drop-
will prevent breaker reclosing on supply-side voltage or out of approximately 25 percent of rated voltage which is
retrip on plant-side voltage. constant over 20 to 60 Hz. Thus, the transformer main
breaker will reclose automatically only when the source
lf the plant's line breakers are equipped for automatic trans- voltage is close to normal and where automatic reenergiza-
fer, service should not be restored to running motors unless tion of the motors is acceptable; that is, when the plant
they are disconnected or unless the voltage has decayed to voltage from the running motors has decayed to about 25
around 25 percent of normal. percent of normal. This scheme maximizes service restora-
tion in the mínimum feasible time.
III.F.2. Plant System Protection with No Local
Generation but with Automatic Reclosing
-----t: f------;!f---
59$ 27L
Since many supply faults are transient, automatic reclosing
Reclose Circu,t
of the substation breaker can provide fast service restoration
and minirnize plant outage. To avoid out-of-phase reclosing Type SV-1 (59$): sooree $1deOver-VollogeReloy
Type SVF-1(27U: Lood Side Under-Voltoge Reloy
and possible damage, synchronous or large induction motors
should be disconnected before restoration, These motors Figure 13-23: Supervision of Automatic Reclosing of Transformer
can have induced voltage resulting from the residual flux or Main Breaker.
shunt capacitor excitation at the time of supply restoration.
If the reclosing is delayed around 5 to I O seconds, the auto- 111.F.3. Plant System Protection with Local Generation
rnatic trip and lockout scheme of the CP and W L relays can but No Automatic Reclosing
be applied to the plant feeders involved.
Generation within the plant requires fast opening of the
The type KP (27) three-phase voltage (and phase sequence) utility tíe, both to clear faults on the interconnection and
relay is recommended for higher speed reclosing. lt consists to avoid back feed to the utility or other loads on non-
of a cylinder unit with its two windings energized by three dedicated feeders. Protective relays are thus required to
phase voltage in an open delta type connection. The pick-up trip the main tie breaker. Directional phase overcurrent
or drop-out is adjustable between 30 to l 20 volts. If motors relays-either type IRV or CR (67)-are recommended.
represent a large part of the plant load, the voltage decay They are connected Jooking into the tie and must be co-
rate may be too slow to opera te the high speed KP relay be- ordinated with the utility's substation protection scheme.
fore reclosing takes place. In such cases, reclosing rnust be
delayed or the critica! motor load disconnected by such The instantaneous unit will provide high speed tripping
means as a transfer trip. for transformer faults but, depending on the relative values
of the transformer and line impedances, may provide very
At the plant substation, the supply transformer breaker can little to no line fault protection. *
be automatically reclosed on restoration of the supply for
all loads and motors that can be restarted automatically. *The principies of setting and coordinating these relays are covered
For example, the main breaker and those feeders that are in Chapter 10.
13-14
-
Jt is assumed that the local generation can supply sufficient ing is not subject to the problerns outlined above if there is
current to operare these relays for faults on the intercon- a ground source at the utility end of each source. For these
nection. For greater sensitivity , the phase overcurrent unit systerns, conventional directional ground relays should be
can be set below load, since normal power only flows frorn applied.
the u tility to the plan t.
Voltage polarization can be used where the plant transform-
With a single line supply and a plant supply transformer ers are connected delta on the high side, as long as three
wye-grounded on the high side, a type CO (51G) relay con- high-side voltage transformers are available to provide 3Eo.
nected to a current transformer in the grounded neutral lf these voltage transformers are not available or cannot be
will provide protection for ground faults on the tie. Where used, a negative sequence directional ground relay =such as
the transformer is grounded delta on the high side, high the type CRQ or IRQ (67N) can be connected to the voltage
side voltage transformers connected in broken delta to a transformers on the low voltage bus. This secondary poten-
type CV (59G) ground relay are recommended. Either ty pe tial must always be connected to the primary system.
rnust be coordinated with the utilíty's relays to avoid pri-
rnary operation for ground faults not on the industrial plant In most cases, the local generation is not capable of supply-
tie. ing the entire plant when the tie to the utility systern is Jost.
Under frequency relays should therefore be applied to open
With the transformer high side delta connected, opening the preselected feeders, automatically shedding load until it
utility substation breaker changes the interconnection toan matches the existing generation. The purpose of automatic
ungrounded system. In this case, the fault power is consider- load-shedding is to retain the most critica! loads and avoid
ably reduced. However, the local generation may supply a complete plant or process shut down. Systern load-saving
positive sequence cnergy sufficient to maintain the ground is discussed in Chapter 21.
fault ares indefinitely while contributing to possible reso-
nance between the transformer magnetizing inductance and After the tie is opened, it is necessary to resynchronize the
the feeder shunt capacitance. local generation with the utility system. Resynchroniza-
tion can be performed rnanually, serni-automatically by
A sensitive power relay, such as the type H-3 (3 2), or KH-1 using the type CVE or CVE-1 synchroriism verifier relay
(32) can be applied to opérate on reverse power from the (25), or automatically by an XASV automatic synchronizer.
plant into the utility tie. On non-dedicatcd Ieeders, such a
relay is required to prevent the plant's feeding other loads Ill.F.4. Plant System Protection with Both Local
when the utility breaker is open. Both types should be used Generation and Automatic Reclosing
with a timer to avoid operations on momentary or transient
reversals. Naturally, the phase angle and magnitude of the With this systern, both the industrial plant and utility sub-
reverse currents are important criteria for these applications. station breakers must be tripped simultaneously at high
speed, providing a dead time on the line that allows the
The H3 is a three-phase directional relay with a three phase transient fault to deionize before any reclosing takes place.
minimum pick-up of 0.08 amps at 120 volts at maximum In practice, sorne type of pilot relaying is required for the
torque. One style uses the 90-45° connection with maxi- interconnection. Two common schemes are the HCB pilot
mum torque when I lags by 45°. Another style provides wire or the K-DAR directional comparison blocking systerns,
a watt characteristic with rnaxirnum torque when I is in described in Chapters 14 and 16. Assurning a good source
phase with the applied voltage. The KH-1 is a single phase at the utility end, the HCB pilot wire is the only system
cylinder type directional relay with a mínimum pick-up of that can provide simultaneous high speed tripping at both
0.020 amperes at 120 volts at maximum torque which oc- ends even when the local generation is very light or out of
curs when I leads the app!ied voltage by 30°. To provide service. Ali other relaying schemes require sufficient fault
a watt characteristic for reverse power detection, the delta energy to operate relays at the light generation terminal.
voltage lagging the unity power factor phase current is used. Weak-feed pilot systems can be applied and described in
Chapter 17.
On closed-loop systems (Figure 13-19) or systems with dual
supply and high-side breakers (Figure 13-22), ground relay-
13-15
The induction motors supply the static loads connected to Major applications for automatic transfer schemes include
the open phase and, above a critica] ratio of static load to the transfer of power plant auxiliaries, the transfer of large
initial motor load, the motors will stall. For example, as- loads from one source to another, and the transfer of dis-
suming a single motor and a static load equal to 3 per unit tribution feeders from one bus section to another. Ali
on the rated motor input kV A base, the motor will stall these schemes have one common objective: the transfer of
upon single phasing if its initial load were about 0.2 per loads from a normal or preferred source of power to a
unit. lf the static load is equal to one per unit, pullout stand by or ernergency source, with maximum service con-
will result if the initial motor load is about 0.5 per unit. tinuity and without equipment damage.
The induction rnotors will generally continue to run upon
single phasing if they constitute 80 percent or more of total
plant load, even if they were fully loaded initially.
13-16
IV .A. Au toma tic Transfer of Bulk Loads supply voltage. lts contacts close, after a time delay to pre-
vent unnecessary transfer, either during brief voltage dips
resulting from faults elsewhere or during the substation re-
Automatic transfer for large, important loads can be used closing cycle. Where there is either no reclosing or single-
wherever an alternate supply is available but not normally shot reclosing of the substation breaker, the time delay be-
connected-whether for economic reasons, to limit short fore contact closure should be approximately O. 7 5 second
circuit capability, or for any other reason. The load may for zero volts. With severa! timed reclosures of the substa-
be a distribution substation, a large commercial load, oran tion breaker, the time delay of the CV must, of course, be
industrial plant. Among a number of practicable schemes, increased to coordinate with the reclosing cycle. An auxi l-
two examples will illustrate the principies. iary timing relay may be required. The time delays of the
relays at other load locations on the same source should be
The first, shown schematically in Figure 13-25, in vol ves unequal, providing sequential rather than simultaneous
a number of loads fed by individual transformers from a transfer.
double feeder. The taps are connected alternately, so that
the two lines are either the normal or the stand by source, In Figure 13-25, devices 59Ll and 59L2 are instantaneous
depending on the position of the disconnect switches. overvoltage relays, such as type SV, connected to the
(Note that one tap station in Figure 13-25 is shown in de- sources as shown. When the normal source fails, contacts
tail.) This example does not use high voltage breakers; the 59LI and 278 close on loss of voltage. lf normal voltage is
disconnect switches are power operated. available on the alternate source, 59L2 contacts will be
closed, thus energizing the open 89N circuit. The 89N dis-
For faults on the supply lines, the substation breaker will connect switch, upon opening, closes 89N(b) to complete
trip, with or without reclosures, in an attempt to restore the close 89A circuit provided 89A (LSC) is closed. Relay
service. The transfer scherne, as shown in Figure 13-25, is 59Ll prevents transfer if breaker 52 or the transformer
initiated when the type CV relay (278) operates on loss of high-side fuse opens.
Sobsronon (s)
To Other
t.oods
Í"'59L2
52
b
T,onsfer Schernotic
to, Loss of
Normol Supply
59LI
89N
b f;, ~
o
Manual Tronsfer
8ock to
Prefered Suppty
t
89N 89A
LS5 Legend: LSO
N.O. = Normally Open
N.C. = Normally Closed
L.S.O. = Limit Switch Open
Open 89N Glose 89A L.S.C. = Limit Switch Closed Clase 89N Open 89A
Figure 13-25: Automatic Transfer of Bulk Loads Served by Single Transformer Bank.
13-17
The power-operated disconnects have limit switches to cut mal operation, the transformers are not paralleled on the
off the control power on full open (LSO) and full closed high voltage side.
(LSC) positions. Hence, the LSC contact is closed when
the disconnect switch is open, while the LSO contact is Type CV undervoltage relays (27-1 and 27-2) indicate
j
closed when the disconnect switch is closed. These LSC voltage on their respective low voltage busses. These relays
and LSO contacts are shown in Figure 13-25 with the dis- are set so their normally closed contacts close after about
connect switch closed. O. 7 5 second del ay on loss of voltage; their normally open
contacts close approximately 2.0 seconds after restoration
After service is restored, return to the normal supply may of normal voltage.
be either manual or automatic. Manual return, shown in
1 Figure 13-25, is generally preferred. With manual return, This scheme assumes high speed single-shot rcclosing of the
the transformer secondary breaker 52 must be tripped, since source breakers. Devices 27- 1 X and 27-2X are type MG-6
the disconnect switches cannot interrupt load curren t. Aux- auxiliary relays; devices 86Tl and 86T2 are type W L lockout
iliary switch 89A(b), shown in the 89N close circuit, is re- relays, operated by the transformer protective relays. Nor-
quired when the two sources cannot be paralleled even rnally, with voltage, both bus No. 1 and No. 2 back contacts
¡
mornentarily during the transfcr. To close 89N, the control 27-1 and 27-2 are open, with 27-1 X and 27-2X deenergized.
switch CS(c) is manually operated, first energizing the open-
ing circuit of 89A by closing CS(o). When 89A is open, as If an unsuccessful reclosure causes an outage on Iine No. 1,
indicated by the closure of 89A(b), 89N is closed. During the 27-1 normally open contact opens and thc 27-1 normally
' this proccss, the control switch rnust be held in the close
position, and breaker 52 must be open.
closed contact closes to energize and sea) in auxiliary 27-1 X.
J This action completes the circuit shown at the lower left of
Figure 13-26 to open the 89-1 disconnect siwtch, and in
1 lf automatic return is requíred, a CY relay designated 27 L, turn close 89-1 (b). This completes the circuit to close the
energized from the source side of 89N can be used to open 89-3 disconnect switch. Service is then restored by connect·
89A and close 89N with 52 open. This requires autornatic ing TI and bus I to the line No. 2 supply.
tripping and reclosing of the transformer secondary breaker.
If, for any reusen, bus No. 2 voltage is not normal, relay 27-2
For economic reasons, single-phase or line-to-line rneasure- will operate to energize and seal in auxiliary 27-2X. lts back
ment of the voltages for transfer in the a bove schemes are contact 27-2X in the 89-1 open and 89-3 close circuit pre-
generally considered satisfactory. The probability of the vents the transfer.
supply source operating single phase is normally very low;
however, three-phase measurernent of the voltages may The return of voltage on bus No. 1 energizes relay 27-1, clos-
possibly be required. In this case, the type CP relay (47) ing the norrnally open 27-1 contact and opening the 27-1
can replace the type CY (27). The CP will detect and op- back contact, thereby resetting auxiliary 27-1 X. For an
erate on undervoltage phase failure and phase reversa!. outage on line No. 2, a similar circuit exists to transfer
However, its operation on phase failure requires an induc- transformer T2 and bus No. 2 to line No. 1.
tion motor load on the bus of less than 80 percent of the
total load. The induction motors will act as phase bal- The transfer circuits for faults in transformer T l are shown
ancers and attempt to hold up three-phase voltage. Where on the lower right side of Figure 13-26. The transformer
induction motor load exceeds 80 percent of the total, a protective devices will opera te lockout relay 86T 1, tripping
type CVQ (27 /47) negative sequence voltage relay should and locking out breaker 52-1, and transfer-tripping and
be used to detect phase failure. locking out line No. 1 source breaker. (Note that this cir-
cuitry is not shown in the figure.) The resulting Iine No. 1
As shown in Figure 13-26, important substations are al- outage operates relay 27-1 to pickup 27-1 X, as described
most always served by two or more transformers to mini- above. The opening of 86Tl normal closed contacts
mize an extended outage resulting from a transformer (shown on the left-hand schematic) prevents disconnect
failure. The Jow voltage bus is normally operated split, switch 89-1 from opening and 89-3 from closing. When
with the bus tie (52-3) open to reduce the interrupting 27-1 X picks up, however, the circuit at the right side is com-
requirement of the low-side breakers. Similarly, for nor- plete, opening disconnect breaker 89-1 and isolating the
13-18
.,
± ~- ±
single-phase indication, or type CP relays for three-phase
152·1 152·2 voltage measurement. Type MG-6 electrical reset relays are
Busl Bus2 used for 27-1 X and 27-2X, along with an operatc coi! (O)
® ®
52·3
27-2
anda reset coi! (R). Devices 86-1 and 86-2, type WL lock-
out auxiliary relays, are operated by their respective bus
...______.1¡;
© ©
differential relays. Their zone may include the transforrner.
~
relay 27-1 closes its normally closed contact; which pickup
27-1 X. Operate coi! (O) latches in and opens its own "oper-
ate" coi! circuit. One set of normally open 27-1 X contacts
f
closes to trip breaker 52-1 through the normally closed con-
86 186
89·1 52-1 Relay 27-1 will be energiz ed when transformer No. 1 voltage
b b
returns to normal. Closing the normally open 27-1 contact
Open 89-1 ciese 89·3 Open 89·1 Close 52 · 3 energizes the 27-1 X reset coi!. A norrnally closed contact
Une 1 Outage Transformer 1 Fault of 27-IX then doses to trip break-r 52-T. Breaker 52-1 will
Tnp 52-1 Transfer TripUne 1
reclose automatically after breaker 52T opens to close
Figure 13-26: Automatic Transfer of Bulk Loads Served by Two 52-T(b).
Transformer Banks.
A similar operation occurs on loss of secondary voltage to
transformer No. 2, resulting in t he transfer of toad by con-
faulted transformer TI. Since 52-1 has been tripped open, nection of bus No. 2 to bus No. 1. This operation includes
auxiliary relay 27-1 X also completes the close circuit to dís- the return of the load to bus No. 2 when voltage is restored
connect switch 52-3. Service to bus No. 1 is then restored on the transformer No. 2 secondary.
and, after a short time delay, 27-1 and 27-IX are back to
normal, as shown. lf there is no bus tie breaker, only one transformer second-
ary breaker would be closed. The entire load would thus
be fed frorn one transformer. Loss of one transformer's
This scheme transfers the total load to transformer T2.
secondary voltage will cause its breaker to open and the
Sorne less critica! load-dropping must be arranged if its
other transformer breaker to close. This scheme is used for
size or forced cooling capacity is inadequate.
a preferred/emergency source systern, where the emergency
source is used only when the preferred source fails. Return
In applications where the low voltage bus is solid or 52-3 to the preferred souce upon its restoration is accomplíshed
is operated normally closed, line voltage íailures must be
in a manner similar to that shown in Figure 13- 2 7.
detected by the voltage relays connected to voltage trans-
formers on the line side of disconnect switches 8 9-1 and
IV.C. Optional Features for Automatic Transfer Schemes
89-2. The operation for a line voltage loss is the same as
for a transformer failure, except that there is no bus tie Ali automatic transfer schemes can be provided with any
' or ali of the optional features described:
breaker circuit.
13-19
e +TOM,-,1 +Tao,1:•~•2
®-~~- )52·1
~KD--®
) 52 ·2
Bus 1 l
~~~~~~~--o--~~~~~o ~o~~~~--<-,__~~~~~~-
52 · T l Bus 2
NO
27 27 27
IX IX 2X
86
1
86
2
Close Tr,p Cose fr,p Cose Tnp
52·1 52-1 52 T 52 T 52·2 52-2
IV.C. l. Automatic Return to the Normal Source be performed from a remote control station under super-
visory control.
As previously discussed, the choice between manual an d
automatic return is dependent upon severa! íactors: IV.C.3. Lockout Devices
a. Estímate of possible length of outage These devices prevent transfer during undesirable conditions,
including locking out on bus and transformer faults, except
b. Overload capability of the alterna te source line and under automatic sectionalizing of the faulted transformer
equiprnent (as in the systern of Figure 13-26). The time delay on the
undervoltage relay will normally prevent transfer during
c. Time and expense required for manual restoration of feeder faults. This delay is sufficient to allow the feeder
all loads for systems such as the one shown in breaker to clear the fault and the bus voltage to return to
\\
·, Figure 13-25. normal.
IV.C.2. Transfer Switch in Control Circuitry Norrnally, transfer is also locked out unless the alterna te
source voltage is normal, preventing an unnecessary transfer
This feature provides a selection between manual and upon simultaneous failure of both source voltages. This
automatic transfer. In addition to providing for manual feature is incorporated in the schemes used as typical ex-
transfer of load from one source to the other, it can also amples.
prevent automatic transfer during undesirable system con-
ditions. Although one transfer switch may be common to IY.C.4. Automatic Load Interruption
ali control circuits involved, it is preferable to have a sepa·
rate switch for each breaker and/or power-operated dis- As discussed in Section II, it is sometimes necessary to drop
connect switch. In this way, the control circuits can be part of the load when there is a momentary or very brief
isolated as far as possible, Latched-in relays may replace voltage interruption. Autornatic transfer schemes can in-
or supplement the transfer switches, so that selection may elude this feature when required.
13-20
IV.O. High Speed Automatic Transfer of Critical Loads When the normal source fails, its bus voltage , V L' will start
to decay and drop back in a phase angle relative to the alter-
Power sources to motors supplying critica! load, such as nate source voltage, V s: The relay will close its contacts in
power plant auxiliaries and critica! processes cannot be less than 35 milliseconds when the voltages on the set of
interrupted for more than a very short time. For these coils for the alternare source bus are at rated value, and the
cases, transfer must be made at high speed. An instantane- voltages on the other set of coils are at two-thirds rated
ous voltage relay such as the SY or the KP is reco rnrnended , valué and lag by the maximum torque angle of 55°. Torque
so that the load can be transferred as soon as the normal will therefore be developed the instant the source voltage
source breaker opens. With high speed transfer, the "dead fails and the load bus voltage starts to decay , lagging t he al-
time" of the motor drive is 1 5 to 20 cycles, l O cycles míni- ternate source voltage. The transfer signa! is initiated within
mum. two cycles of voltage f'ailure : tr ansfer is completed ata favor-
able phase angle bct ween motor residual voltage and altérnate
For other drives, or where spare capacity is available and source volt age. This schernc can also be used to t ranster a
running, transfer is delayed until interna! motor voltage has power plant auxiliary bus to ihe st a ndby source.
decayed to about 25 percent of normal. In these cases, the
transfer is supervise d by a type SYF-1 instantaneous voltage Anot hcr cr itical load is clect ronic equipment for which
relay with a low adjustable drop-out which is constant over power cannot be intcrrupt ed. Transt'er schernes Ior this
a :20-to-60-llertz range. This prcvents excessive inrush and equiprnent are of the "rio-break " t ypc: power to the load is
high transient shaft torque peuks, Since these rnot ors are not interrupted when the normal source tuils an d the load is
ccntrollcd by circu it breakers, they will aut omat ically re- transferred to t he alternare source. Of the severa! trunsf'er
turn to normal speed whcn transferred to the alternare schcmcs, one type uses a tly wheel motor-genera cor set that
source. rnaintains generator voltagc upen motor Iailure long enough
to allow t he motor to be connect ed to a stand by source.
Figure 13-28 illustrates un altérnate high speed trunsfer Ano t her sche me uses an ordinary motor-gencr at or set with
scheme for motors. This scherne uses the type HV--4 high its generator driven by a de motor. Thc de motor. fed by a
speed, t hree-phuse voltage angle relay as the transfer control rectificr supplied from the normal source, is also connected
unit. Consisting of three inductor-loop units acting on a to a battery floating on the sour1.:e. The battery has suffi-
cornrnon shaft , the HV-4 opera tes each inductor loop by an cient capacity to keep the mocor-generator set running while
electrornagnet with two coils. One coi! is energized by the the reetifier is transferred to a standby source. Other
normal source , the othcr by the alternate or stand by source. schemes, normally provided by the user, use a battery and
solid state dcvices to make the no-break transfer.
Normal C.1terno1e
Is
Source Mo1or teoo Sus Scerce
!) ! IL !)525 ¿)
¿¿
) 52N
? 9 ? 9
v[__s
c'lcc
®
Voltage Phasors for
Closing Torque
I
VL
Operanon of 78 (HV·4) Trrps 54N and Clases 52S
...............------~~
14-1
Chapter 14 l. INTRODUCTION
l. lntroduction
High speed simultaneous clearing of all line tcrminals has
ll. IICB and HCB-1 Pilot Wire Systems severa! advantagcs. First, it limits thc possibilities of con-
ductor damage from overloading and, in general, rninimizes
lll. Criteria for Setting HCB and HCB-1 Relays
damage to the line. Quick removal of faults also improves
IV. Example of HCB-1 Relay Setting the system's transient stability. Finally, high spced clearing
permits high speed reclosing, which, if successful, both im-
A. Phase-Fault Settings
preves transient stability and minimizes outage time or poor
B. Ground-Fault Settings
C. Restraint Tap Setting voltage conditions on portions of the system load.
Both the HCB and HCB-1 pilot wirc systems use a compos-
ite filter to convert the three-phase currents at each terrni-
nal of a two- or three-tcrminal line into a single phase volt·
age. The single phase voltage at each line terminal is corn-
pared to the remote terminals via a pilot wire (pair of wires)
to determine whether thc fault is inside the protccted line.
Figure 14-1 illustrates a simplified circuit for a two-terrninal
line. Three terminal applications are also discussed in Chap-
ter 17.
.__.___~e
o Sequence >-------.-r-i
14-1, VH will reverse its polarity. With voltages VG and VH Filler
in opposition, most of the current will flow through the op- +
erating coils. Since the operating torque is now greater than
e
the restraint torque, the relays at both line terminaJs will
tri p.
\
o-b-c
Rotohoo To P,lot Wire
Tnrough Correo!
Figure 14-2: The ac Connections to The HCB or HCB·1 Relay.
Protected
Une l-----4'0A'~-- o
Breoker Breol<er
b -+----ffiA--1---. G H l---li-l=A'~--1- b
energy impressed on the pilot wire. The maximum Jimits
1--~-f'l='Y'~-++ e
Restro,nt Coil
are 60 V during an interna! fault and 100 mA for an exter-
na! fault. For the HCB relay, the filter voltage V F is:
+ '---~ where
()peroting Coil
The operating and restraint coils, both wound on the center I a 1 = phase a positive seq uence current
leg of a de polar unit, are energized through separa te sets of
full-wave rectifiers. In the maximum restraint tap, the op- 10 = zero sequence current
erating coil (I0p) current required for operating is
For the HCB-1 relay, the filter voltage V F is:
Iop = (0.16 IR+ 8)mA (HCB) (14-1)
lop =(0.16 IR +7)mA (HCB-1) ( 14-4)
Iop = (0.12 IR+ 8)mA (HCB) (14-2) c1, c2, and c0 = filter constants controlled by taps on
the relay
lop = (0.12 IR+ 7)mA (HCB-1)
la 1 = phase a positive sequence current
where IR is the restraint current in milliarnperes.
The 8-mA constant in Equations (14-1) and (14-2) repre- Ia2 = phase a negative sequence current
sents the restraint bias produced by the permanent magnet,
which bridges the two outer legs of the polar unit. Note 10 = zero sequence current
that one unit of operating current has the sarne effect as
8.3 units of restraint current in the mínimum restraint These filters and the derivation of the output voltages are
tap and 6.25 units of restraint in the maximum tap. (See detailed in Chapter 3.
Chapter 3 for a more detailed discussion of the polar unit.)
As Equations ( 14-3) and ( 14-4) make clear, the major dif-
Figure 14-2 shows the ac connections to the HCB or HCB-1 ference between the HCB and HCB-1 relays is the design of
relay for the pilot wire system of Figure 14-1. With either the composite sequence filter. The HCB filter does not re-
relay , the fil ter voltage V F is impressed on the saturating spond to a negative sequence current; sensitivity to phase-
transformer which, along with the zener diodes, limits the to-phase faults is based on positive sequence current only.
14-3
The HCB-1 sequence filter, which does respond to negative to only one relay. This feature allows the relays to simulta-
sequence current, makes the HCB-1 system more sensitive neously trip all terminals, even if one terminal has a very
to phase-to-phase faults for a given setting to three-phase small source or, ternporarily, no source at all. The ability
faults. Beca use of this düference in sensitivity, HCB and to trip with a very weak source is a unique feature of the
HCB-1 relays cannot be mixed at different line terminals to HCB/HCB-1 relay system.
protect the same line.
The HCB and HCB-1 operating characteristic will change as
A comparison of HCB and HCB-1 relay sensitivity is shown a function of the pilot wire shunt capacitance and series re-
in Table 14-l. sistance. The shape of the curves, however, will remain sub-
stantially the same.
Table 14-1
HCB and HCB-1 relays permit simultaneous or sequentlal
HCB and HCB-1 Single Relay Pickup Cor high speed tripping of three-terminal lines under severe in-
Comparable Settings
feed conditions. For example, high speed tripping is pos·
sible even when a small amount of power flows out one ter-
Pickup (in amperes) Pickup (in amperes)
minal for an interna! fault near another terminal-wíth
for HCB Set for HCB-1 Set
Type of Fault at 4:0.1: 1.6 at 4:C:H heavy infeed from the other terminals. (See discussion in
Chapter 17).
3</> 4.00 4.00
q,G 0.47 0.47 Both the HCB and HCB-1 relays have Iour tap settings:
</> b - </> e 6.93 2.12
</> a - </) e 6.93 3.47 Tap T - The saturating transformer tap adjusts overall
</> a - </) b 6.93 3.47 relay system sensitivity. For the HCB, T
equals 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, or 15. For the
HCB-1, T equals 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 1 O, or 12.
~~~~~~~-~30oorN_Fr1"""--..:-r--..--,,--,..---.--,
¡;:- j X Tap R 1 - This filter resistor tap provides fine adjust-
l--+--1-----,1-+--+-¡ ~ 2500N-l'k---"l,,-->'i,- ......-*--"!.--->k--"I ment for phase-fault sensitivity. For the HCB,
1---1--+-l--l---1- ~ 2 2000,lt-Plc--'l,:,--''1:-"*"-°'l,-''k--'t---'i R1 equals 0.075, 0.1, and 0.15 ohm (relay
TrlpAreo ¡, ~
l---1--1--l--l---1-~ z 1500, lt-ji-'t--"1,---i_-'l,-_,--'_-'I,-_ taps are actually marked 0.07, 0.1, and 0.15).
l--+--1--1-+--+- ~ e
Eo 1000,H->k-~'-''{--->k-~:,--''k--"lc--->j For the HCB-1, R1 equals A, B, or C.
~~~~~~~~i~i~~s~~~i.l50:0~~~~~~;:~~;¡~N
F ~Current lnNeorReloy( N)
N~X...J-..J=:st:=:s±:::st:s:t:~~
Tap Ro - A second filter resistor tap adjusts for ground-
fault sensitivity, independent of thc phase-
W1th Motched Tronsformers / ,.,.
Normal Load ond Thru 1--*i--*-+-ff !l -+---+-+--+---+-+--+----1
fault setting. For the HCB, Ro equals 0.39,
Rlult Curren! Fol l '' &! Trip Areo 0.51, 0.68, 0.9, 1.2, and 1.6 ohms. For the
Along This Llne if.5 · 4-- ' ' -
.._ HCB-1, Ro equals Cor H.
k-'+-'+-~~->j.---->\:,-->,H-+t-·~·
t.-.>t.-4-~~>l.--"k---'1.,.......,>Y-~ a~~.
1
+ + Restraint
Tap - This tap adjusts the relay restraint. lt is set
F N
Legend: on the maximum tap for two-terrninal lines
++ Currents • Thru Foull X• lf Plotted Curren! Fol ts in These and on the mínimum tap for three-terminal
+-- Currents • lnternol Foult Areos Only One RetoyTrips
lines.
Figure 14-3: Typical HCB and HCB-1 Operating Characteristic
Currents in Percent of Nominal System Pick-up.
I3p - Total minimum interna! three-phase secondary fault To assure operation on the mínimum three-phase and phase-
current fed from all terrninals, divided by the nurn- to-phase faults, taps T and R 1 must be set as follows.
ber of terminals (either two or three).
HCB:
IL - Maximum secondary load current flowing through
T
the protected line. R ~ 5 I3p ( 14-9)
1
or
Settings that provide operation for minimum interna! fault
conditions are based on the total fault current flowing into )
T <E(Tap B) (14-10)
the protected line from all terminals. The relays are usually - 2
set to avoid operation on balanced load current if the pilot
For the system to operate on the mínimum líne-to-ground
wires should become open circuited. With the pilot wires
fault current, the Ro tap is set as follows.
open, ali the restraint coi! current flows through the operat-
ing coil, and the relays then opera te as overcurrent devices.
HCB:
or
lf sufficient fault current is available, it is recommended
that the above criteria for the mínimum setting be modified
lg > 0.12 T (Tap H) (14-13)
as follows.
The above criteria refer to the single relay pickup, with the
relay not connected to a pilot wire circuit, For the HCB-1
HCB:
relay, these values are summarized in Table 14-11 (phase
T faults) and Table 14-111 (ground faults).
R?12.5IL (14-7)
1
When the relays are connected together in a system, the
HCB-1:
nominal, or system, pickup is:
T 2: 1.25 IL (Tap C)
(14-14)
or where
and
fault current is flowing ; the far relay is the terminal with Figure 14-4: Typical Effect of Pilot Wire Resistance on The
Mínimum Trip Current of a Two Terminal Line.
zero fault current. The optimum pilot wire resistance is be- (Maximum Res1ra,n1 Tap and 4/ 1 lnsulat,ng Transformersl
tween 625 and 1000 ohms.
= 3.33 amperes secondary Thc máximum rcstraint tap should be used for a two-rer-
minal line, as in the example above. The mirurnum restraint
I = 400 + 285
tap should be used only for three terminal lincs.
g 1
= 2.85 amperes secondary Load currcnt in the protected line can be uscd for an instal-
lation or maintenance test of thc complete relay systern.
IV.A. Phase-Fault Settings During thcse tests, each pilot wire relay terminal can be sup-
plied with a milliamrneter and test switch. allowing mcasure-
In this examplc, thc maxirnurn load and minimum three- ment oí local pilot wire current, remete pilot wire current,
phase fault currcnt are sufficiently differenl to allow sctting anú circulating curren t. A series of six tests is made lo ver-
the relays to avoid operation on an open pilot wire. The ap- ify the system connections and to check the relay system
propriate tap can be determined from Equations ( 14-8) and for proper operation:
( 14-10):
Test 1 - Applies positivc sequence currcnt to the relay.
T 2: 4.17 (Tap C) or 2.07 (Tap B) (14-8)
Test 2 - Applies negative sequence current to the relay.
T ~ 16.7 (Tap C) or 8.35 (Tap B) (14-10)
Test 3 - Simulares an internul phasc-a-to-ground faulr.
Either tap B or C may be used. Tap C is preferred since, as with single-cnd feed.
shown in Table 14-ll, it is more scnsitive. Tap 5 should be
selccted to keep tap C between 4. 17 and 16. 7. With tap 5 Test 4 - Reversos the terminals uscd in Test 3.
tite relay pickup (as given in Table 14-ll) will be:
Test 5 - Simulates an externa! phase-a-to-ground fault.
above the values listed in Table 14-IV. If the shunt capaci- lnduction can be effectively limited by shielding the pilot
tance exceeds perrnissible values, shunt reactors may be wire pairs with a metallic sheath and grounding the sheath
used for cornpensation. However, only a limited amount of along the circuit length. During a ground fault on the power
capacitance can be cornpensated for, depending on the rnag- system, a portion of the fault current will then return to the
nitude of the pilot wire distributed effect. sheath. The current in the sheath will flow in a direction
that reduces the rnagnetic field produced by the fault cur-
rent. Good shielding can reduce the induced voltage by ap-
Table 14-IV proximately 50 percent or more. Note that, since the
sheath is connected to remote ground, it must be isolated
Maximum Series Resistance and from station ground.
Shunt Capacitance for Pilot Wires
Another extraneous voltage is the rise in station ground mat VII.A. Recommended Protection for S0-60-Hz lnduction
potential during a ground fault out on the line. Depending
on the fault location, a portion of the ground return cur- The induced voltage from a neighboring power curren! can,
rent flows through the resistance between the station ground as previously noted, be reduced by permitting a circulating
mat and earth, producing a voltage difference. For example, current flow. Figure 14-7 shows how a KX-642 gas tube
a 50,000-A fault current through 0.2-ohm mat resistance and a mutual drainage reactor are connected to the pilot
would cause a 10,000 V rise. wire to reduce the 50-60-Hz induced voltage on the pilot
pair. This example assurnes no station ground rise; all
The pilot wires are referenced to true earth, vía distributed grounds shown are connected to station ground.
capacitance along the pair and its shield , which is normally
directly connected to ground along its length. As a result, The mutual drainage reactor serves t wo functions. Onc is to
the rise of station mat voltage wouJd appear between the force simultaneous firing of both gaps in the gas tube, as
pilot pair and the shield and ground. This heavy ground re- demonstrated by the voltages shown in Figure 14· 7. The
turn curren! occurs only at stations with a grounded trans- voltages are shown at the instan! the gap fires from point 3
former for zero sequence flow. If the shield is connected to to ground. V gl and V g2. which are assumed to be equal,
both remote ground and the station mat, the Jarge currents are the induced voltages to ground of wire 1 and wire 2 at
that can flow during the rise wiU probably melt the shield. the terminal. When the gap from 3 to ground fires, Vgl is
To avoid this circulating path, the shield or sheath should impressed on the 1-3 winding of the reactor. This voltage
be opened outsíde the station. A breakdown will occur un· also appears across winding 2-4 in the direction shown. The
less the pilot wire insulation to shield or ground is greater voltage across gap 4 to ground-Vgl plus vg2, or twice the
than the rise. induced voltagc-forces it to Iire at the same time as thc
first gap.
Protection against these t wo types of extraneous voltages is
covered in the next section. The second reason for using the drainage reactor is to pre-
vent the gas tube from shorting the pilo! wire to the circu-
lating 50 or 60-Hz current used for relaying. The drainage
reactor presents a 24,000-to-48 ,000-ohm impedance to cir-
VII. PROTECTIVE DEVICES FOR PILOT WIRES
culating curren! and about a l O-ohrn impedance for each
winding-to-ground current.
In addition to ensuring the safety of personnel and terminal
equipment, the protective devices used on the pilot wire
Using the mutual drainage reactor for protection against
should protect the pilot wire and maintain an operative re·
station ground rise is not recommended. This reactor has
laying circuit during operation of protective devices. The
low leakage impedance designed for the drainage function.
protective devices must function in the event of extraneous
The neutralizing reactor described below has a much higher
voltages caused by 50 or 60-Hz induction, whether from
exciting impedance, which is desirable for station ground
power circuits ora rise in station ground potential. Protec-
rise applications.
tion rnay also be required for direct contact with power cir-
cuits and for lightning strikes. In the latter cases, however,
lf a mutual drainage reactor is connecred to station ground,
it is not considered feasible to maintain an operative relay-
the gas tu be will fire during a station ground voltage rise and
ing circuit.
cause 50-60-Hz drainage current to flow. This current will
raise the pilot wire terminals to station ground pote ntial,
Four classes of devices are employed for protection: thus protecting terminal equipment and personnel. The
drainage current Ilow reduces station ground potential rise
• Gaps/arrestors, carbon blocks, and protector tubes along the length of the pilot wire. On the other hand, the
14-9
lílSulOhnQ
Trons.fo<me,
,------"-,. + +
Vgl
HCB
Droinoqe
/ 3~ Dro,noge
CI Reactor CI
\
~Reoc1or
Vg1
X2
+ 2
PM M:in, I0<1 ng PM Monolorong
Figure 14-7: Application of Mutual Drainage Reactors to limit lnduced Voltage ar Station With Negligible Station Ground Rise.
shield is connected to rernote grounds along its length and VII.B. Protection Against Station Ground Rise
isolated frorn station ground. Co nsequent ly, the pilot wirc
voltage mercases along the length of thc shield up to station As sho wn in Figure 14-9, the neutralizing reactor is con·
ground potential, creating a stress on the wire-to-shield in- nectcd in series with the pilot wires, The two srnall CI ca-
sulation, which may cause a breakdown. This effect is pacitors provide a path Ior magnetizing currenr to f'low
shown in Figure l4-8. from station ground to remole ground, via the pilut wirc
distributed capacity. Most of thc statiun risc dro p will thus
$101,on Grouno 11,1c,1 be across the ueutralízlng reactor. The pilot wires will con-
scquently remain at essentially remete grounJ potcntial: the
insulating transformer side will rernain at statíon mat poten-
tial. Neutralizing transforrners are not required if the insu-
lation to ground of the insularing transformer and the pilot
wire is greater than the starion mal ground rise. Whe n de
monitoring relays are applied, howcver, use of t he neutral-
Vsq, Sloloofl Ground R se iz ing reactor is recomrnended to cnsure that bo t h the relays
Figure 14-8: Typical Pilot Wire Potential Plot When The Drainage and the pcrsonnel servicing thern will be at station ground
Reactor is Connected to Station Ground. potential.
1nsu10111,q
-,onsto, ,ne, l'Jeu1m 1Drq Remo te Neurrollzing
,.----, Hcrn.:~or 0round Reacror
.---------V"Y',---....------~
HI l(
·~·ot•on
HCB ~~(Q ..Jf'ld Ple• w .«
HC8
C? ''
( ,(
H3 *KX-642 *KX-642
N~lJlrúh11no Neulfohz,ng
Reocior · Reocto,
Re mote
-~ // Ptv1 Mü1111ur
RelO'{S
¡;~'
3~-.
L1ql"''n1n9
t~ «ester
..; \/ "'·,'tn ·01 -
Re!oys
\!nllon \;rOuí·,d-----=-
(•J-To Min,miie Wire-to-Wrrt! Vottnqe if One ,s Gr oundeo ancla Oisturbance Occurs. or One Lightn,ng Arrester Operares
Figure 14-9: Applicatíon of Neutralizing Reactors for Protection Against High Voftages on The Pilot Pair from The Rise in Station Ground at
Stations With Negligible 50-60 Hz lnduction.
14·10
Areo of H,gh Volloge 10 SlohonMo! !Amng Ground Foult (W1thin Dotred Areo)
ing ground faults, voltages to the station mat in this part of center tap, provides a low impedance path for 50-60-Hz cur-
the circuit will be the station rise voltage. rent anda high impedance to direct current. This irnped-
anee scheme forces the monitoring current to flow as shown,
When a neutralizing reactor is used, as shown in Figures (Figure 14-12). The adjustable resistor (RS) at the receiving
14-9 and 14-10, the pilot wire capacitance to ground must terminal is used to adjust the monitoring current to a value
be at least l µF from each wire to ground. If necessary to of I mA. lf a three-terminal pilot wire is monitored, the cur-
meet this requirement, capacitors must be added on the rent is adjusted for 1 mA at each of the two receiving ter-
pilot wire side of the neutralizing reactor. minals and 2 mA at the source terminal.
!~!
lnsulOhng
Troosformer
,.....-,-..
Neutroliiing
Reoctor
.--~~~~~...r,'Y"l._..... ~~~e-~~~· Remole
Ground
OoNol Stohon-"-.::.
Pilot W,re
Ground G<ound c,I HCB
H2
C2
*KX-642
Remole
Ground _3Kv
.V ~
PM Moolor ~ . L,ghtning PM M:ntor
Retoys Retoys
Arreste,
- -
Areo of lDw Volloge to Slolion Ground, ---------- Areo of Low Vol10ge to Remete Ground ~.--------A,eo ol lDw Voltoge to S101,ot1G<ound,
High Volloge to Remate Ground H1gh Vottoge to Stohon Ground High Voltoge to Remole Ground
~ring Ground Fwlt Ouring Ground Foull Ounng Ground Fwlt
(•)-To Minimize Wire-to-Wire Voltage if One is Grounded and a Oisturbance Occurs, or One Lightning Arrester Operares.
Figure 14-11: Complete Pilot Wire Protection for Both lnduction and Rise in Station Ground Voltages.
14-11
Source Term1no1
4B0r 125 VOC Rece,v,ng Term,nol
ln!>úlo1,ng
Transforme r ¡.- Ptlol W1res BerweenTerm,nols ---+j
-186 1n~ulo1>ng
Transforme,
~ +
LLJ
10¡,f
2
Superv"->t0n Curren, _
L_~__.:::.::.~:..._~..:...::..::.=-==-=-=-=::.:¡:...-F-....::.-~-~--==~---~-::...::.-_-~-..;.;..-------------~-4-.::...-_-~-----~~-t-~~~~
Note
Un11s Number I and 5 are Polar U1111s ,n PMD or PMG-1 3
Un,1 Number 2 rs a Polar Un,1 ,n PM 2 or PM-23
U1111 Number 3 tS a Polar U1111 ,n PM 13, PMG· 13 or PM 23
86 Contacts ln,1,a1e 1 ransler Tnp
vm.A. Short Circuits two coils cancels out the arnpere-turns of each coil. The
voltage divider circuit (R2, R3, and R4) has us cenrcr point
A complete or partial short circuir on the pilot wire will
grounded through a lirniting resistor, R A pilot wirc
1.
cause a current increase in the source terminal relay. The ground will thus cause an increase of current in onc of thc
high currcnt contact of polar unit I will then close and coils anda corresponding dccrease of currcnt in the other
alarrn at 1.3 mA of monitoring current. Short circuits of coil. This un balance of current flow in the two coils will
5000 ohms or lcss will be detected. The short circuit will cause one of the contacts on unit 5 to close (depcnding on
also cause a decrcase in current at the receiving terminal,
which wire of thc pilot circuit rs groundcd). These contacts
dro pping out polar unit 2 and causing an alarm at O. 7 mA
will close with a± 0.3-mA unbalancc in thc two coils, de·
or less.
tecting grounds of 10,000 ohrns or less,
sourcc terminal and polar unit 2 at the receiving terminal transfer-tripping. Transfer-tripping may be performed from
will then close at O. 7 mA or less. any location by applying 48 Vdc to tite pilot wire, through
dropping resistors, in a polarity opposite to that of the mon-
Vlll.C. Reversed Wires itoring voltage. Contacts 86 are the protective relay that in·
itiate a transfer trip. Polar unit 3 will close its contacts and
lf the pilot wire is opened and then reconnected in reverse trip the breaker when current is increased to 2 mA in the
polarity, polar unir 2 ar the receiving terminal will not pick reverse direction. A polar unir 3 is applied at all terminals
up, causing an alarm. to be transfer-tripped.
VIII.O. Grounds Table 14· V shows the various types of PM rclays and the
functions they perform. Only one source relay should be
Polar unit 5 (Figure 14-12) is used for ground-fault detec- applied per pilot wire system.
tion. The normal monitoring current ílowing through the
14-lL
Table 14-V
Monitoring
Current
So urce X X X X X X
Receives
Monitoring
Current X X X
Trouble
Alarm X X X X X X X X X
Transrnits
Trip Signa! xt xt xt xt X X xt xt xt xt
Receives
Trip Signa! X X X X
Sensitive
Ground
Detection X X X X
Mea sures
Monitoring
Current X X
Actual
Current
Source X X x• x•
Direct
Current
Source X X x• x•
•specified by order
l;)-1
Chapter 15 l. JNTRODUCTION
b. Wire-line (pilot-wire), which uses de, 50 to 60 Hz, or atively srnall losses, Below 30 kHz, line coupling becomes
audio-frequency tones applied via a leased or privately impractical; above 300 kHz, the line losses are higher and
owned telephone line. radiation into space may interfere with licensed space
c. Microwave radio, which uses bearned radio signals, usu- radio services.
ally in the range of 2 to 12 GHz, over line-of-sight paths
between terminals. The relaying signal may be either a 11.B. Modes of Operation
sub-carrier or an audio tone.
The power-line carrier signa! may use on-off, frequency-
Table 1 S-1 shift, or single-sideband (ssb) operation. The on-off signa!
is used to block tripping in an unfaulted line section;
Comparison of Communication Channels frequency-shift operation is used either for blocking or
Type of transfer-tripping. When functions are combined on an ssb
Channel AdYantaaes Disad"'anra~s
channel, audio tones are used to modulate the carrier, thus
Power-hne
Carrier
• Rehable. since channel is
powcr line uself',
• available
Lrmued trequency spectrum
in sorne áreas. providing the relaying (and other) intelligence.
• Much less suscepuble 10
natural or man-made
• Susceptible to power-line
in sorne cases.
noise
hazards.
ll.C. Line Coupling
• Can h andle a large number • Requires tme-of-sigtu path, Also applied as carrier channels, static wires have been
of voice and conrrot sub· which m ay rcquire addi-
channels over one micro- uonal l,rnd. used successfully for both voice communications and con·
wave channel.
trol functions. When static wires are used for carrier chan-
• Power hne does not havc
to be taken out oi servrce
• Palh ,11cnuJtion affected by
wearher. which may cause
neis, the insulation level is usually around 7.5 to 15.0 kV.
for terminal equipment severe fading. These insulation levels give rise to the possibility of insula-
mamtenance.
tor flash-over during a fault, which would greatly attenuate
• Hot s1andby S<:I often supplied .
since many tuncuons are depend- the carrier signal and prevent correct relay operation. At
ent on comrnon equipmcnt.
least one utility has successfully operated conventional
frequency-shift carrier at 1 O watts for both guard and trip
11. POWER-LINE CARRIER CHANNELS by using an insulated static-wire channel between stations.
Power-line carrier generally opera tes over the band of fre- The major carrier components at one terminal of a line sec-
quencies between 30 and 300 kHz. These frequencies tion equipped with a power-line carrier are shown in Figure
can be coupled to and transmitted over power lines with rel- 15-1.
l~-j
Stotion G Siouon H
Bus Bus
Une Trap Une Trap
I}
c==º~c~~
Coupling
Protect,ve Tronsmitter Tronsmitter Prolect,ve
Copocitor Ce
Reloys Receiver Receiver Reloys
~'="'~="'
Figure 15-1: Basic Oiagram ol One Líne Sectíon Showing Main Carrlar Components lor Protective Relaying Channel.
11.E.1. Line Trap Three types of line traps are available: single írequency ,
double frequcncy , and bread band. Typical carrier-
The line trap consists essentially of a parallel-tuned resonant frequency irnpedance charucteristics of the three types of
circuit that prescnts a high irnpedance to the operating car- traps are shown in Figure 15-2.
rier frequency but a negligible impedance at sysrem Ire-
queney. TJ1e /ine trap serves two fu nctions: 11.E. l .u. Single-frequency Traps
a. Prevcnts carrier cnergy from flowing into the station bus. The MS single-Irequcncy line trap (Figure J 5-2a) covers
Such a situation would reduce the signal in the desired the 30-to-300-kHz rango in four divisions: 30-90, 50-150,
dircction and possibly cause interfcrcnce in neighboring 70-200, and 90-300 kllz. This trap has a mínimum irnpcd-
carricr cha nnels. anee of 400 ohms ovcr a bandwidth of ±5% of the center
trequency (±2% for the 30-to-90-kll?. range). Both low- and
b. Prevenís an externa! ground fault (F 1) behind the pro- high-Q tuning are available; the high-Q trap is used for a
tective relays from short circuiting the carrier signal on single-frequency relaying channel, The low-Q trap, which
the unfaulted linc. has a lower bu t relatively constant impedancc ovcr a mod-
erate frequency band, is u sed for a group of closely spaccd
A linc trap rnust he able to carry the specified steady-load freq uencíes.
current and fault currcnt withour overhcating or suf'fering
mechanical darnagc. Typical current ratings for t hese con- 11. E.1.b. Double-frequency Traps
ditions are listed in Table 1 5-11.
The MD double-Ircquency line trap (Figure 15-2b) covers
Table 15-11 the 30-to-300-kHz range in tlie sume four ranges as thc
singlc-frequency trap. lt may be tuned to any two fre-
Line Trap Thermal and Mechanical Currenl Ratings quencies bet ween 30 and 300 kllz. but both the uppcr and
lower frequencies must be in the sarne tuning range. Thc
Continuous-current Two-second Thermal Mechanical
Rating. Current Rating, Current Ratiug. impeclance will be greater than 400 ohms ovcr a bandwidth
Rms Symmetrical Rms Symmetrical Rms Symmetrical of ±5% of thc center frequency (±2% for the 30-lo-90-kl-17..
(Amp.) (Amp.) (Amp.)
range), providcd the upper and lower frequencies are sepa-
rated by 25 k Hz or 25 percent of the upper frequency,
400 15,000 15,000
whichever is great er. Both low- and high-Q tuning are avail-
800 20,000 20,000
able and are applied as for single-frequency traps.
1 ,200 36,000 36,000
1,600 44,000 44,000
2,000 63,000 63.000 11.E.1.c. Broad-band Traps
3,000 63,000 63,000
The broad-band trap presents a moderate but fairly con-
4,000 80,000 80,000
stant impedance overa wide frequency range and is used to
700
600
l 1\
, IZI
-~ _ _ ....)
I
\
15,000
10,000
RHonont F,equency lOOkHz
ÉA•H,ohQT,op
15,000
l0,000
7000
Resooont Frequency 112ond l50kHz __
500
4100
I
I
1
j
"'
...../.
/
'~;
' 1
1
1
'
1000
soco I= B• Low O Trop sooo /R
I '\ I' \
I I
3000 3000 1
2000 2000
I \ A A- ,_
1000
,V \ k/ 1000
./, ~~ '/r\ ~ 200
11
'
•, \
\
ldl!t= B
--
700 B
700
....,
~·
500 B 500 100
300 A• HtQh ' O Trop
1
,
300 B•Low O Trop
200 1 1 1 1 1 1
20080
85 90 95 100 ice 110 115120
150100
108 116 1241 140 150 160 170 o 100 120 l'IO 160 180 200
kHz kHz kHz
1) Typic1l lmped1nce V1luH 100 kH1 Single Frequency b] Typical lmpedance Values 112 1nd 1 50 kHr Oouble el Typ,c1I lmped1nce V•lues IZI and Res1t1,ve
Type MS Tr1p1 Frequency Type MO Traps Componen! R for F1•ed Type MW Traps 10 265 mHI
280~~-~-~~-~~-~-~~
2601---+-+----,l---+-+---t~-+-~,I----,
24()1---+-+----,~
320,~~-~-~~-~-~~-~~
300•1--t--i--r--t--i--t--t-r--t----l
28011---1----11---+--600.n==:b;;;::il'IJ~t--~
260
,_
- Upper BondWtdlh
Lom11s(Ro)
400n- ,.........
600ll
) ) ,J
1 'f J
J
"
,,
'I 1/
"
FLl18 kHz
406.n+
1201---+-+.-.VJ:...._+---4.,-C"""::,..+ 160l---+-t-,ii~~-ñ~r.::~
100 11 ~ v.' I"' Lower1 Boodw1dth
1
I J Upper Bond...,dl h
L1mils(Rol -
260
I I
soon
Fu238
1-'" --
kHz
l: - iooon
...
750n
,,1,¡/11/
220 I J
1000
900 r_<Zl -.
,.. :\
180
JIII
1600
1400
1200 -
(Z)_
/1, \
~..,,
~· ... '\-
800 1410
'\ \.
--
-Ro¡
700 soon1
~·' 1/ \ fil GMF120kHz 1000
I I',,,,
800 µ T'ooon
~
'~
I
'
1 \ / Ro 1\
1 1 1
,
600 J. '/
500
J 1 100 Lower Bondw,dth- 1 ¡GMF 120 kHz 1
(R) 1 1 ,__ _ umlls (Rol _ 600
'IOO 1GMFl54kHz 11
FL 60 kHz
1000.n 1
(R) ',
1.i 60 1 1 4100
300 ) J-.-'.!:._
750ll 1
200 _._ ~FLne
" 1 1 l"'
kHz
1
.... ~
GOon 200
FL60 kHz
'
1 Ful98kHz j 1 1 Fu 238 kHz1
100 I
I
100 116 132
Frequency, kHz
1418 180 196 212
20
20 60 100 140 180
Geomeirtc Meon FreQuency, kHz
220 260 º"°Frequency,
80
kHz
120 160 200 241()
g) Typ,col lmped1nce •• Frequency t0 265 M,11,henry h] Upper 1nd Lower Frequenc,es vs Geometrtc Mun •1 Typic1I lmped1nce •• Frequencv 11 590 M,lhhenry
F1c1orv Ad1ulled Type MWA Trap) Frequency (1 690 Mill,henry Factory Ad1usted F1ctorv Ad1usted Type MWA Trep)
Type MWA Trap)
3. Factory - adjusted Type MWA Traps - for applications frequency current through the capacitor to ground, thus
involving wider frequency bands and higher trap imped- minimizing the systern-frequency voltage developed from
anee levels than are available with the field adjustable point X to ground (Figure 15-1 ). At carrier frequencies, on
traps. Typical characteristics of two of these traps are the other hand, the drain coil has a high impedance, mini-
shown in Figures 15-2f through l 5-2i. These curves mizing r-f losses to ground al this point. The carrier loss
show that, for a given geometrical mean frequency introduced by the drain coil does not exceed 0.5 dB.
(GM F), the bandwidth at a desired impedance leve!
increases with the increase in main oil inductance. 11.E.4. Line Tuner
The inductance range is from 0.265 to l.590 mH.
Applied in conjunction with the coupling capacitors, the
A typical example of the tuning of a Type MWA trap is line tuners (Figure 1 5-1) provide an impedance match with
shown in Figure 15-2f, where a GMF of 154 kHz is chosen low losses between the coaxial cable and the transmission
for a 0.265-mH line trap. A minimum impedance (Ro) of line. Both resonant and broad-band line tuners are used,
600 ohms gives an upper frequency (Fu) of 198 kllz and Two types of resonant tuners are available: single fre-
a lower frequency (F L) of 1 18 kHz. The corresponding quency and double frequency (Figure 15-3). In the single-
curve of impedance versus frequency (Figure 15-2g) shows frequency tuner (Figure 15-3a), the inductive reactance of
both the impedance and resístive components, Z and R, Ll cancels the capacitive reactance of the coupling capaci-
respectively. The bandwidth, Fu-FL or 198-118 kHz, is tor Ce and isolating capacitor Csat one frequency , thus
80 kHz. providing a low-loss coupling circuit for the carrier-
frequency energy. The transformer (T 1) matches the im-
11.E.2. Coupling Capacitor pedance of the coaxial cable to the surge impedance (Z0)
of the power line.
The carrier signals are coupled to the power line by the
coupling capacitor, Ce. This unit, a series of stacked capac- The two-frequency resonant tuner (Figure l 5-3b) provides
itors mounted inside porcelain insulators, has a capacitance low-loss coupling at two separare frequencies from a single
on the order of 0.002 to 0.02 µF, depending on system ac coaxial cable to the power line. The two-frequency tuner
voltage and potential burden requirements. Standard cou- shown in Figure 15-3c is used for isolating two different
pling capacitor ratings are listed in Table 1 5-111. sets of carrier equipment. Tite path from each coaxial
cable includes a matching transformer, (T 1 or T2) tuning
U.E.3. Drain Coil inductance, and a trap circuit tuned to the other carrier
frequency. In both cases, the isolating capacitor , C5, pre-
The drain coil, mounted in the base of the coupling capac- vents the system-frequency current (SO or 60 Hz) from the
itor, pro vides a low-irnpedance path for the flow of power- coupling capacitor from flowing through the tuning coil
15-6
·5
30 35 40 45 50 60 70 80 90 100
-9,
Coupting Copoc,tor
1 dB
Cable 11 • 15 f--1---+--+-'~,!-
¡, __-Drom Co,I , Gap, ond
F rcquencv Response
:
l
Protecllve Un,t '-1 :
.J
Coupllng Copootor TypeJZ
Curve
71 6Tuner
Tuned To
1 30 kHZ
a) Single Frequency Tuner 2 100 kHZ Couphng Capacttor 1870 MMF
3 200 kHZ load Res,s1ance 300 OHMS
Power L,ne
o) Response Curves ot JZ 71 6 S,ngle Frequencv luner
(Ccl Coopnnq Copocllor
·10
·151----11-V'-l--+E-+--l---l---+---lll~t--F"~--+
dB
bl Oouble FreQuency Tuner for Onc Coa.,al Cable
Power L,ne
F reqvencv Res1>onse
Type JZ 72 6 L,ne Tuner
Couplonu Cap 1870 MMF
Load Res 300·0HMS
... _ Figure 15·4: Typical Frequency Responso Curves of Single and Double
Frequency Resonant line Tunera .
Figure 1 S-3 Schematic Diagram of Single and Oouble Froquency of thc coupling capacitor should be 0.002 µF or higher.
Resonant ltne Tuners
Figure l 5-5c shows the I li-Coupler insertion loss character-
istics.
and matching transformer. Such a current llow rnight rnask
the relat ively small carricr-frcquency current. 11.E.S. Coaxial Cable
For the two-frequency tuners, the minimum frequency Low-loss concentric cable is used to connect t he line tuner
separation is 25 percent of the lower frequency. Freque ncy and the carrier transrnitter-receiver assemblies. Type
response curves of the single- and double-frequency linc RG21 3/U coaxial, recommended for this purpose, has a char-
tuners are shown in Figure 154. acteristic impedance of 52 ohms andan attenuation of
about 0.4 to 0.9 dB/1000 ft. increasing gradually over the
Wherc more than two Irequencies are couplcd to a power 30-to-300-kl-17. frcquency range (Figure 15-6). The coaxial
line, a wide-band coupling device known as a Hi-Coupler is cable is gcncrally grounded at the terminal equiprnent end
used in place of a resonant tuner. The Hi-Coupler is a high- only to prevent systcrn-frcquency 50 or 60 llz current
pass filter (Figure 15-5) in which the coupling capacitar from flowing over the coaxial cable shield during a ground
(Ce) serves as part of the filler. The filler is terminated by fault. lf both ends of the coaxial cable shield must be
the line impedance z0. Radio-frequency hybrids or series grounded to irnprovc the shielding effect, a 4/0 copper
L·C circuits, which are part of the associated transmitter cable should be run in the samc duct to interconnect the
output filters (Figure l 5-5a), are used to isolate channel ground points at the two ends of the coaxial cable. This ar-
equipment connected to the coaxial cable. The frequency rangement will eliminate the possibility of curre nt burning
range of the Hi-Coupler is 40 to 300 kHz. The capacitance the coaxial cable shield open in the cvent of a ground faull.
I
Lrne Trap
Power l me 11.f. Power-line Characteristics
Series L,C Units ore
Por: al Outpui Filler -----Q
-=t:
of Corrier Trcnsmitter s
Ce Carrier frequencies exceed power frequencies by a factor of
1000 or more. As a result, a transmission line's response to
--""""--1
carrier frequencies will be appreciably different from its re-
--""""--1 sponse to power frequencies. At 50 or 60 Hz, ali power
--""""--1 1
1
i1 lines are elect rically short. At carrier frequencies, however,
most lines are severa! wavelengths long beca use of the much
______ J L J1 Dro,n Coil
shorter wavelength of the higher frequencies.
al Wide Band. H,gh Pass F,11er (Hi-Couplar}
-
Couph ng Copocuor
or-Y
.01
MFq
t-;p kf ~ r-- In carrier application work, the transm ission characteristic
-5
-10
.006
MFP
11 /
of a system (or channel) can be conveniently considered in
terms of attenuation-the decrease in power level along a
oof/
transmission line. The ratio between the voltages, currents,
-15 or power at any two points is a measure of the attenuation
MFOV
between these two points. Losses expressed in these ratios,
.0(?2 MFO
-200 30 35 40 45 50 60 70 so 90 100 125 ieo t75 200 300 however, cannot be added to give the total loss but rnust be
Frequency in kHZ multiplied. lt is more convenient to express losses in dec-
e) Hr-Coupler lnsertion Loss for a 500 Ohm Load ibels (dB), which can be added directly. Decibels are de-
Fi9ure 16-5: Schemetic Oiegram. Equivalent Circuit Typical Response fined as follows:
Curve far a Hi·Coupler Unit.
1.0
( 15-1)
~ ~
.8
~
./
V ( 15-2)
.6
V
V
.'l
/ ( 15-3)
(
1
1
.2 1
Equations ( 15-2) and ( 15-3) are vali.d only if the impedance
1 levels of the circuits are identical where the two voltages or
1 currents are measured.
1
0o
30 50 ioo 150 200 250 300
Frequency , k HZ
Various power and voltage or current ratios, with the corre-
Figura 15·6: Attanuation of RG-213/U Coaxial Cable at Carrier Frequencíes. spondi.ng dB values, are listed in Table 15-IV.
15-8
Table 15-IV giving +40 dBm. To avoid confusion, actual scale readings
should be recorded, and the values converted to true dBm
Power, Voltage or Current Ratios, and
Decibel Equivalents later.
.35r----r----,----..----.---..-----,
.3t-----+----~-----i:~---r----
.251----t----1----1----t-
.21----1----1·---
!' .10 .1
i"'
i
~ ~
a)
-e a)
,:,
.05 .05
e ~
oº
:, ºa
e: e
:,
!' !'
<1 a
ºokHZ ºokHZ 30 50 100 150 200 250 300
a) Typ1cal Auenuanon Curves fo, Power lones at 34.5. 115. 345 and 765 KV. bl Typ,cat Attenuo11on Curves for Power Lones al 69 138 230 and 500 KV
Note.
Fa< Reta1ed Cond.t,ons Aflechng Attenuauon Set> Tibies 15-V (11 fbl and Table l 5·VI
Figure 15·7· Line At1enuation vs Carr,er Frequency lor Different System Voltoges.
ling equipment must be matched to z0 for besr power 11.F.3. Power-line Noise
tra ns fer.
The main factor limiting tite allowablc attenuauon on a
Table 15-Vll indicates the range of characterisuc imped- power-line carrier channel is tite noise levcl of tite hne itself,
anee values for a variety of lines. Rcceiver filters will acccpt a Iracuon of tite total noisc volt·
age, yielding a certain signal-to-noise ratio (rms-signal-to-
Table 1 5-Vll average noise), The channel becornes unsausfactory when
this ratio drops below a designatcd value, about 20 dB for
Range of Characteristic lmpedances of on-off carrier relaying andas low as I O dB for frequency-
Power-line Carrier Circuits
sltift carrier.
Transmission-line Characteristic lmpedance ( ohms)
Conductor, Each Most power-line noisc consists of a mixture of impulse and
Phase Phase-to-Ground Phase-ro-Phase random noisc, in which impulse noise predommates and
random noise occupies the spaces between thc pulses. (lrn-
Single 350-500 650-800 pulse noise consists of sharp, well-separated pulses causcd
Bundled (two wires) 250-400 500-600 by spccific electrical discharges , random noise has a conun-
Bundled (four wires) 200-350 420-500 uous spectrum.) The average value of line noise is the meas-
15-10
ure of its interfering properties with a funct ion such as pro- Table 15-VIII
tective relaying. Noise Leve!
Correction Factor for Other Line Voltages
o *bundled conductors
200
Table 15-IX
100
Noise Leve(
·10
Correction Factor for Other Receiver Bandwidths
Fou1 Weoine, No se 50
The average noise power acccptcd by a carrier receiver is Total noise leve! acccpted by receiver =-20d8m
proportional to its bandwidth. For a receiver in the stand·
ard type TC carrier set, for exarnple, the noise response will The attenuation and noise leve! values given here, although
be 3 dB less than the values given in Figure 15-8. since the typical of field values, are intended only as a guide. Spe-
TC receiver has a 1500-I-lz bandwidth. The correction Iac- cific line values may show sorne deviation for any nurnber
tors for receivers of different bandwidths are given in Table of reasons: the age of the line, typc of line construction,
15-IX. conductor size , transpositions, insulator leakage, ground
wircs, ground conductivity , weather cond it ions, and the test
For exam ple, the cxpected Ioul-weathcr noise level at 100 setup. The accuracy of the attenuation and noise level Iig-
kl+z on a 500-k V line is calculated as follows fer a type ures is sufficient to determine the type and rating of carrier
TCF wide-band receiver. terminal equipmcnt rcquired for a given application.
15-11
11.F.S. Fnult-generated Noise load impedance (60 x 3.5 = 210 ohms). With this termina-
tion on the far end of the tap, tite input impedance of the
lt is highly improbable that electrical "noise" generatcd tap where it joins tite main line will be very low.
during an arcmg fault on a transrrussion line will produce
spurious reccivcr output to preven! correct relay operation From Equation ( 15-4 ), Zin equals (60)2 divided by 21 O, or
in a blocking system. A large, bigh frequency, narrow-band 17 ohms, rcferred to the 60-ohm coaxial cable irnpcdance
noise voltage is generated at tbe inception of a line fault and leve! or base. This low 17-ohrn irnpcdance, which effec-
lasts from 1.5 to 4 ms. Also, there is usually a low-level tively shunts the normal 60-ohm line impedance at the tap
noisc burst , lusting a cycle or so, just as a faull is bcing point, will introduce excessive attenuation. The longer thc
cleared by a circuir breaker. The fault are causes no appre- resonanr tap line, the higher its own attenuatron will be,
ciable noise if the fault current is more than 200 Amp. and the lcss severe its shunting effect on the camer signa l.
Rather, the line noise during a fault may be less than pre- This relalionship is shown in Figure 15-9. lf the tap is long
fault line noisc because of the reduced line voltage. As enough to have an appreciable attenuation 5 dB or more
many years of field expenence have demonstrated, there is its added reílection loss will be moderate. A different car-
negligible dangcr of fault are noise causing an incorrect op- rier frcquency should be used, however, if the rcsonant tap
cration in blocking systcms. line has a low loss and must be part of the carricr path. Tito
above comments also apply to short, t wo-terrrunal Iine sec-
11.G. Tapped Lines tions that are an odd quarter-wavelength long.
--
1, 8
Most 10-W carrier transmitters present a "reverse imped- Figure 16-9: Added Reflection loss CeuHd by Tep Une Which is Odd
Ouerter W•v• Length Long. u • Function of The Normal
anee" of at least three and one-half times the rated output Tap line lou.
15·12
11.G.2. A Half-wavelength Line Using Equation (15-5), the ">../4 and X/2 distances for a few
representative frequencies are:
A half-wavelength line, or any integral multiple of A/2,
which also has low loss, will have an input impedance equal f(kl lz) X/4 (mi) ">../2 (mi)
to the terminating impedance. Thus, if such a line tap or
section is terminated with a 10-W carrier set, its input im- 30 1.52 3.04
pedance wW be around 200 ohms. This impedancc mis- 60 0.76 1.52
match (from 60 ohms) will limit the amount of power that 100 0.456 0.913
can be fed into the linc and will gencrally cause a substan- 200 0.228 0.456
lial rnismatch loss. 300 0.152 0.304
11.G.3. Rules for Short Overhead Lines or Line Taps Figure 15-10 shows resonant overhead linc lcngths in the
carricr band for resonant lengths from l /4 to 21 /4 wavc-
a. Avoid frequcncies for whích the electrical lengths are lengths.
low multiples of ">../2 or ">../4 and have a normal attenua-
I} 17 19 21
lion o f less tha n 5 d B, or 3 d B if other channel losses
300
4 4 4 a
' .'\ ~ ~ ~ VV
'
are moderatc.
-
i I'\ .. ~
V
~ "
,/
200
"
b. lf possible, use frequencies that correspond toan odd
1;
.2°
e:
150
100
,__ ~ K. . .
"'
t--
-, "
~~ ~ L""
K N,...
~
N
~~
~~~~
- ,-- --
eighth-wavelength on lines with low attenuation. Whilc ->-
~,,
--''<"""
J: ._ u
70
:::s; ""- "
the input impedance to such a linc will be reactive, its
''" ~-
1
t--r,..~
~ ....
'"'
-o,
,--
"'
-~
50
absolute magnitude will be equal to the characteristic - - ""-.:~
40 ~ ~ '."\.."~ ~
impcdance (Z0) of the linc. Suilable llne-tuning equlp- ce 30.1 "-
.2 .3 .5 .7 1.0 2 3 5 7 10 20 30
ment can cancel thc reactive component. Ler,glh ot Stub L,ne, Moles
Fl9ure 16·10: Resonant Frequencv vs Length in Mltea for Open Ended T1p
on Overheed Llne.
c. In extreme cases, a short line or tap may be partially
tcrm inatcd with a resistive load in order to prcsent a
11.H. Carrier on Power Cables
rcasonable load impedance to the carrier equipment.
Whilc this arrungcmcnt will cause sorne encrgy loss, such
Power cables are oftcn uscd for transmission circuits in
a procedurc is needed only on lincs of very low normal
large metropolitan areas and ncar airports, where overhead
carricr losscs, lcaving amplc margin for other losses.
linos are undcsirable. The application of carrier to power
cables presents two major problems: low surge impedance
11.G.4. Calculation of Wavelength
(Zo) and high attenuation to carricr frequencies. Typical
values for thesc two quantities are shown in Figure 15-11.
The wavelength of a given carrier frcquency on an ovcrhead
Cable rnanuf'acturcrs should be a ble to supply information
transmission line may be calculated as follows:
on carrier losscs, surge impedance, and vclocity of propaga·
tion (VP) for their cables.
A= ( 186.3) (VP)
( 15-5) Bccause of the relatively high attcnuation, cable applica-
f kllz
tions of carrier are usually restrictcd to the low frequcncy
whcre, end (30 to 70 kJlz) of the carrier spectrum and to relatively
short lines. Also, since the surge impedance of a power ca-
A: wavelcngth (mi) ble is on the order of 25 ohrns (Figure 15· l l ). special line
tuners with step-down matching transformers are needed to
fkllz = carrier frequency (kHz) match the 50-to-70-ohm impedance of the coaxial cable to
the lower írnpedance, z0, of the power cable. Large capaci-
VP = correction factor where propagation is tancc values in the coupling capacitor are recorn mcndcd to
less than the speed of light. (For over- minirnize coupling losses and tuning inductance. Even with
head lines, a VP of 0.98 may be used.) these coupling capacitors, however, coupling losses into
15-13
power cables may be on the order of 3 to 5 dB for single- overhead section anda VP factor supplied by the rnanufac-
frequency tuners; double-frequency tuners would have still turer for the cable section. lf the manufacturer cannot sup-
higher losses. The low surge irnpedance of power cables ply a VP factor, 0.45 rnay be used. (For power cables, the
rnakes broad-band tuners impractical for such applications. VP factor is usually in the range of 0.4 to 0.55 .) Input irn-
pedance for an overhead section with low attenuation will
vary significantly with frequency, since the electrical length
corresponds to odd or even multiples of a quurtcr-
wavelength. Because of the higher attenuation, input im-
pedance of the power cable will vary less significantly with
frequency ,
40
1/) f(kHz) A./4 (mi) >../2 (mi)
30:::E
-l--f-+-of-+--++--t-5
20 o 30 0.7 1.4
N
10 60 0.35 0.7
90 0.233 0.466
50 60 70 80 90
Frequency, kHZ
Figure 1 !>-11: Phue-to-Ground Attenuetion and Surge lmpedance of 138 In applying carrier on power cable, the following rules
to 345 KV Pipe Type Power Cable.
should be observed:
~~~:
G L,ne
H irnpedancc, the mismatch loss at the junction may be deter-
Power Coble Irnp mined from the following equation:
Overheod Line
Copoc,10,r
i
Coupltng
Z1 + Z2)
To Line
Tune,
To L,ne
Tuner
dB (Joss) = 20Log
( 2 vz1z2
¡;:;-;:;- ( 1 5-6)
where ,
Figure 15· 12: Llne Seetíon Wíth Part Cable and Per1 Overheed Line.
Z
1
= im pedance of overhead line
The electrical lengths of the two sections can be deterrnined
from Equation ( 15-5), using a VP factor of 0.98 for the z2 = impedance of power cable
15-14
Assurning z..1 and z..2 equal 500 ohms and 25 ohms, respec- 10
-
9
tively , then from Equation (15-6), the mismatch loss at the
-
8 Copocrtonce,MMF -
·- -
-
6000 ,_
,,,,
cable-overhead junction in Figure 15-12 is: 7
6 ....
1 1 /' 1 / ./ ~
5 /1 1 ~ ./
500 25 ¡
1/ / /
dB (loss) = 20Lo ( + ) 4
Á
4000/
g 2-/500 X 25 / / /'
1/ V / 17 L./
J ¡~.,v )7 ,,.V
== 7.41 dB
/ V ~V t>
V
J
1/ / /
2
I V [7 V...-
liad thc cable section been located near the mid dle of the /
vv /
/I V V
Line instead of at one end, there would have been a loss of
7.4 dB at each of the two junction points.
1
J / /
.9 -1
along a power line to supply loads at lower voltages. A Figure 15 -13: Reflection Losses Resulting from Shunt Capacitive
series of tests by Specht and Cheek showcd that , in rnost Oiscontinuities in Transmission Circuit With 800 Ohms
Characteristic lmpedance.
cases, the impedance of a power transformer is gencrally
capacitive in the carrier band, with values in the range of circuits. part icularly those circuits operat ing al the higher
500 to 2500 pF and with an average Q of 18.7. A trans- carrier frequcncics. lligh voltage autotransformcrs may ex-
former bank tapped onto a power line thus presents an irn- hibit resonancc at frequencies within the carrier spectrurn,
pcdance discontinuity at carrier frequencies, which causes particularly al the lower end, In other words, autotrans-
rcflcction losses, formers may present shunt induct ive or capacitive reactance
at low carrier frequencies.
Figure 15-13 shows the reílection losses introduced by vari-
ous shunt capacitanccs into a transmissio n circuit with 800- Between high and low voltage circuits of power transform-
ohm characteristic impedance. A characteristic impedance ers, the attenuation lo carrier frequencies is generally very
of 800 ohms represents the highest character istic impedance high. At specific frequencies, however , it may be insuffi-
usually encountered 011 transmission lines. The curves can cient to permit a power transformer to be used as a block-
be used for any application by altering the capacitance in ing device over the en tire carrier band. Autotransformers,
ínverse proportion to the characteristic impedance of the in particular, are generally unsuited for broad-band block-
line. For ex ample, the loss ata given frequency from a ing.
2,000-µµF shunt capacitance in a circuit with a 400-ohm
characteristic impedance is the same as that shown for a In ali situations, the characteristics of power transformers
1,000-µµF shunt capacitance with an 800-ohm characteris- in a carrier transmission circuit must be considered very
tic impedance. carefully , especially when higher frequencies are used. 1 n
extreme cases, particularly where more than a single bank
The shunt capacitances of sorne power transformers rnay of transformers is present at a given location, it may be ad-
present serious discontinuities in otherwise clean carrier visable to install a line trap to isolate the low resultan!
15-15
shunt reactance from the carrier path. For such an applica- fed into only one phase conductor of a three-phase hori-
tion, a low-Q trap setting is recommended. This setting zontal line, however, the l-percent signa! can be obtained
will guard against the series resonance to ground that may from any of the phase conductors at a distance of about
occur between the inductive reactance component of a res- 250 mi. Thus, it is apparent that. even though only one
onant line trap, jusi below its tuned frequency, and the conductor is energized, the two other phase wires play an
transformer capacit ive reactance it is intended to isolate. importan! part in the propagation of the carrier energy. ln-
Toe resistive componen! of the low-Q trap will prevent se- deed, modal theory is based on the premise that there are
rious loss of carrier energy at the series-resonant frequency as many independent "rnodes" of propagation on a rnulti-
of the transformer-trap combination. conductor line as there are conductors involved in the prop-
agation oí energy.
A similar situation exists when a transmission line is terrni-
There are ñve characteristics of natural modes:
nated in a transformer bank without a line-side circuit
breaker. llere, again, series resonance may occur between a. Any set of phase-conductor currents or voltages existing
the line trap and the transformer capacitance, jusi a few at any point on a lossy, reflection-free three-phase Iine
kHz below the channel frequency. The low-Q connection can be resolved into three sets of natural-rnode cornpo-
of the line trap is again recommended, for the sarne reason nents,
as given above.
b. At any point on a Iine, the mode components rnust add
11.K. Modal AnaJysis up to the actual phase quantities. Also, the total power
derived from phase currents and voltages rnust be equal
For many years, the application of power-Iine carrier was to the sum of mode powers.
empirical. Lines were relatively short, and attenuation was
usually well within the dB rating of the transrnitter and re- c. The ratio of mode voltage to mode current (the .. mode
ceiver. Line attenuation was measured after the equipment characterisric impedance") is constant on each phase
was installed, if at ali. Occasionally , inexplicable anornalies conductor.
were noted. Often, utilities discovered that a carrier chan-
nel was coupled to two different phases at opposite ends of d. Each mode propagates with a specific attenuation per
the line, and that this combination gave the best received unit length and a specific velocity of propagation.
signa! level. Jt was aJso noted that the rate of attenuation
(dB/mi) on a short line was apparently higher than on a e. A set of phase components corresponding to one mode
long line. At the time, these observations were simply ac- only cannot be resolved into other modes. The modes
cepted and used. are independent. and there is no inter-mode coupling on
a uniform line,
With the introduction of long EHV lines, however, it be-
came necessary to predict carrier performance accurately, There are three modes of propagation. Mode 3 is a high-
even before the line was built , ModaJ analysis provides such attenuation mode which is propagated on ali three phases
an approach. lt is a mathematical too! similar to the sym- with ground return. Because of its high attenuat íon, rnode
metrical components technique used for analyzing unbal- 3 can be neglected beyond about 1 O miles from the trans-
anced faults on three-phase power systerns at 50 or 60 Hz. mitter.
Like its power counterpart, modal analysis is a practica!
system whose cornponents or "rnodes" can be electrically Mode 2 is a medium-attenuation mode that is propagated
generated and measured separately. on one outside phase and returns on the other outside
phase. There is no mode 2 current in the center phase.
lf a given carrier-frequency power were applied to a single- Mode 2 losses are higher znd more frequency-dependenl
conductor line, the power leve) would decrease exponen- than mode I Iosses.
tially with distance. Al a distance of about I O miles, ap-
proximately 1 percent of the input power would be pres- Mode 1 is the least attenuated of the three modes, and
ent. Such a system would obviously be irnpractical for a makes carrier channels possible on long EH V lines. The en-
power-line carrier channel. Jf the same input power were ergy is propagated on the two outer phases and returns on
f 5-Jó
-
-1.') Modal calcula t io ns and Iicld tests 011 a 40-mile.
-- -
Phue Mode 3 Mode 2 Mode 1
'iOO-k V line , providcd wrth rcflection-free terminat ion as in
ligurc 15-l ú. gavc thc p u nd q values and mode impedance t 1 1
a
vulue s lixtcd in I ablc 15-X. Q p
b ~
Vulucs of uttcnunr ion coef'Iicients anti rclutivc phasc vcloc- e ~ ~ ~
ir y l'o r tlw t hrce mudes are shown in Table 15-X l. Daru
Figure 15 15, Mode Oi5tribution for Modnl Analysis.
shown are Ior lines Iro m 345 lo 765 k V.
9 9
o o
Z1.1
o e
o o
o ~ b ~ e
Table 15-X
l!
-
-:
Rcsults of Modal Aualysis
figuro 16· 16 Goneral Aeflcctton Free Term,nat,on for Three-Phase
Molle 3 Mode 2 Mode t Transmission Lme
Phnse la(]J or Va(3) la(2) or V a(2) 1a(l)orVa(I)
11.K.2. Simplified Graphic Represeu ta tion of Modes
a 1.0 1.0 1.0
h 1.206141 o -1.66 (p) Modal analysis is ¡1 mat hcm arical procedure in w h ich 111:11rix
e 1.0 -1.0 1.0 ulgebra is uscd ro determine modal qu.mt u rcs. Culculut ions
Modc I m- are very complex and are. usually mude w it h t he a1d of :i
h. Effect of frequency will not be considered. by definition. In any case, the relat ively high mode-2 line
attenuation makes this type of coupling undesirable.
c. lnstantaneous currents (phase or modal quantities) in
the three phases are either in phase or 180° out of phase.
Phue Type of Mode 3 Mode 2 Mode 1
-~
Coupling
Under these assumptions, tbe basic modes are as shown in
-l
Figure 15-17. Mode 3 consists of equal currents, with ali a -!3 No -3
three phases in phase, and ground return. Mode 2 Ilows out b ~ _1
3 Mode 3
vía phase a and returns vía phase c. Mode I has equal cur- e -!3 Two --i
rents flowing out vía phases a and e, and has two units of
•I Cent.,. Phase-t<>Ground Coupltng
curren! returning via phase b. The x, y, and z notations are
arbitrary.
_1 l _1
a
3 z 6
-~
lb=X -22
Ic=X-Y +Z o --1...- -!!3 Na !
1
The Above 3 Equ11,ons ,n 3 Un~nows e1n be Solved lo, The V1lueJ of X Y b Mode -21
3
-ª
end Z ,n Term1 ol The Aciuel Phese Currents G,v,ng The Fonow,ng Resu11s
e --1...- 3 Two -!
di Outer to Ouler Push Push Coupl,ng@ (Ground Re1urnJ
Thut 3 Equ111ons can be Used 10 Oeterm,ne The Mocle Ou1n1111es X Y
1nd Z 11 The Transm,n,ng L,ne Term,n1I lor 1ny Type of Coupl,ng u C!)COllductors are Oroven Out of Phue
Shown ,n Figure 1 !> 18
®conductors ore Or,ven ,n Phue
Table l s-xn
lf only mode I were present at the input, for exarnple, all
three modes would be present at the output. Most of the
Mode l Coupling Efficiencies
output energy will be rnodes I and 2. As shown in Figure
Calculated Measured 1 5-19, the mode I quantity at the output will be 6 d B be-
Mode-1 Coupling Efficiencies low its input valué. lf all the mode 2 energy is attenuated
Coupled Phases* Efficiency (dB) (dB) before reaching the remote receiver or the next transposí-
tion, then 6 dB is tite loss introduced by the transposition.
Center-to-outer -1.1 -1.6 The 6-dB figure is a worst-case condition and is seldom en-
Center-to-ground -1.6 -2.5 cou ntered in practice. Modes other t han mode I are usu-
Outer-to-ou ter ally present at the transposition, and the generared mode 2
(push-push) -2.66 is not cornpletely attenuated by the time the signa! reaches
Outer-to-ground -5.8 -7.3 the remote receiver. Multiple transposition (2 to 4) on a
transmission Jine will usually cause only 2 d B or so added
*Unuscd pilases grounded.
loss per transposit ion , ora total of 8 dB. See Table
15-V(b).
Il.K.4. Rankings of Carrier Couplings
11.L.I. RF Hybrid Loss z8, ZT, and ZL are the impedances of the station bus, the
line trap, and the transmission line, respectively.
The conventional RF hybrid inherently dissipates one-half',
or 3 dB, of thc power of any carrier transmitter connected
to it. There is also a small transformer loss, plus a mismatch
loss if the hybrid is not matched exactly to the coaxial
cable input impedance. In essence, then, the overall RF hy-
brid insertion loss can be taken as 3.5 d B. The same figure -zL
applies lo a receivcd signa] passing through the hybrid in
the opposite direction.
Notes:
Za= Bus lmpedancc lnclud,ng
11.L.2. Coupling Loss Adjacenl l,nes
Zr Line Trap lmpedance
ZL = Line Surge lrnpedance
ª~-'- - .
ing figures are typical for ovcrhead fines with a surge im-
pedance of 500 ohms or more. For bundled-conductor
lines, the coupling loss may be as muchas I dB more."
Ze
Load Poth
Typical Tronsm,ller
Tuner l nscrtion Loss ( d B)
The above values will vary according to the capacitance of lf bus impedance is unknown, assurne 500 ohms for each
the coupling capacitor, t he surge irnpedance of the line, the additional fine connected to the bus. An impedancc valuc
impedance match, the length or coaxial cable, the distan ce of 1 ,000 ohms below l 00 kllz and 500 ohms above 100
between tuner and coupling capacitor, and the support of kl lz is suggested for the bus. The bus and other fine impcd-
the carrier lead-ín cable between the tuner and coupling anees are effectively in parallel,
capacitar. To cover ali contingencies, a total coupling loss
figure of 3 dB is recommended as a general rule for Typical values for shunt loss are listed in Table 15-Xlll.
channel-loss calculations. Values are relatively independent of the number of externa)
lines on the bus. To cover ali contingencies, a shunt loss
figure of 3 dB is recommended as a general rule for channel-
11.L.3. Shunt Loss
loss calculations.
Shunt Ioss is the carrier loss through the linc trap imped- Table 15-XIII
ance and any shunt path to ground , as shown in Figure
15-20. Loss depends on the surge impedance of the line, Typical Shunt Losses
the trap irnpedance, and the impedance of the local station Trap lmpedance
bus. Lme Trap ZT in ohms Shunt Loss in dB
Shunt loss can be determined from the following equation: Single frequency over 1500 I*
Double frequency over 1500 ¡•
( 1 5-7) Wide Band 600-800 2
Wide Band 400 3
*Sec also the line tuner and 1-li-Coupler characteristic curves shown * Add 0.5 dB if a low-Q trap is used and the trap impedance is less
in Figures 15-4 and 15-5. than 1000 ohms.
U.M. Example of Power-line Carrier Application Channel Loss Calculations starting at Station G
For the typical application shown in Figure 15-21, carrier Hybrid Losses: hybrid losses are 2 x 3.5 dB:: 7 dB.
channel attenuation and signal-to-noise ratio can be calcu-
lated as Iollows: Coupling Loss: allow 3 dB, per Sec. 11.L.2.
Conditions
Shunt Loss: allow 3 d 8, per Sec. 11. L.3.
Line: 100-mi, 345-kV line with one transposition at center,
Shield wire - ACSR cable.
Coupling Correction: +l dB, per Table 15-VI
Carrier Frequencies: grouped near 100 kHz.
Attenuation of Line: from Figure 15-7, for 345 kV, 100
Line Relay ing: application requires wide-band I W / 1 OW k Hz , attenuation is 0.07 dB/rni. That is, line attenua-
type TCF frequency-shift carrier, with 2-kHz spacing. tion :: 0.07 x J 00 mi= 7 dB. Add a 25 percent corree·
tion factor for foul weather (Table 15-V(a).
Breaker Failure Relaying: uses narrow-band I W / I OW
type TCF, with I-k l !z spacing. Foul-Weather Attenuation: foul-weather attenuation =
1.25 x 7 = 8.75 dB. Round off to 9 dB.
R-F Hybrids: used as shown in Figure 15-21 for isolation
between transmitters as well as between transmitters and Transposition Loss: from modal analysis, transposition
receivers, Frequencies used satisfy 6 percent maximum loss = 6 dB rnaxírnum , per Table 15-V(b).
bandwidth for hybrids.
System Loss: system losses from station G to far end of
Line Coupling: center-phase-to-ground, single-frequency line (point B I in Figure 15-21) are:
tuner.
hybrid losses = 7 dB
Line Trap: single-Irequency , low-Q connection, tuned to coupling loss = 3 dB
102 .5 kl tz to cover 100-to- l 05-kHz signals. shunt loss = 3 dB
Stetlon G Stelion H
Line Trap
100 Mile 345 KV Line
One TranspoS1hon al Cenler
}--
Frequency Frequency
in kH3 in kH3
Figure 15-21: Typicel Cerrler Chennel for STU Unbfock Aeleylng Wlth Wide Bend TCF. Plua Nerrow Bend TCF for Bre•k•r Fellure Tranafer Trlp.
15-21
Stetion G
Since the terminal equipment at station H will attenuate the
signa! and noise by the same amount, the sígnal-to-noise +30dBm
Since the wide-band TCF receiver has a 55-dB channel at- diate amplifier stages, a power amplifier, andan output fil·
tenuation rating, there is arnple margin for a 10-dB signa! ter to keep harrnonics suitably low. Voltage reguJators keep
deterioration during adverse weather. For irnproved de- the transmitter output and receiver sensitivity constant over
pendability, the transmitter power is increased to 1 O W dur- expected ranges of station-battery voltage variation. Super-
ing an unblock or transfer-trip operation, giving a J 0-dB in- heterodyne receivers are associated with both the 1-W (KR)
crease in S/N ratio. and l 0-W (TC) transmitters. These receivers have fixed fil.
ters that provide a constan! bandwidth over the carrier
band , Typical selectivity curves for both the K R and TC
111. CARRIER TRANSMITTERS ANO RECEIVERS receivers are shown in Figure 15-23. Receiver bandwidths
and attenuation ratings are given in Table 15-XV.
In protective relaying, carrier transmitters and receívers are
used for on-off operation or for frequency-shift (FSK) op- Table IS-XV
eration (Table 15-XlV).
Receiver Bandwidths and Atlenuation Ratings
=
•NB narrow-band (220 Hz) and WB = wide-band (500 Hz) for
TCF rcceivers,
**l::M = electrorncchanical-type relays aod SS= solid-state typc
relays.
Ill.B. Application for On-Off Carrier tions. An elementary modulator and amplitude-modulated
(AM) receiver can be added to the carrier set to provide a
111.B.1. One-Watt (Type KR) Carrier voice channel for maintenance comrnun.ication between the
terrninals of a line section. On both KR and TC carrier sets,
This carrier set is used for directional comparison blocking plug-in handsets with a "push-to-talk" button are used with
using electromechan.ical relays (K-DAR), low speed tele- these voice adapters. The remote station is called by start-
metering, and supervisory control at pulse rates up to IS ing carrier transmission to ring the alarm bell at that station
pps. The KR carrier set can generally be used on lines of (manual code-bell calling). Plugging in the handset or re-
220 kV or below and up to 100 mi in length. moving it from a key cradle cuts off the alarrn bell.
Hl.B.2. Ten-Watt (Type TC) Carrier A single keyed function can also be added, such as tele-
rnetering a single quantity or supervisory control between
The standard TC set is suitable for both electromechanical the two terminals of a line section. By ternporarily ínter-
and solid-state directional or phase cornparison carrier re- rupting the keyed function, maintenance voice commun.ica-
laying systems. For phase comparison relaying, the tran- tion can be used. In the event of a fault, however, the pro·
sient response of the receiver input filter requires that a tective relays will take precedence over any other function.
mínimum carrier frequency of SO kHz be used for on-off
keying. With the development of narrow-band frequency-shift car-
rier, functions such as telemetering and supervisory control
Toe narrow-band TC set is used for electro-mechanical di· have been separated from the relaying carrier. Frequency-
rectional comparison relaying on lines of relatively high at- shif't channels in the same direction can be spaced as close
tenuation or noise Level. The narrower receiver bandwidth as 0.5 kHz and are generally preferable for carrying the sin·
gives a L 0-dB reduction in noise response, thus allowing a gle keyed function.
10-dB higher attenuation rating with a l 0-W transmitter.
III.C. Frequency-shift Carrier (Type TCF)
The on-off carrier for protective relaying is usually operated
at a single frequency, since only one station is normally One of the most critical applications for power-line carrier
transrnitting at a time. Single-frequency operation allows is protecting transformers with no high voltage (line-side)
the use of single-frequency line traps and line tuners. For breaker. In such cases, the tripping signa! for a transformer
an externa! fault on a three-terminal line, however, power fault is transmitted over the power line to the remote
may flow in one terminal and out the other two. Under breaker. The receiver output relay (oran equivalent solid-
these conditions, a carrier signal will be transmitted from state device) directly trips the breaker; there is no supervis-
both line terrn.inals. If the line attenuation to the third ter· ing protective relay in series with the receiver output. For
minal is the same from both transmitters, equal-strength sig- this reason, no spurious output from the receiver can be
nals will be received, probably a few cycles apart. Cancella- tolerated.
tion will occur as the two sígnals swing out of phase, and
the carrier relay will allow incorrect tripping. To prevent A frequency-shift (FSK) carrier is used where such security
this condition, the transmitter frequencies at the three line against incorrect operation is required. In this mode of op-
terminals are spaced 100 Hz apart. This arrangement ensures eration, a carrier signa! is transmitted continuously at a
that any beat frequency during an external fault will be fast guard or space frequency l 00 Hz. above the nominal (30-to·
enough to prevent tripping. The receiver bandwidth (KR or 300-kHz range) channel frequency (Figure 15-24a). The re·
TC) is adequate to accommodate thís spread of received fre- ceiver at the remote terminal, like an FM receiver, has lirn-
quencies. iter stages and a discriminator (Figure 1 5-24b). Reception
of the guard frequency satura tes the receiver, making it in·
111.B.3. Other Uses oí On-Off Carrier Channel sensitive to most noise voltages on the power line. The
arnplitude-limited guard signa! is then applied to a discrimí-
Since a carrier signa! is transmitted only during a Iault, the nator, which produces a non-operating (logic "zero ") de
relaying carrier channel is usually available for other func- output of one polarity.
15-24
2 MHz
Crystol
Osc,llolor
Millet R: AMP
Driver
~r
AMP
Oulput
Filler 1---- 1,-------• To Coo,iol
,. ~
1 ~
{ .r+ Telemetryor
i:._ 5'.opervisory Control
1
1
n__._
Ac Volloge
20 kHz ----...;;::J to, Telemetry
Cryslol F1l1e< limite, D,sc11m,no1or ~-~-Bolloge
AMP
Filler
AMP ...__ -~
...., 1 ~ Alorm
~-a
1
Notea:
1
G) Om,tted ,n W,de Band IW B I Recerver --Trip
to prevent interaction between transmitters, as explained relaying down to 30 kHz. The carrier transmitter for this
later in this chapter. With frequency-shift operation, a car- type of relaying is operated at a l O-Watt leve! continuously.
rier channel in both directions between two stations re-
quires a duplex (two-frequency) channel: each receiver Ill.D. Three-frequency Operation
must continuously receive the signal from the remote trans-
mitter only. When the protection requires duplex frequency-shift chan-
nels, a considerable saving in channel spectrum can be ef-
For transf'er-trip applications, the receiver discriminator fre- fected by using a double-shift transmitter and two separa te
quency characteristic is shifted a small amount (25 Hz) in receivers. For example, directional comparison unblock
the trip direction, as shown in Figure 15-25. This shift puts relaying ( wide-bank FSK receiver) can be used for line pro-
a larger segment of the crystal filter pass-band on the guard tection, and a transfer-trip channel (narrow-band FSK re-
side of the discriminator, and a smaller amount on the trip ceiver) can be used for breaker failure or transformer bank
side. In addition, the discriminator is 3 or 4 dB less sensi- protection.
tive at the trip frequency than it is at the guard frequency.
The net effect is to reduce the likelihood of a high noise The transmitter (Figure l 5-26a) normally opera tes at 100 Hz
leve! on the power line producing a spurious trip output above the nominal channel frequency, with a l-Watt output.
from the discriminator. The fe + 100 Hz frequency serves as the block frequency for
the unblock system and the guard frequency for the transfer-
Logic circuitry is placed after the discriminator to further trip system. Each receiver uses the signa! as required for its
increase the security of a narrow-band FSK receiver against own relaying function.
undesired tripping. The logic requires the following condi-
tions to be met before tripping is allowed: As shown in Figure l 5-26a, operation of an unblock system
protective relay supplies #1 input to the AND logic. Ab-
a. A guard signa! must be received immediately before the sence of transfer-trip #2 input allows the AND circuit to de-
trip signal. liver an output that shifts oscillator fil down in frequency
by 200 Hz and boosts the transmitter output to I O Watts.
b. There must be no sustained high leve! noise on the As oscillator # 1 shifts down in freq uency, it moves farther
channel. aways from the frequency of oscillator #2. Since the trans-
mitter output is the difference frequency between oscilla-
c. Toe received signa! must shift from guard to trip with no tors fil and #2, the output frequency is actually increased
intentional delay. by 200 Hz (from an initial value of fe+ 100 Hz to fe+
300 Hz). This fe+ 300 Hz is tne un block frequency
d. The trip signa! must be received long enough (on the or- (Figure l 5-26b).
der of 2 to 20 ms) to time out an adjustable time delay.
If the local breaker does not trip, the breaker failure relay
With different receiver logic, a frequency-shift carrier is also ealls for a transfer-trip operation. Sueh an operation shifts
used for severa! types of line relaying, such as the unblock the frequeney of oseillator fl2 down 200 Hz, bringing it
and phase comparison carrier relaying systems described in closer to the frequency of oscillator fil and reducing the
Chapter 16. To irnprove the channel speed while retaining transmitter output frequency to fe - 100 Hz. This fe -
the advantages of FSK operation, a wider bandwidth re- 100 Hz is the trip frequency shown in Figure 1 S-26b.
ceíver input filter ernploying tuned L-C circuits, rather than
crystals, is used for these applications. This wide-band FSK Negation of the transfer-trip input to the AND block (Fig-
receiver has a bandwidth of ±250 Hz at the-3-dB points ure 15-26a) permits the transfer-trip funetion to take pre-
and responds fast enough to be suitable for phase compari- cedence over unbloeking in controlling the TCF transmitter
son carrier relaying, ln these systerns, tripping is always frequency. Circuit interlocks between the two reeeivers pre-
supervised by line-frequency (50 or 60 Hz) protective re- vent a loss-of-signal alarm from occurring when the incom-
lays. Thus, in spite of the greater receiver bandwidth, noise ing carrier signa! is shifted in frequency for an operation of
is very unlikely to cause incorrect tripping. Wide-band either receiver. Transmitter output is switched to 1 O W for
frequency-shift carrier can be used for phase comparison a frequency shift in either direction.
15-26
Unblock Reloy
#l lnpu1
01 MHz (fe) to
Tronsm,ller
Amplif,er
-750Ht
Oscillota<
Tronsfer-Trip
Reloy #2
#21nput 2.1 MHz
Note:
Guord ond Block - fe+ lOOHz
Un block - fe + 200 Hz Unblock Receowr
TransferTrip - te -100 Hz fc+lOO O,sc,,m,notor
The minimum frequency spacing and receiver sensitivity rat- Such problems can be avoided by using RF hybrids to iso-
ings for type TCF frequency-shift carrier are given in Tables late transmitters from each other and transmitter outputs
IS-XVI and IS-XVII, respectively , from receiver inputs. An RF hybrid , in its sirnplest form,
consists of an accurately mid-tapped transformer T and a
m.s. Use of RF Hybrids balance resistor R (Figure l S-27a). It is designed so a signa!
applied to either input terminal (IN-1 or IN-2) will, in the-
With a blocking on-off carrier (type K R or TC), there is usu- ory, produce no signa! voltage at the opposite input termi-
ally only a single transmitter-receiver ata line terminal. nal. In practice, the sígnal attenuation between one trans-
With frequency-shift carrier, however , there are usually two mitter and the opposite input is about 30 dB. This attentua-
or more transmitters and receivers connected through a sin- tion figure is known as the "return loss" of the hybrid.
gle tuner and coupling capacitor. Ali transmitters and re-
ceivers cannot be connected directly to the same coaxial ca- The 30-ohm balance resistor R causes a 3-dB loss between
ble for two major reasons: each input and the output. There is also a transformer loss
of 0.5 dB, maximum. This total 3.5-dB loss is the "inser-
a. The transmitter outputs would overload the receiver in- tion loss" of the hybrid. Approximately the same loss ap-
put circuits and irnpair their ability to receive the remote plies to incorning signals. Thus, two transmitters can be
signal. connected to a hybrid with negligible interaction between
them. Alternatively, a transmitter and a receiver can be
b. Parallel operation of two or more transmitters with connected to the two hybrid inputs, with negligible signal
closely spaced frequencies would give rise to intermodu- from the transmitter appearing at the receiver input. For
lation distortion. Each transmitter, in other words, reasons explained this hybrid arrangement, or its equivalent,
would irnpose non-linear loading on the others in paral- is always necessary where a transmitter and one or more
lel with in. For example, if 99-kHz and 100-kHz trans- FSK receivers are coupled to the same carrier channel.
mitters are connected in parallel, there will be spurious
frequencies at 1-kHz intervals above and below the trans- For carrier applícations, the output load on a hybrid is not
mitter frequencies. The amplitude of these intermodula- apure resistance. Rather, it is a combination of coaxial ca-
tion products will decrease rapidly at frequencies farther ble, line tuner, coupling capacitor, and the surge irnpedance
away from 99 and 100 kHz. Even so, the intermodula- ( z0) of the transmission line. To obtain a satisfactory bal-
tion products may interfere with other channels. ance overa reasonably wide frequency range, the hybrid cír-
l5-27
R mC;:n~
IN-1 o------,
Equípment Mode Direction (kHz)
[N-1 ~T F,~ed.
To
Narrow-band receiver FSK One way ~ o.s 30 :60:RL [
Coouct
Cob'e
( crystal fil ter) ±100-Hz L -'
shift
IN-2 [N·2o----~
150
Each transmitter has a series L-C unit in its output filter,
fr7L.';.5_ so there is negligible interaction between the two trans-
kHz
(TC) ~._:;2,
"-.j ~Po-1 º'
Transm,ner mitters. The 150-kHz signa) is, however , attenuated only
e) Four Transm,tters [Favonnq l 1 f)F·S Duplex Channel plus TC On-Ofl 3.5 dB by the X hybrid on its way to the FSK receiver in-
and T2) Carrier
put, which is not enough to prevent conduction of the re-
Figure 15-28: Typical Application of R·F Hybrids.
ceiver input zener-diode clippers. To eliminate such con-
duction, an L-C circuit and load resistor are cormected, as
Single bi-directional channel (b): This arrangement uses shown, ahead of the FSK receiver input. This resonant cir-
either an X-type hybrid balanced for Tl frequency, with cuit, tuned to the desired 101-kHz signal, adequately re-
no restriction on T 1 and R 1 frequency spacing, ora jects the local 150-kHz signal. lf the interfering signal is
"skewed" hybrid for closely spaced frequencies. With a not 150 kHz, but 1 1 O kHz for exarnple, a single L-C circuit
skewed hybrid, two transformers are used to obtain the may not be adequate. Rather, a more elaborate type-RPS
balancing action. The resulting insertion loss in the receiver preselector fil ter must be used, since the 110-kHz
transmitter path is Jess than 1 .O dB which helps overcorne signal is still outside the 6-percent bandwidth hybrid limit.
line noise (compared to 3.5 dB in a conventional hybrid).
This reduced transmitter insertion loss is accompanied by
as much as a 1 2-dB loss in the path of the received signal. ill.F. Parallel Operation of Transmitters without RF
Since the signa) and noise are attenuated together, how- Hybrids
ever, the signal-to-noise ratio is not reduced. On high-loss
channels, the 12-dB loss may be a sígnificant factor in When the frequency spacing is beyond the 4- or 6-percent
overall path attenuation. limit of RF hybrids, 10-W transmitters (TC or TCF) can be
operated in parallel without RF hybrids, and their output
Dual bi-directional channel (e): The TI and T2 transmitter fed into a single coaxial cable (and wide-band tuner). This
outputs are fed into an R-type hybrid which, in turn, arrangement requires a certain mínimum frequency spacing,
feeds the X-type hybrid. Receivers Rl and R2 are con- where the selectivity of the transmitter output filters will
nected in parallel to the second input of the X-type hy- prevent the transmitters from loading into each other or gen-
brid. The 4- and 6-percent limits apply to the two trans- erating intermodulation products. This mínimum frequency
mitters, but not to their spacing from the two receivers. spacing is shown in Figure 15-29.
15-29
cannot use a crystal filter with a 220-Hz bandwidth Pushbutton Colling Tooe A·MVooce 1
Receiver 1
(±110 Hz ar- 3dB); íts time response is too long to follow Hondset
MicrOl)hone
Speech Arnphf,er WithA.V.C 1
Wíth A.L.C.*
the carrier on-off supervisory-control pulses. 1
voee S,gnol I
1
Hondse1 í2nd v;c;¡,
111.H. Voice Channel over Frequency-shift Carrier Receover 1-4....--1-1Recelver
1 for i1
1 3 Terminal : 1
(Type TCF) I Llne ,1
L-----JI
.l. Colhng 1
To AlormBell J; Alarm
A voice channel is also available for frequency-shift carrier 1'0etector 1
1
equipment. However, a guard or blocking signal is trans-
1
mitted continuously with frequency-shift carrier. Stopping L J TCF Vooce Adopte~
1
carrier transrnission, even momentarily, to signal the remote ( i.. )- Automatic Level Control
terminal would disrupt the proper functioning of the chan- Figure 15-30: Block Oiagram ol The TCF Voice System.
15-30
At its guard or block frequency, the TCF transmitter oper- c. Where the pilot-wire resistance and capacitance exceed
ates ata 1-Watt output level. When the telephone handset the limits for ac pilot-wire relaying.
is lifted from the hookswitch (not shown), the transmitter
output power increases to 3.25 Watts. The remete station is d. Where metallic pairs cannot be leased for ac pilot-wire
called by manually transmitting the 370-Hz tone. When relaying.
volee modulation is applied, the carrier lcvel can vary from
JO Watts to I Watt. e. In a reas where the power-line carrier spectrum is crowded.
The instantaneous leve! can never drop below 1 Watt. In Three types of conventional FSK audio tone equipment are
this way, an adequate guard signa! is maintained. If a pro· used for protective relaying. Types TA3 and D!T-1 are used
tective relay operates during volee communication, the voice for transfcr-trip systems and type TA2.2 for dual phase-
modulation circuit is immediately blocked, the carrier fre- cornparison relaying.
quency shifts to trip (or equivale nt), and the power output is
boosted to 1 O W. Thus, the integrity of the protective rclay- IV .A. Type T A3 Tones for Transfer-Trip Application
ing channel is not affected by adding voice communication.
Type T A3 tones opera te in the ra nge of 1 200 to 3000 l lz
The duplex TCF voice communication system described and have a bandwidth of 170 Hz or 340 Hz (Table 15-XVlll).
above can be used with director permissive transf'er-trip re· They can be used with either electromechanical or solid-state
laying, and unblocking or phase comparison relaying. The transf'er-trip relaying. A direct transfer-trip systcm-one
systcrn uses a 1 W · 1 O W type-T'Cf" transmitter with provi- which has no supervising protective relay should use the
sion for amplitude modulation. System characteristics are: 170-Hz bandwidth tone. A permissive relaying system pro·
tecting a line with high speed breakers should use the
Channel attenuation rating 40 dB 340-Hz bandwidth tone, which opera tes 4 ms faster. Since
the TA3 tone equipment is used for dírect transf'er-trip, it
Voice receiver dynamic range 25 dB, minimum must be secure against false operation on noise. Security is
provided by:
Minimum frequency spacing for
duplex channel • 4Hlz a. The inherent noise-rejection characteristlc of a frequency-
shift receiver.
The TCF voice adapter components, shown inside the
dotted box in Figure 15-30, are mounted on a 19-inch rack b. A broad-band filter (300 to 1000 Hz) and AM receiver
chassis. to sample the random noise leve! of the pilot channel and
prevent it from causing false tripping.
IV. AUDIO TONE CHANNELS c. A second noise circuit that samples the entirc frequency
spectrurn of the channel and operates for an ovcrall
Audio tones transmitted over wire-Line or microwave corn- energy increase on the channel. This monitoring feature
munication circuits provide a second type of channel for protects against false trip caused by impulse noise outside
protective relaying systems. Audio tone channels are used the 300-to- l 000-Hz noise-Iilter freq uency.
to transmit relay "intelligence" from one line terminal to
another in the following cases: A block diagram of the TA3 tone equipment for the 170-Hz
a. On relatively short lines, where they may have an eco- bandwidth is shown in Figure 15-31. The transmitter con·
norníc advantage over power-line carrier. tains an isolated keying circuit, a frequency-shift oscíllator,
anda buffer amplifíer. The amplifier can be provided with
b. In metropolitan areas using underground transmission ca- either an output fílter ora transformer to couple the FSK
bles that present excessive carrier-frequency attenuation. transmitter to the externa! cornmunícation circuit.
nJ rra,,sm,11er Block O,agram ( 170 Hz Sh•fl) A. Standard channels ( 170-Hz bandwidth and 340-Hz
spacing)
Rece,ve, L1miler and LowS,gnol
Channel
Signo Superv,so,y Module Block Ou I pu,
1275 1190 1360
- Low • S,gnal 1615 1530 1700
Trop Block
1955 1830 2040
Telephone F • S O,scri m, noror ond Tr,p Outpul 2295 2210 2380
Line D·C Ampl1f1er Module
(Tone In) 2635 2550 2720
Tr,p Block 2975 2890 3060
340-Hz
---Level
Lne} _L: _ Nmse Block
B. Channel Time 170-Hz Bandwidth
With With
Bandwidth
With
Superv,so,y Oulpul Transformer Filler Filter
~-~ No,se Module (ms) (ms) (ms)
-¡;
2
.e:"'
u OI
"'
'.í .5 "' :s
o N•g= .,
o
---.,o u.~-o e
's
>., 8=
s"'§
-~ "2o =
"'
o
"'e e:
~ ..."' \OMN
<-e o"' ., *ce + + -+
...o ...
e :s ~ 323~
"'
-¡;
!! .2
...o
~ s:::: N-M
1 1 1
2 e"'., .,
».2
o-
=-~
u
"'
.e: -~o -~
:3:
~~
o->,-...r-'<tO
000
000
co > o
O.> NNNM
.5>, :3: U: C,666
000
¡..... MOM
"'
-¡;
=: .,
>
.:::()
~
o
c..
.. N
o~
o"'
V e-,
"':3:
.,
.s-o M ..C:
u e:
o
-o
5.,
·¡; o
-o o.
=
~"'.,
"'
()
's
>..
....o
N
::r::
V)
+I
"'=o >, e
.,
-o
.::: "':3:
.,e: -E"'., u:
"'
()
... .,o.
·c3 e
;.;:
ºü o o
"'
...
"'
.e:
t E
o .,"'
"'
z
ti)
....¡
.,
"' oe:
zst
()
e.,
... -...~"'
~
"'
o ... ., "'·-
......
..J -~ .,......., ·- o
Ez
~~
B>"'
0-
~·2
·= -o
>,,.-,.
ON,-,. "' ::>
.e: .,
u2 C '-'
., ., ::r:: N
u
., "'~
Cj)
"' o.,
-
·.:: o.
:s "'
O' e: ,;t .~
., o o o.,
·-e UJ
>< ,_
~~ e.e>
"'- z~ .-..,....
+1
._,._,
¡:¡j
*
,..,-..,J
(2) Direct current continuity (rnetallic circuits) is not pro- Hogh L,ne level Tnp Block
vided on any of these channels. +4.5 dB - ------
+ 3 dB ffl; Backlash Block Retease }
o Nominal S,gnal Level ~;;.~~~
(3) (Zero 08 Relerencel Range
Noise at receiver 10.Sea
Facility Length not to exceed 3 dB
6dB
~
~
Blacklash Block Retease
==============~
(mi) (dBrnc)** low S,gnal-level Tr,p Block
M,n,mum SIN Rat,o 9 dB
for Secure Oper anon
O-SO 28
-15 dB
51-100 31
1
_ 1 dB 3 dB Marg,n
8 No,se T r,p Btock
101-400 34 No,se Sampled ,n Reg,on or
401-1000 38 300 10 l 000 Her1,. Btockong
,s lnde1erm,na1e due 10
Randorn Cha•acter ol No,se
-6 15
-2 9 A signal-to-noise ration of 9 dB is requircd for secure opera-
+2 5 tion. The filtered noise supervisory circuit is set for a posi-
tive trip-block at a n in-band (300-to-l 000-1 Iz) noise levcl
**dl)rnc = dB abovc a refcrence lcvcl of 10-12 W (onc pW), with 18 d B below the normal signal level. This setting provides a
Csmcssagc wcighting (shown below. 3-dB margin beyond the required 9-<lB S/N ratio.
-:
3-IO complete blocking and unblocking. This phenomenon will
..,
~-20
\ 1
cause irregular output for a trip signal with in-band noise
1/
o /
level of -18 to -28 dB.
..,~ -30
~ -40 / A high line-level block will occur when the combined signals
100 200 500 1000 2000 5000
Frequency (Hz) on the Line exceed by 4.5 dB their normal level (zero d B, or
C-Message Frequcncy Weighting an actual-20 dBm per channel). This blocking circuir, which
can aiso be actuated by the filtered noise channel, contains
Figure 15-32 indica tes the dynamic operating tange of the about 1.5 dB of hysteresis. Noise-frequency components on
tone receiver, as well as typical settings for the va rious units. the linc and outside the noise filler pass-band , when added
The normal signal level of zero dB can be assumed to be an to the cornbined signal level, wiU operate the noise trip
actual -20 dBm - per - channel level on the incoming tele- block.
phone line (or equivalent circuit).
IV.B. Type DIT-1 Tones for Transfer-Trip Applications
The signa! supervisory module is set to clamp the trip arnpli-
fier to a non-conducting state for a 6-dB drop in signal level. The DIT-1 Tones consist of two closely spaced, narrow-band,
The signa! level must then rise 3 dB to unblock the trip am- frequency-shift, voice-band tone sub-channels for transmis-
plifier. This difference is caused by hysteresis or "backlash" sion over telephone-line, rnicrowave, or single side-band
in the trigger-action block.ing circuit. power-line carrier circuits. This system has high dependa-
l.)·.>'*
bility with good security under ali conditions of channel dis- With a transmission impairment on one of the dual-channel
turbances. lmportant relaying application features are: circuits, that system is blocked and the channel by-passed
1. High protection against continuous and impulse noise, to take the failed channel out of service. The protection
frequency translation, interfering tones, and arnplitude now relies on the other dual-channel system. Complete se-
and phase h.it transients. This is obtained by the keying curity of dual-channel operation is maintained in the throw-
voltage shifting one transmitter up in frequency and the over condition and the dependability is increased overa sin·
other transmitter down through optical isolators. gle transmission path using a single duel-channel system.
2. Excellent frequency stability through crystal-controlled This "dual-dual-channel" application allows complete testing
oscillators. Each sub-channel has two high-frequency without taking the transfer-trip relaying out of service and
oscillators, one for guard and one for trip. Either oscil- without reducing the security below that of a normal dual-
lator can be switched to a digital frequency divider channel relaying system.
which drivcs a tracking active bandpass filter. A trip
command switches lhe oscillators and the tracking band- The DIT-1 system operating time is 12 ms for 340 Hz chan-
pass filters from guard to trip frequency. Thus the tone nel spacing and 8 ms for 680 Hz channel spacing. This is
lransmitter output is essentially a sine wave of constant with the transmitter and receiver chassis connectcd back-to-
amplitude and phase with crystal frequency stability. back for zero channel time.
Trip boost of 0-l 2 dB for O to 200 rns is provided.
The 340-Hz spaced channels are recommended for transfer-
3. No single component failure will cause an incorrect trip trip relay applications where security is more important than
output. The lransrnitter has separate circuils to generate speed. The 680-Hz spaced channels are preferred for permís-
the two sub-channel tones. The two sub-channel receiv- sive transfer-trip line relay applícations.
ers are independent including separa le logic circuits.
Each drives an output transistor through an optical isola- Recommended tone-channel Irequencies for DIT-1 tones are
tor. listed in Table 15-XX.
Table 15-XX lay is 2 ms. The actual frequencies used , the shift in Ire-
Recommended Tone-Channel Frequencíes quency, and the operating times are:
340 Hz Channel Spacing
for Type DIT-1 Tones Opernting
Bandwidth (Hz.) Frequencies (Hz) Shift (Hz) Time (ms)
Transmitter
Frequency Receiver Channel 600 1500, 2700 ±300 2.0-2.5
Group Channel & Mode Center Frequency 340 1500, 2180, 2860 ±170 3.5-4.0
1 A 860 Trip 935 Hz
1010 Guard The speed and accuracy of tone cquipment for phasc-
B l 200 Guard 1275 Hz cornparison relaying is obtained by keying and filtcring al
1350 Trip frequencics on thc ordcr of 13 to 16 k lz , and translating
í
2 A 1200 Trip the tones to the lowcr frcqucncics uscd in the communica-
1275 Hz
1350 Guard tions circuit (Figure 15-33). For the transrnittcr portian,
B 1540 Guard 1615 Hz shown at the bottom of the diagrarn, the 16.2-kl-lz. output
1690 Trip of a high-frequency oscillator is heterodyned with thc
3* A 1540 Trip 1615 Hz 13.5-kllz output of a lower frequcncy master oscíllator.
1690 Guard The resulting 2700-Hz bcat frcquency is filtcred and applied
B 1880 Guard 1955 Hz to the telephone line or other type of channel. Actual
2030 Trip
frequency-shift keying is done at 16.2 kl lz. Similarly , the
4* A 1880 Trip 1955 Hz 1500-Hz incorning tone is mixed with the J 3.5-kHz master
2030 Guard oscillator , and the J 5-k Hz sum freq uency is filtcred. This
B 2220 Cuard 2295 Hz
2370 Trip filtered frequency is then applied to the FSK receiver mod-
ule, which includes a limiter and discriminator. Tite receiver
5• A 2220 Trip 2295 Hz module also contains a low-signal squelch that permits a
2370 Guard
B 2560 Guard mark and space output only if the signal level will produce
2635 Hz
2710Trip a receiver output wíth very little distortion.
''"'}
271 O Guard Oulpul lo
level
B 2900 Guard 2975 Hz SKBU
3050 Trip Supv
No,se MOd.
7 A 2900 Trip 2975 Hz
3050 Cuard 300~1000Hz
B 3240 Guard 3315 Hz Poss Bond
Out pul lo DB Meter
3490 Trip S1gno1 ond Alorm Reloy
Delerioro1,on
Tone In Oerecio- Module
600 Hz 1500 Hl
Channel Spacing t300 Hz Low S,gnol Block
FreQuency Shlfl
8 A 785 Trip 935 Hz Rece,ve, Mork
1085 Guard ond low S,gnol Spoce
8 1465 Guard 1615 Hz Squetcn Module
1765 Trip
The signa! deterioration detector module, shown directly there is no tirning requirement at the transmitter. Also,
above the FSK receiver, drives a dB meter and alarrn relay there is no parallel-to-serial data conversion at the trans-
to indicate the signal level received from the remote trans- mitter or receiver. Decoding the data words is on a contin-
mitter. The assembly also includes a line-level and noise uous basis and requires only simple combinational logic.
module, shown at the top of Figure 15-33, which monitors
both the ambient noise in the 300-to-l 000-Hz band and the In terms of total reliability, parallel transmission of each bit
entire channel frequency spectrum. Since this unit is the through a narrow-band sub-channel is superior to serial (i.e.,
same as that used in the type TA3 tone receiver , Figure sequential) transmission through a wide-band channel. Both
J 5-32 also applies to the type TA2.2 receiver. systems are roughly equal on a tíme-bandwidth comparison.
White noise on the 3002 data channel (Table 15-XIX) will
IV.O. Required Channel Delay Characteristics have an improved S/N ratio. Since the sub-channels are
widely spaced across the frequency spectrurn , concentrated
In applying type TA2.2 tones for phase-cornparison relaying impulse noise ora single interfering tone can affect only one
over any channel Iacility, two channel characteristics must bit of the four-bít code word. With serial transmission, the
be considered: ( 1) the absolute delay of the channel and interfering energy may, beca use of its d uration, encompass
(2) the envelope delay distortion of the channel. Absolute, severa! bits of the same word. The probability of more than
or channel, delay is the propagation time of a signa] over the one bit being in error would then increase. The use of
channel. Envelope delay distortion is the variation in chan- parallel-coded tones, then, provides a high degree of noise
nel delay overa given band of frequencies. immunity as welJ as proper relaying in the presence of an in-
terfering tone.
As stated previously, the maximum permissible absolute de-
lay for the 600-Hz bandwidth tone (exclusive of the T A2.2 The basic block diagram of a D IT-4 Digitone system is
delay) is 3.5 ms. The maximum delay is 2 ms for the 340-Hz shown in Figure 15-34. A single transmitter module con-
bandwidth tone. The envelope delay distortion between the tains the four frequency-shift transmitters, coupled to a
mark and space frequencies of any one T A2.2 channel single output. The transmitter module also contains logic
should be equal to or less than 500 µs. The larger the enve- to key each transrnitter according to the code desired for
lope delay distortion between mark and space , the less total the particular input. From the line termination module al
phase comparison system margin will be available to corn- the receiving location, the signals are fed to the four re-
pensate for misalignment of the power system 60-Hz quan- ceiver filter and automatic gain control (AGC) modules
tities. shown. Each filtered-out tone is then fed to its associated
discriminator, which converts the signa! to a. de voltage.
IV.E. Type DIT-4 Digitone System for Segregated Phase The outputs of the four discriminators energize the logic
Comparison Relaying module which, in turn, decodes the information into the
proper trip and guard outputs.
An entirely different type of tone system is used for the
segregated phase comparison relaying system described in
FSK
Chapter 16. The DIT-4 Digjtone system is basically a rnulti- une L,ne
Tronsm,tter
SCl Term,not,on Terminohon
channel frequency-shift tone system. Each system (or chan-
nel) is composed of four sub-channels, each of which is a SC2 Chonnel Bet ..-een
L,ne Te,mmols
basic frequency-shift tone channel. The sub-channels trans-
SC3
mit information as four parallel bits, transmitted simultane-
ously. The bits are coded to represent the information to SC4
be sent: guard , trip positive, or trip negative. In addition
to the security of separate monitoring circuits, the coding SC =Sub-Channel
technique itself enhances the security of the relaying sys-
tem.
Figure 15-35 shows the channel and sub-channel frequency When installing a wire-line channel for an audio tone systern,
allocation on a CI conditioned 3002 data line. The fre- the following protective measures are recommended:
quenices shown are for two channels (x and y) of DIT-4 a. A drainage reactor or equivalent should be used in ali
equipment and cover a frequency band from approxirnately paths to ground.
700 to 2700 Hz. The actual grouping of sub-channel tones
depends on the available wíre-líne facilities, whether two b. Where carbon blocks are used with a drainage reactor,
wire or four wire. they should be connected as shown in Figure l 5-36b.
Any noise generated when the carbon blocks flash over
is then applied in common mode to both pilot wires.
0101010101010101 Failure to follow this recommendation, particularly
¡¡ ¡¡ i : ¡¡ ¡¡ ¡¡ ¡¡ ¡¡ when using a noise receiver, may result in sq uelch disa-
x, bling the channel when the gap flashes over.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 c. The pilot-wire pair must be twisted separately from any
700 900 1100 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700
other wires in the cable.
Notes:
X1. x2. X3. and X4 -Sub·Channols for Channel X Transm,1 er Rece,ve d. Open-wire lines should not be used for any tone applica-
Y 1. Y 2· Y3 ano Y 4=Sub·Channels for Channel Y Transm,1 or Rece,ve
Each Svb·Channol Con1ains One 811 or Four Bu Word. Each B,1 Has Two Stotes tions.
Log,c O or Log,c 1 The Four B,ts ot Channel X or Channel Y ,s The To1al Transm,1
or Rece,ve Channel Ior One Phase of The SPCU e. Any substantial length of wire between the pilot wirc and
+ Log,c O or 1 Frec¡uencv for Sub·Channel
the tone equipment should be shielded, and both ends of
c=Sub·Channel Cenler
the shield grounded to the station ground mat.
Figure 16-36: Tvpe 01T·4 Audio Tone Channel and Sub-Channel Fraquency
Allocation on e C1 Conditíoned 3002 Data Lina. (Allocauon
Shown ,s for a Two·W,re Ltne or 4~W,re Tunsm,t or 4-W,re
f. Surge protection should be used at the conneclion be-
Rece,ve Channell tween the wire line and the tone equipment.
g. An isolating transformer, which also serves the purposc
The above description covers the basic DIT-4 channel equip-
of impedance matching, should be includecl to protect
ment. To protect against generation of erroneous informa-
personnel.
tion from excessive noise or low level, the following addi-
tional protective measures are used in each sub-channel:
The recommended connections and pílot-wire design for pri-
a. Low-level detection vately owned two-terminal lines are shown in Figure 15-37.
b. High-level detection The preferred approach is to make the cable self-protecting,
c. Signal-to-noise ratio since the difference in installation cost for better cable insu-
d. Average leve! comparison lation is relatively srnall. Cood cable and rnesscnger shield-
ing will keep induced potentials to a reasonable level. The
In addition, an error-correcting code is required for the over- shielding factor should be 50 percent or less (actual induced
all system. voltage of 50 percent of calculated value, ignoring shielding
effort.
IV.F. Wire-line Channel for Audio Tones
V. MICROWAVE CHANNELS
In applying an audio tone system to a protective relaying
channel, the physical rnakeup and protection of the pilot- Microwave space radio offers a communicalion channel for
wire channel must be considered , lf the circuit is a leased protective relaying systems with severa! inherent advantages:
pair, the user and cooperating telephone company must rec-
a. It provides a channel that is independent of the power
ognize the severe requirements of the tone channel. For ex- line. Signals are thus unaffected by such disturbances as
ample, a burst of noise that causes only a click in a tele- fault ares or switching surges.
phone receiver might incorrectly tripa circuit breaker. For
b. Once the RF path is established, the incremental cost of
this reason, operation of protective gaps must not introduce
adding channels is low.
any appreciable noise onto the telephone line or privately
owned pair. The recommended pilot-wire protection c. Because of the large modulation bandwidth al micro-
schemes shown in Figures 15-36 and 15-37 were developed wave frequencies, many wide-band channels are available
with the above considerations in mind. for high speed solid-state protective relaying systems.
15·38
T~ . ._ _
Cor bon
Block (SeeNoteG)
5
NotH:
1t Primarily Used tor lmpedance Match,ng PurPOse St E•posedL,ne W1th E•teuor 01s1ance O"er 75 Fee1 and Exposed to L1ghtn1ng,
2t Western Elec1r1c Translormer Type 2239A or Equ1valen1 Power Sy11em Contact and Power lnductoon (Uoe Sh•elded Cable)
31 Western E1ec1ric Ora,nage Reactor Type 2232A o, Eou,valen1 6) lsollle Sh,eld from Ground Unhl Out of S,gn,t,cant tntluence al Statoon
4t Une•posed L,ne tMax1mumExter,or O,stal\Ce abo1.,11 75 Feet) Ground Poten1t1I
Use Sh,etded Cable
Figure 15·38: Aecommended Prolection of Termine! Equipmenl end LHHd Ceble Circuiu for Tone Aeleying Applicellon1.
lsoloting Transforme, In general, any of the pilot rclayíng systems using power-
(Notell
línc carrier or audio tone channels can also be applied to a
microwave channel. The relayíng information may be trans-
mítted over the channel in one of two ways. First, a tone
or sub-carrier can dírectly moduJate thc microwave fre-
quency (baseband modulation). The sub-carrier may oper-
1
1 ate at a frequency anywhere from audio up to severa! hun-
1
drcd kilohertz. Second, where more channels are needed,
UMounting
audio tones in the range of 400 to 3000 Hz may be appliecl
IStud
directly to a voice channel. A voice channel is a sub-carricr
StohOn arranged for volee or tone rnodulation, with frequencies up
6.• Sh,elded Cable GroundMot
to about 3500 Hz. Using audio tones on a voice channel in-
volves more eq uiprnent , but makes more telegraphic-type
Notes:
11 These Connect,ons Assume a Prlot Wire Zo~600 Ohms
channels available overa given microwave path for rclaying
2) Completed Cable F,eld Test Voltage of I O KV De for I O Minutes From e;,ch and control.
Conductor to AII Other Conductors and Sheath Sh,eld,ng Factor of 50% ar
Less. each Pair Twisted Separately Ground Sheath to Statóon Mal al Both
Ends and to Remote Ground at Each Splice.
Both types of microwave transrnission are widely used for
protective relaying. The microwave frequencies in use fo-
Figure 15·37; Recommended Connections and Pilot Wire Oesign for
Privately Owned Two-Terminal Lines. elude bands in the regio ns of 2, 6, and L 2 GHz.
Chaptcr 16 l. INTRODUCTION
Transmission Line Rclaying: The protective relay systerns used with the pilot channels
Pilot Relaying and Tripping discussed in Chapter 1 5 are designed to provide high speed
Systems for Circuit Breakers simultancous tripping of ali line terrninals for aU interna!
Author: R. E. Ray faults. Non-pilot relaying, as previously noted, usually pro-
vides high speed simultaneous protection for only 70 to 80
l. lntroduction percent of the faults in the middle section of the line. For
faults occurring in the end zone, the terminal nearest the
11. Classification of Pilot Systerns
fault will clear the Lineal high speed. The terminal remole
A. By Channel Use
B. By Fault Detection Principie from the fault, however, will clear lhe line with time delay
unless system conditions provide high speed sequential trip-
111. Dircctional Comparison Pilot Rclaying Systems ping. Pilot protection, on the other hand, provides high
A. OirectionalComparison Blocking Systerns speed protection for 100 percent of the protected line in-
B.
Directional Comparison Unblocking Systems dependent of system conditions.
C. Overrcaching Transfer-Trip Systerns
D. Perrnissive and Non-Perrnissive Underreaching
Tra nsfer-Trip Systerns There are severa! advantages to high speed simultaneous
E. Summary of Directional Comparison Pilot clearing at ali Line terminals for ali line faults:
Relaying Systerns
a. Reduced possibility of line damage and conductor
IV. Phase Comparison Pilot Relaying Systerns burndown.
A. Single Phase Comparison Blocking System b. lmproved transient stability of the power systern.
1. Current-Only Comparison
2. Distance-Supervised Comparison c. Permits high speed reclosing, which, if successful, irn-
B. Dual Phase Comparison Unblocking System
preves transient stability , minimizes outage ti me, and
1. Current-Only Comparison
2. Distance-Supervised Comparison improves voltage conditions on portions of the systern
C. Dual Phase Comparison Transfer-Trip System load.
D. Segregated Phase Comparison Systern
1. Audio Tone Channels
2. Power Line Carrier Channels The following discussion covers two-terminal lines only , al-
E. Surnrnary of thc Phase Comparison Pilot though the basic principies apply to multi-terminal lines as
Relaying Systerns weU. (See Chapter 17 .) Pilot wire protection is covered in
Chapter 14.
V. Additional Security and Protection Techniques
A. Transient Blocking
B. Loss of Voltagc 11. CLASSIFICATION OF PILOT SYSTEMS
C. Open Breaker Logic for the Unblock and
Transfer-Trip Pilot Systerns Pilot relaying systems can be classified according to channel
usage or the fault detection principie used.
VI. Selecting a Pilot Transmission Line Relaying System
A. Channel Selection 11.A. By Channel Use
B. Relaying Systerns with Microwave or Tone
In terms of channel use, ali pilot systcms are cither block ing
Channels
C. Relaying Systems with Frequency-Shift Carríer systems or transfer-trip systerns.
Channels
D. Relaying Systerns with On-Off Carrier Channels Vlll. Breaker Pole Disagreemcnt Protection
E. Additional System Options
F. Choice of Reclosing Systern IX. Direct Transfer-Trip Systems
In the blocking systems, the channel is used only to prevent The fundamentals of each system wiU be described in terms
one or more terminals from tripping on externa! faults. A of the most commonly used channel. Systerns are not
channel signa! is not required for interna! faults; that is, trip- lirnited to a single type of channel, and in fact, are often
ping occurs in the absence of a channel signa!. adapted to other channel types.
In the transfer-trip systems, a channel signa! must be trans- 111.A. Directional Comparison Blocking Systems
mitted and received before tripping occurs on interna! faults.
No channel signa! is required for externa! faults. The basic elements and sirnplified logic diagrarn for direc-
tional comparison blocking systerns are shown in Figure
11.B. By Fault Detection Principie 16-1. At each terminal, the phase and ground trip units
(P) rnust be directional and set to overreach the remete
In general, faults are detected using either directional com- terminal; that is, they must be set to operate for ali ínter-
parison systems or pilase comparison systems. Either type nal faults. Nominal settings of the distance units are 120 lo
of system can use any of the communication channels corn- 150 percent of the line. The start units (S) must reach far-
monly available-power line carrier, microwave baseband , ther, orbe set more sensitively, !han the remete trip units.
audio tones on microwave, single side band carrier, or Thus s1 must be set more sensitively than P2 or reach far-
leased lines. ther behind bus G. Likewise, s2 must be set more sensitively
than PI or rea ch farther behind bus H. In any case, the
In the directional comparison systems, fault detecting re-
S and P relays should be similar in type. lf the trip unit (P)
lays compare the direction of power Ilow at the two Jine
is a directional overcurrent ground relay, the start (S)
terminals. Power flow into the line at both terminals indi-
ground relay should be a similar non-directional overcurrent
cates an interna! fault, and the line is tripped , lf the power
unit. The same principie applies for the phase relays.
flow is into the line at one end and out of the line at the
other end, the fault is considered to be externa!, and the The on-off power line carrier is the channel almos! always
line is not tripped. used with these schernes. Except for possible auxiliary func-
tions, no signal is normally transmitted, since the S unils op-
Tite phase comparison systems generally use overcurrent
erare only during fault conditions. Without auxiliary func-
fault detecting relays to compare, via the channel, the rel-
tions, a single-frequency channel may be used; or with other
ative phase of the currents at the terminals. lf the currents
channel usage , a separate channel can be provided in each
al the terminals are relatively in phase, an interna! fault is
direction.
indicated, and the line is tripped. lf the currents at the
terminals are relatively 180° out of phase, an externa! fault Operation of the directional cornparison scherne shown in
or through-load current is indicated, and the line is not Figure 16-1 is given in Table 16-1 for both externa! or inter-
tripped. na! faults. (Subscript I indica tes relays at station G for
breaker 1; subscript 2, relays at station H for breaker 2.)
lll. DIRECTIONAL COMPARISON PILOT The scheme shown in Figure 16-1 is still widely used for its
RELA YING SYSTEMS flexibility and reliability. Since the communication chan-
nel is not required for tripping, interna! faults that might
Directional comparison schemes normally use directional- short and interrupt the channel are not a problern. Over-
distance fault detectors for phase faults with directional- tripping will occur, however, if the channel fails or is not
overcurrent or directional-distance fault detectors for established for external faults within the reach of the trip
ground faults. These relay schernes can be divided into fault detectors. Since the carrier transmitter is normally
four categories: OFF, or non-transmltting, channel failure cannot be de-
a. Directional cornparison blocking systerns tected until the systern is tested or until an external fault
occurs, This lirnitatíon has led to the development of a
b. Directional comparison unblocking systems nurnber of check-back schernes. In practice, the reliability
c. Overreaching transfer-trip systerns of modern power line carrier equipment and channels
makes the cost of added check-back and maintenance a
d. Permissive or non-permissive underreaching transfer-
questionable investment.
trip systems.
16-3
Events at Events at
Type of Fault Stalion G Station H ']:_ Power LoneCome,
Chomel
-:J'
P1 operates; s1 s2 operates
Externa! (FE)• to ~
Breoker 2 Trop Fi:lult Detec1or(Rz)
1 1
Breol<er 2 Chonnel Storl
does not see key transmitter.
Rluh Oe1ecto<s ( Si )
fault. Blocking Blocking signa!
Contect Logíc (per Terminal)
signal received sent to station G.
from station H. P2 does not see
RR back contacts fault. No trip. SlopChomet
------- Sogno1,1
open (or 1 signaJ IMooled ln1!1ote
Locolly
negates AND). No Chonnel Chonnd
Sognol Stgnol
tri p. Rece,ver
Pic•-ut>App,ox,marely
P2 operares. s2
13-IGMs
lnternal (F 1) P1 operates. s,
may or may not may or may not
opérate, but PI operare, but P2
operation pre- operation prevents
vents transrnission transmission of Solid Stete Logic (per Term,nall
of a blocking a blocking signa!. Stop Chonnel Sognol if
sígnal. Breaker I Breaker 2 tripped. lnohoted Locolly
T,mer
tripped.
P------t
Trop
S F,om ----<11
Remate Term,nol
•For externa! faults, the CS unit or tirncr x/o assurc that a blocking V,o Chonnet Note:
signa! is established. (PI Operatoon or (S) S,gnal
s- lnihOte Chonnel Stgnol Prov,des an Input 1
X- Nom,nolly Between 6·16 Ms on Circuit.
lll.B. Directional Comparison Unblocking Systems Figure 16-1: Besic Elements end Simplífied Logic Oiegrem for The
Oirectionel Comperison Blocking Systems.
Directional comparison unblocking systerns transmit a con-
tinuous blocking sígnal, except during interna) faults. That Lockout
is, the S channel start-fault detectors are not requíred. The
channel is generally a frequency-shift (FSK) power line
Block
carrier. A blocking (guard) frequency is transmitted contin- Frequency To AR 01
uously during normal conditions. For an interna) fault, the ANDof
F,gure
FSK transmitter is shifted to the "unblock" (trip) frequency. Unblock (Trip) ---------------! 16·3
Frequency
The transmitted power in many applications is normally
Figure 16-2: Simplified Unblock Receiver Logic.
1 W, boosted to I O W during unblock operation.
The Irequency-shift channel is monitored continuously to by the fault, OR-1 provides a direct input to A D-2 to sat-
prevent tripping when a loss of channel occurs. The carrier isfy its input requirernents for 150 rns. A N 0-2 inputs to
receiver logic is shown in Figure 16-2. Under normal con- OR-2 to operare RR orto provide input to the AND shown
ditions, a block frequency is transmitted and OR-1 has no in Figure 16-3. Without an unblock signal, 150 ms is al-
input. Since AND-1 and AND-2 are not satisfied, OR-2 is lowed for tripping. After this period, lock out is initiated
not energized. For an internal fault , the block frequency is as one of the inputs to AND-2 is removed. This resets RR
removed. Assunúng that the un block signa) is shorted out or rernoves the input to AN D in Figure 16-3.
11)•4
1
to Unblock ANO. No trip.
~~ ~~i;:·(é}·:.,:
Chonnel
Signol
Rece,ver
(F¡otH, Interna! (F 1) r1 opera tes; f 1 P opera tes; r2
F2otG) 2
channel to un- channel shifts to
block. Loss of unblock. Loss of
block and/or re- block and/or
520 Note: ceipt of un block receipt of unblock
1
_ (X) Normally 4 Ms.
(f 2) operares RR (f 1) operares RR
figure 16-3: BHlc Elementa and Slmpllfied Loglc Diagrama for The or inputs ANO. or inputs ANO.
Dlrectlonel Comperl1on Unblocklng Syatema.
Trip. Tri p.
Transfer-tr ip receíver logic is shown in Figure 16-4. Nor- Loss of the channel which results in no output from both
mally , the audio tone operates in the guard state, with no the guard and the trip states operates the 150/ l 50 tirner
output from the trip state. In other words, there is no through OR-1 and OR-2, locking out the relay ing ami ener-
AND-1 output. When the tone is shifted to trip, the ab- gizing an alarm after 150 ms. An output from eit her the
sence of a guard signal and the presence of a trip signal op- guard or the rrip to OR-1 will not input a signa! to OR-2.
erare AND-1, energizing either RR or the AND shown in As long as there is no guard signal, the lockout signa! is
Figures 16-5 and 16-6. maintained through AND-2. When the guard signa! returns,
the timer is deenergized and resets itself after 150 ms. This
feature is known as guard return.
l:>ANO or
Guord Stote-----------<1 RR Reloyol
Figure 16·5
Operation of the overreaching transfer-trip system shown in
Tnp Stote--------------i
or 16·6 Figure 16-5 is given in Table 16-111 for both external and in-
ternal faults. The phase and ground trip fault detectors at
lockout
both terminals must be directional (looking into the line),
and must operate for ali interna! faults, as indicated by the
P arrows,
1
Breoker 2 Tflp Foull Detectors (P2l
Events at Events at
Type of Fault Station G Station H
Audio Tone Audio Tone
Receiver f 2 ChonneJ Tronsm11ter f2 External (FE) P 1 operares. Trans- P does not see
except Powerhne Comer 2
Audio Tone Audio Tone fer-trip signal (f 1) fault. Transfer-
Tronsm1tter t1 Rece1ver t,
keyed to station H. trip (f 1) from
Contact Logic (per Terminal) Transfer-trip signa! station G operates
lp (f
2) not received
RR or inputs AND.
L
frorn Station H. No trip.
Key Audio Tone Tronsm111er
to Remole Stouoo No trip,
111.D. Permissive and Non-Perrnissive Underreaching Though it is the least cornplex, the non-perrnissive system
Transfer-Trip Systems is rarely used because of the high potential for false outputs
from the channel, which would causé incorrect tripping. lf
The same type of channels are used for the underreaching a non-permissive systern is used, the channel considerations
systerns as for thc ovcrreaching systerns described above. should be as described Latcr for direct trip systems. The
For the underreaching systems, however, the directional systern is rnade perrnissive by the additional set of phasc and
phase and ground trip fault detectors (P) must be set to ground overreaching fault detectors ( FO), which must oper-
overlap within the line and not overreach any terminals ate for ali interna! faults (Figure 16-6).
(Figure 16-6). That is, ar least one trip fault detector (P)
must operare for ali internal faults, and none should operare Operanon of the underreaching transfer-trip schcme shown
for any cxternal fault. ln practice, distanee relays are nor- in Figure 16·6 is given in Table 16-lV for externa! and ínter-
mally rcquired for both ground faults and phase faults, al· nal faults.
though directional instantaneous ground-overcurrent relays
might mcct these requirements in sorne cases. Table 16-IV
Events at Events at
,
Breoker 2 Tr,p Foult Oe1ec1or (~ 1
Type of fault
Externa! (FE)
Station G
The four systems described above are by far the most corn-
S,ngte P!,ose
monly used. The channels described are those around ..-~'----, 0.,1pu1""',:r
which the systern was designed and represent the most corn-
mon usage. Other channels may be used, however.
ChOnnel
Ali four systems are currently used and have good reliability.
Blocking systems tend to be more dependable, while
transfer-trip systerns are more secure. The unblocking sys- Comporison Compo,,son
tem combines the depcndability of blocking systems with Corcu,1 c..cul
the security of transf'er-trip systerns, providing a highly reli-
able direclional pilot relaying systern for transmission Lines. T,op Breol<er 1 T11p Breo~er 2
The basic elements of the phase comparison systerns are Sin ce avercurrent fault detectors are normally u sed, voltage
shown in Figure 16-7. Except for the segregated phase sys- transformers are not required. Such a scheme is curre nt-
tem, ali systerns use a composite sequence current network only. Fault detectors should be set abovc maximum load,
to provide a single phase voltage output proport ional to the yet opera te for ali interna! faults. On heavily loaded or long
positive, negative, and zero sequence current input. As de- lines, it may not be possible to meet this criterion. Distancc
scribed in Chapter 3, sensitivity to different types of faults fault detectors, which require voltage transformers, are used
depends on the weighting factors or constants designed into in such cases.
the sequence current network , or filter. Adjustments to the
filter are provided. Phase comparison systerns fall into the following four cate-
gories, with major differences relating to charme l equipment
A squaring amplifier converts the single phase voltage out- and the sequence filter output mix:
put to a square wave. The positive voltage portion corre-
a) Single phase comparison blocking
sponds to the positive half-cycle of the filter valtage wave,
and the z ero portian corresponds to the negative half-cyclc,
b) Dual phase cornparison unblocking
The square wave is used to key the channel to the remete
terminal. The square wave from the remate terminal is com-
c) Dual phase comparison transf'er-trip
pared to the local square wave, which has been delayed by
an amount equal to the absolute dela y time of the channel.
d) Segregated phase comparison.
This comparison of the local and remote square waves at
each terminal determines whether a fault is interna! ar With the exception of segregated phase comparisan systerns,
externa!. which are always current-only, aJI of the above schemes can
use either currerit-only or distance-supervised cornparison.
Fault detectors are used to determine whether a fault has Again, the systems will be discussed according to the chan-
occurred and to supervise trippíng. The systems, in other nel facilities most often used; other channels can be and are
words, are permissive. The fault detectors must be over- sometimes used.
16-8
IV.A. Single Phase Comparison Blocking Systern the through currents toan external fault are essentially in
phase. The currents can, however, be out of phase by up
IV.A.l. Current-Only Comparison to 90° on a 60-Hz base and still block.
the carrier start unit, is set more sensitively than FD2 and
permits the local square wave signal to key the on-off car-
rier transmitter. FD2, set with a higher pickup than FD1,
is used to arm the system for tripping. For transmission Foult Detect,ng Log,c Foult Detec11ng L.og,c
(Figure 16·7) (Figure 16· 7)
lines less than 100 miles long, the FD2 pickup is set at 125
percent of FD Fer lines Ionger than 100 miles, the FD2 Tronsm,ner Tronsm,tter
1.
pickup is set at 200 percent of FD1. On a three-terrninal Chonnel
line, FD2 is set at 250 percent of FD1, provided che Line Re<:eiver Rece,ver
length between any two breakers is less than 100 miles.
r;
Rece,ver Rece,ver
Phase comparison cannot occur until FD2 operates. The Outpu1
purpose of the two fault detectors is to coordina te the key- Local ____.._
Compor,son Circu,t
Locol
Bosc Log,c Input
ing of the carrier square wave with the cornparison of the Input
The basic operation of the systern is shown in Figure 16-8. Interna! Feult (F1) Externa! Feult (FE)
(al Terminal G*) (at Terminal G*)
FD and FD2 at both terminals operate for an interna!
I
fault (F1). The square wave inputs to the AND from the
Local Input
to ANO .rt.rt.rt,. o r-u--i__r-u t
wave turns the carrier on and off to provide the square wave
receiver output for the remete terminal.
Receiver Input 11
to ANO oJ LJ
11
LJ
11 F 1
LJ 'LíLn..J1o
ANO Output
O
rt.rt.rt.r O _JLJ_J__JLJUO
A flip tlop is energized if the inputs to the ANO continue
for 4 ms, providing a continuous trip output supervised by Trip Output
O
J
FD2 operation. The 4 ms correspcnd to a phase angle d if- (•)- Equivalent Operation and Same Trip Output at Station H
Ierence of 90°, on a 60-Hz base, between the currents at
Figure 16-8: Basic Operation of The Single Compare, PhaseComparison
the two terminals. Thus, the system will trip if the currents Pilot Relaying System.
at the two terminals are out of phase by up to 90°. Since
the receipt of a signal from the channel prevents tripping, IV.A.2. Distance-Supervised Comparison
this is a blocking systern. The carrier signal, therefore, does
not have to be transmitted through the interna! fault. No A distance-supervised scherne should be used if the míni-
received signal puts a 1 on the ANO input. With the remote mum interna! three-phase fault current is less than twice
terminals open, this systern provides sensitive instantaneous the maximum load current. • This systern uses the same
overcurrent protection for the entire line. As is characteris- on-off channel and operates in the sarne way as the current-
tic of blocking systerns, the channel is not required for trip- only scheme, except for the fault detection and arming tech-
ping on interna] faults. niques.
other wave, which has positive output during the negative put exists for 4 ms, an input to the trip flip flop initiates
half-cycle of the sequence current network, is compared breaker tripping. The same operation occurs at both ter-
to the receiver's space output in a second comparison rninals, tripping breakers I and 2 simultaneously on either
circuit. half-cycle of fault curren t.
Receiver Output
distance relay (21 P) for operation on three-phase faults.
(Markl os-u-lJ, o_j¡___SL_ o The adjustable sequence network, which responds only to
AND 1 Output o..JL..JL.l1 o _fl___fi___J\._ o negative and zero sequence currents, operares FD2 for the
Local overcurrent ar ming function on al! unbalanced phase and
(Negative Hall Cycle) lLnJ"""Lo o _j¡___SL_o
ground faults. For ali three-phase faults, the distance relay
Receiver Output
iLnJ"""Lo l~l
ISpace) and KD-3 or SKDU-3 (2 IP) provídes the arming input di-
AND 2 Output iLnJ"""Lo o _fl___fi___J\._ o rectly.
These transfer-trip
dual phase cornparison
systerns operate
unblock
in the same way as the
systems described above, (\ (\V (\ V\vv
1\J
~ (\ crv~v
!\
\JI
!\ A
V
C:>o•
le Stauon H
/"\ ~ (\ /\
V/\ /'\.
V'-'
[\ f\
V -
C>
C>
a) Power systern frequency and wave form The two-subsystern package is su ita ble fer all applications
except single-pole tripping, where the three-subsystern pack-
b) Effects of impedance un balance between the power sys- age must be applied. The basic operation of the scheme is
tern phase circuits illustrated in Figure 16- l 2. Each current is fed through a
non-inductive resistor, supplying a voltage output to the
e) Maximum load/mínimum fault current margin. squaring arnplifier (SA) that is exactly proportional to the
16-12
prirnary currents. The output of tbese arnplifiers is used to corresponds to a 1 input to AND-P and the received nega-
key the individual channels and, through the local delay tive square wave to a O input, negated to 1, into AND-N.
timers (LDT), to provide the local square waves for compar- Except for this variation, operation is as shown by the
ison. The timers are adjustable between 2 to 20 ms to com- square wave blocks in the lower half of Figure 16-10.
pensate for the delay time of the channel. This digital de-
lay circuit translates the pulse train independently of the
pulse width ratio, in contras! to the ac phase angle shift Arm,ng Input-Curren, Detector (CD)
ANO
Pro1ec1ed L,ne p
OR
Local ( A:,sohve r-Lr'L
Squore
v.bves Negotove1......rl....r
Note:
{X)=3 Milliseconds for The
PhaseSub-Svsterns.
4 Milliseconds for Ground.
Sqoonnq Amplif,ers
Basic Logic Comparison Circui1
Channel (One Required for Each Subsystem)
Fac,1,tíes
.._,__,
Remate Locol Sc¡uore Woves
Squore ...__, To generare the local and keying square waves, conven-
Local Oeloy T,mers Waves Remate Square Woves
tional phase comparison systerns use thresholds equivalent
al The Three Sub-System (13. lb, le) SPCU Svs1em to (or very near) the zero-axis, As a result, an interna) fault
with outfeed looks like an external fault to those systerns
Stonon G StotoonH
Pro!ecled une (Figure 16-14). The offset keying technique perrnits the
SPCU relay to trip for interna! faults with outfeed-current
out at one terminal. While the outfeed condition is very
Squoring Amphfiers unusual, it presents difficult problerns to the great majority
of pilot relaying systems when it does occur. Outfeed can
Channel Facilities occur in any of the following cases:
L.ocol SquareWoves
............., '-,.-)
LoooJSouoreWoves
b. Weak-feed or zero-feed applications, particularly with
Remole Square Woves Remo1eSquoreW:lves
heavy through load
h] Two Sub-Svstern {la-lb. IGI SPCU System
Figure 16,12: Basic Segregated Phase Comparison Systems. c. Sorne multi-terminal applications (see Chapter 17)
The square wave comparison is made independently for d. Series-compensated (line-end cornpensation) line with a
each current in the sepárate subsysterns. Separate channels source inductive reactance smaller than series capacitor
are req uired for each oí the subsysterns. One of the com- reactance
parison circuits is shown in simplified form in Figure 16-13.
In this dual cornparison circuit, AND-P is used for the posi- e. Sorne single-Iine-to-ground faults, occurring simultane-
tive half-cycles and AND-N for the negative half-cycles. As ously with an open conductor, where the fault is on one
shown in Figure 16-13, the received positive square wave side of the open conductor
J(>-[j
t.
~
:,
I 1 1 1
Local
:, :, I
1
1
I
SquoreWove -r-r----f"
• 1 1 1
1
1
1
1
1
1 1 1 _j L--......! Key,ng Figure 16-1 5: Typical Threshold Setting for Offset Keying.
Remole~ +--- ~ -1....Squore
SquoreWove Wo,e
~ Output trip signa Is are supervised by an arming input and a
ExtemolL,ne Up
Note: Comparrson at Both Term,nals sees Fault as External nurnber of security checks (Figure 16-13). Phase arming is
performed by a curren! rate-of-change detector that re-
Figure 16-14: Conventional Phase Comparison Response toan
Outfeed Condition Block Tripping. sponds to sudden increases, decreases, or angular shífts in
current. lt opera tes on current changes of 0.5 A or more,
The offset keying technique allows the SPCU relay to work with an operating time of 2 ms. Ground arrning is 310
like a true curren! differential scherne. The scherne takes magnitude typically 0.8 A secondary.
advantage of lhe fact that, for the outfeed condition, the
current into the Jine is greater in magnitudc than the curren! Security checks to comparison ANO (Figure 16-13) include
out of the Iine for the interna! fault. ( 1) low channel signa! blocking, (2) lockout for sustained
low channel signal, (3) channel noisc clamp, and (4) receivc
This relatlonship is illustrated in Figure 16-14, where le guard block. For the phase subsysterns, a trip signa! occurs
equals lp plus IH. While the two terminal currcnts may have if comparison ANO has an output for more litan 3 ms (4 ms
any angular rclationship with one another. most outfeed for the ground subsystem).
conditions display a nearly out-of-phasc rclat ionship. The
out-of-phase condition illustrated is the most difficult case The segregated phase comparison systern may be uscd over
for pilase comparison, as well as the rnost common outfeed type DIT-4 audio tones, or over a powcr line carricr using
condition. type TCF carrier equipmcnt.
In the offset kcying technique , the keying threshold is dis- IV.O. l. Audio Tone Channels
placed in thc posit ive direction, away frorn the zero-axis.
The local square wave thresholds are displaced negat ivcly. The OIT-4 tones may be applicd to a microwave systcm or
To maintain securit y, the local thrcsholds are separatcd to telephone lines (see Chapter 15). When using the DIT-4
from each other, providing "nesting" during externa! faults. tones for a segregated pilase cornpar ison systern, the pre-
Typical settings are shown in Figure 16-15. ferred total channel space for tite system is two f'our-wire
channels. However, three two-wire channels will provide
Figure J 6-16 illustrates t he square wave characterist ics of adequate space for t he three-subsystem SPCU. One four-
the SPCU with offset kcying for normal interna! Iaults, ex- wire channel or t wo t wo-wire channels is required Ior the
terna! faults, and interna! faults with outfeed. two-subsystern SPCU. Each channel must be equivalen! to
a 3002 data line with CI condií ioning, as described in
The SPCU segregated phase cornparison scheme incorpo- Chapter 15. Maximum propagation delay of the channel
rates a high degree of securit y. lts design is based on exren- (not including the OIT-4 de lay) should be 5.5 ms or less.
sive field experience and model line tests for the very long, Severa! more rnilliseconds' delay can, howcver , be handled
series capacitor-cornpensated EHV lines. by special arrangements.
*Such conditions can cause outfccd only in the faultcd phase cur-
rcnt , not in the ground subsystem.
l(>-14
-~1- r G
01----'l:-(
-
- - - 4º~rl
H
IV.D.2. Power Line Carrier Channels
ó~
1 11 ,, 1
Loco! Pos,rwe 1 three TCF wideband channels needs a minimum spectrum
1 r Key,ng
LooolNegar,ve o~
1 1
, : Squors of 7 kHz.
TfipPositive 1 1 Telp Posuíve ~
TripNegotive~ +---- TfipNeqorive
With power line carrier application of TCF equip ment, the
pCo,nc,dence~ Note:
~ Similar Companson Occurs relay logic uses the unblock concept. Relays will thus trip
Remare Sqocre Wove Shoded Porrion is
at Terminal H
Trip Comodence correctly for interna) faults, even if the carrier signa! does
I nternol L,ne uo
not reach the rece iver terminal. This unblock logic is simi-
a/ Normal lnternat Fault
lar to that for the directional comparison un block systems.
- -
~ ,~~ :0v-
IV.E. Summary of the Pitase Comparison
G H Pilot Relaying Systerns
r
1
TripPos,tive ~ TropPosor,ve ~e
Tnp Neqot1ve +- - - Frip Negot1ve out-of-step conditions. Also , they are not subject to mu-
Tnp Coincrdence : None Note: tual induction and zero sequence polarizing problerns, or
Remare Squore Wove Similar Comparison Occurs to voltage reversals resulting from the negative reactance of
E,ternot Line Up at Terrn,nal H.
series capacitors. Voltage transformers are either not re-
b) External Fault quired orare used only as fault detectors, so that the accu-
racy of directional sensing and reach is not critica\.
II
G H change current detector, minimizes proble ms of discrimina-
o--><'-------10 tion between mínimum three-phase f'ault current and rnaxi-
A - '-
¡"' mum load. Here , the protection is armed only momentarily
Local Fl:>s,hve
.,~ during sudden load changes and , of course, during faults .
Local Nego)lve ~
11 '1
Loco\~1twe ó~ ,1 '1 Ali phase comparison systems are highly reliable and in ac-
I I tive and wide use. The blocking types tend to be more de-
Local Negalive J---{""1---
TnpPos,ttve 1 1 T,ipPos1tive
pendable , while the transfer-trip systerns are more secure.
TripNegotive
1 1
+ - --TripNegot,ve
Comodence ~ Keying Sqore'Nave rs
~
Remole SquoreWo,e Shoded Portian is SteadyTripNegorive
Tnp Coincidence
V. ADDITIONAL SECURITY ANO
Tnp Comporison Note:
Similar Cornparrson
PROTECTION TECHNIQUES
Occurs ar Terminal H.
e) Interna! Fault W1th Outfeed {Cornparison al Strong Terminal) Severa! techniques are important in the proper operation
of the various pilot systerns. These techniques include
Figure 16-16: Response of Segregated Phase Comparison System transient blocking, Joss of voltage, and open breaker logic
With Offset Keying. for the unblock and transfer-trip pilot systems.
16-15
V.A. Transient Blocking High speed reclosing into a permanent externa! fault that
originally caused a quick reversa! can result in a second
Clearing an externa! fault may result in a sudden reversa! of reversal. A 1000-ms release dela y is inserted to prevent loss
fault power through the line section, particularly on para lle! of transient blocking during this period. This dela}' is oper-
lines. With the directional cornparison blocking systerns, the ated by AND-4, which requires that transient blocking have
trip units at the end being blocked must reset bef'ore the been established and an externa! fault exist. High speed re-
blocking channel signa! is removed. The opposite end must lays plus breaker time for the externa! fault will exceed the
then transmit a blocking signa! bcfore the rernote end trip block timer dela y.
units opera te.
When the externa! fault is cleared, the inputs to AND-1,
With the ovcrreaching dircctional cornparison transfer-trip AND-2, and OR-1 go to zero, blocking A:-.ID-4. The timer
systerns, the channel trip signa! must be removed before resets after 1000 ms, rernoving the inputs to O R-2 and
the local fault detectors opera te al one end. Al the other AN D-3 and resetting transient blocking.
terminal, the local fault trip units must reset before the
channel trip signa! is received. Underreaching transfer-trip Transient blocking circuits for unblocking and overrcaching
systerns do not have this problern, since the trip fault detec- transfer-trip systerns are shown in Figure 16-18. The
tors do not opera te for externa! faults. 0/1000-ms tirner will opérate through OR-1 upon either op-
eration of a local lrip fault detector (P) or receipt of an un-
Electromechanical systerns are coordinated by a time dela y block or tra nsfcr-trip signa! from the remote end. lf u pilot
of 13 to 15 rns in the CS units (Figure 16-1) or by the faster trip has not occurred or the 18/0 unblock Limer has not op-
resctting than pickup of the units of Figure 16-3 and Figure erated , there will be an output from AND-3 to start the
16-5. block tirner. lf a trip does not occur in 18 or 25 ms, trip-
ping will be blocked.
A transient blocking circuir provides coordination in the
solid-state systern, as shown in Figure 16-17 for the direc- Polot Trop Output
!Figure 16·3 O, 16·5)
tional comparison systerns. For an externa! fault such as
(FE) in Figure 16-1, AN 0-1 of Figure 16-17 operares at
station G, and AN0-2 at station H. Either operation pro-
vides an input to AN0-3 through OR-1 and OR-2, which
energízes the timer in the absence of a local trip signal. The
terminal is blocked from tripping after 18 rns, allowing am- P !From Figure Block
16· 3 or 16-5) Trippong
ple opportunity for any interna! fault trippíng to block
Chonnet Recetl.1!r
AND-3. Should an interna! fault occur after transient block- from F,gure 16 • 19
ing is established, the local lrip signal will negatc AND-3
to drop out the tirncr. In such cases, tripping is delayed
by the 18-rns reset time.
Note:
(X)= 1 B Milloseconds for 2 Cycle Breakers
from Remole
Te..m,nol ve Chonnel 25 Milhseconds for > 2 Cycle Breakers
Figure 16-17: Simplified Oiegrem of Trensient Blocking for lf an interna! fault occurs after transient blocking takes
Directionel Comperiaon Blocking Systems. place, the trip output operates A. D-2. Afrer 18 rns, tran-
!O-JO
Phase comparison systerns with composite sequence current VI. SELECTING A PILOT TRANSMISSION LIN E
networks contain reactive elements, which may discharge RELA YING SYSTEM
stored energy as the externa) fault is cleared. Since this en-
ergy is a possible source of incorrect operation, a transient Past experience and personal preference along with the re-
blocking circuir similar to those described above is used in lative importance of system dependability versus security,
these pilot systerns. large!y determines the selection of a pilot transmission line
relaying system. With so many options available, there is
V.B. Loss of Voltage seldom just one practicable system for a given transmission
line or lines. In general, the least expensive system that
Pilot systerns using system voltage may have logic to protect meets the constraints of the application is the logical choice.
against incorrect operation on loss of voltage. This logic op- Figures 16-20 through J 6-24 are logic guides to aid in select-
erates if there is zero sequence voltage and no zero sequence ing the most cost-effective systern. The systems indicated
current for 500 ms or more. Such a condition blocks trip- are not necessarily the only usable relaying systerns ,
ping and sounds an alarm. The reset time is 500 ms.
VI.A. Cbannel Selection
V.C. Open Breaker Logic for the Unblock and
Transfer-Trip Pilot Systems Toe choice or the availability of the pilor relaying channel
is a major consideration in system selection.
When one terminal is open, additional logic is required to
permit tripping on interna! faults. At the open terminal, Figure 16-20 is an aid in selecting a pilot channel for trans-
a breaker auxiliary 52b contact is used to remove blocking mission line protection. As indicated, the pilot wire relay-
or to esta blish a transfer-trip signal. ing system (HCB-1 )-the most economical choice-can be
applied to short lines if the available continuous metallic
At the closed terminal, transient blocking is not required pilot pair does not have excessive series resistance or shunt
and must be removed to permit tripping en interna) faults capacitance. The physical make-up and protection of the
(Figure 16-19). An unblock or transfer-trip signa! from the pilot wire must also be carefully considered. See Chapter 14.
channel receíver , indicating a trip request frorn the remo te
terminal, permits normal operation of transient blocking Toe "continuous metallic pair" req uirernent, assumes that
(Figure 16-18). In theevent of a remote open breaker, this de channel monitoring will be used with the pilot wire relay-
channel request will Jast for 2500 ms or more, at which ing system, and so a de path must be available. Three-
point the ANO of Figure 16-19 is turned off to stop tran- terminal pilot wire applications are feasible only if the
sient blocking. branch resistance and total capacitance limits are not ex-
ceeded. Circuits with more than three significant terminals
To prevent transient blocking during the reclose cycle, 52b cannot be protected with pilot wire relaying.
is operated upon opening the local breaker or by an interna)
fault. Closure of 52b negates the ANO of Figure 16-19 and lf the economical pilot-wire relayíng system cannot be used
removes the channel input to the transient block ing circuit. for short lines, audio tones on communication circuits are
16-17
WillltBe Special
Note: Likely To Have Consideration
No 26 wire reters ·3 Terminals Requlred
10 püoi wires
N
Will II Exceed
2.3 Miles per Leg Y Mlcrowave
or 6.9 Miles Total~-------4-,--..--f or
Tones
(No. 26 wlre)
Add
Auto
Cneckback
Catcotateo On-of.f
Camer Carrler
Attenuation (TC-10)
:\5db Narrow-Band
Note
N s,gnal to noise ranos
are all based on
noise measurea m a
3kHz flat bandwrdth
Figure 16·20: Logic Guida far Selecting a Transmission Line Pilot Relaying Channel.
the next logical choice. For longer lines, carrier on micro- Carrier can be used only if there is a band in the frequency
wave channels should be considered. Factors other than re- spectrurn in which interfering signals will not disrupt the
laying may dictate the choice of channel, For example, the normal relaying sígnal transmission. The magnitude of the
availability of microwave links to ali other terminals of the interfering signa! is as important as frequency separation.
transmission line would encourage using microwave chan- The 6-kHz and 4-kHz criteria specified in Figure 16-20 are
nels for the relaying functions. for a relaying receiver set at maximum sensit ivity , with +37
16·18
dBm leve! interfering signals on eit her side of the relaying VI.B. Relaying Systerns with Microwave or Tone Channels
carrier frequency. (The 6-kHz and 4-kHz. figures are, how-
ever, only an approximate guide.) The logic guide of Figure 16-21 is designed to aid in the se-
lection of a relaying scherne using microwave or tone chan-
The required signal-to-noise ratio (Sl\R) for the different nels. The first consideration is whether or not the station
receivers is a function of the type of modulation and the has a series capacitor. Such a capacitor introduces protective
receiver bandwidth. The required SNR shown is for noise relaying problerns for transmission lines terrninating in that
measured overa 3-kHz bandwidth. When calculating SNR, station, since distance relays will incorrectly sense the direc-
the coupling losses at the receiving terminal should not be tion of a fault at the capacitor line junction (Chapter 10,
included (see Chapter 15). Figure 10-68). This incorrect directional sensing is ex peri·
enced by relays on lines with series capacitors and by those
The criteria given in Figure 16-20 are intended only to pro- on adjacent lines-with or without series capacitors. Phase
vide an approximate guide to carrier spacing and Jevels. comparison systems do not have this difficulty.
Closer spacing may be possible-depending on the type of
carrier involved , permissible rnargins, and carrier applica- An interna! three-phase fault with unequal gap flashing will
Lion. produce "through" negative sequence and zero sequence
current flow. Consequently, a systern using a filter with a
Usually, continuous channel monitoring is permitted only heavy zero sequence weighting factor will incorrectly sense
if frequency-shift carrier is used; periodic sampling of the an externa! fault. The segregated phase comparison system
channel by checkback is widely used with on-off systems. must be used where th.is type of fault may occur without
being detected by other de vices. In the segregated system,
At one time, service voice require ments dictated the use of each phase and residual circuit are treated as independent
either an on-off carrier channel or microwave. Since a entities. The relaying system compares each of these quanti-
frequency-shift system can now accommodate the voice ties at the two line terminals via the cornmunication channel.
option, however, this factor is no longer critica l.
When conventional phase comparison systems can be used,
Carrier frequencies may be repeated at fairly close geo- load current is the significant consideration. The fault de-
graphic intervals if they do not interfere with other relaying tector for three-phase faults should not operate on rnaxi-
functions. A continuous guard signal, for example, may in- mum load flow. Although such a situation would not pro·
terf'ere with proper tripping a few line sections away if iden- duce tripping, it would represen! a security infringement, in
tical freq uencies are used for relaying syste ms on both sec- that the systern would be continuously armed. The dual
tions. Sirnilarly , volee communications or any continuous distance phase comparison system" solves this problem by
function over the carrier channel may block tripping on ad- incorporating a distance relay that is insensitive to the high
jacent line sections unless different frequencies are used. power factor conditions normally associated with load flow.
Line traps do not eliminate this hazard.
for two-terrninal applications with no series capacitar prob-
A directional comparison systern can respond at "strong- lems, system selection is largely a matter of personal judg-
feed" locations without any relaying action at "weak-feed" ment. The customary decision-making process for choosing
locations. * Tripping does not occur at weak-feed locations between overreaching and underreaching transfer-trip sys-
unless there is sequential action as a result of fault current tems is f'orrnalized in Figure 16-21. The logic of this figure
redistribution. Since an unblocking systern normally trans- allows selection of the less expensive phase comparison sys-
mits a guard signal, relaying action is necessary to key the tem onJy if system parameters permit.
transmitter for tripping. In a blocking systern, carrier is nor-
mally off and does not block tripping ar other stations. The logic in Figure 16-21 does not allow an underreaching
transfer-trip system unless a fault detector ovcrcurrent relay
* A strong-feed location is a linc terminal from which sufficient fault
current is contributed to an interna! fault to reliably operate *The qualifying term "dual" indicares that a frequcncy-shift channel
current-dependent tripping relays. Conversely, ata weak-Ieed loca- is used and that tripping is possible on eithcr half-cyclc. In the sin-
tioo, the line terminal does not contribute enough fault current to gle comparison systerns, which use on-off carrier, tripping can occur
produce reliable operation of current-dependent relays. only during the "off" half-cycle.
16·19
1iol~n:n~~~~1/
Y
Terminal
N N
o.,.,,-hlng
·r,-,,11 ... Trlp
(DUL)
N N
AOd Oul·Ol·SleP
T,lp Elemanls
<l>Cornp
,s Lino
50 Mll&8
Lono
N N N N
Can
AII secucns Be
Cove,ed Dy ZOf'IB '
\~r1 ~º:~
~T~~ro~'s
Overreachlng Any
Breakor N
N
"'
Fígure 16-21: Logic Guida for Selacting a Microwave or Tona Ral•ying Syatam.
can be used. This arrangernent climinates the possibility of VI.C. Relaying Systerns with Frequency-Shift Carrier
false trips resulting from voltage supply circuit failure. The Channels
direct underreaching systern is sclected for three-terrninal
applications under the following conditions only: (!) where When a frequency-shift carrier channel is indicated, the re·
all faults can be recognized by Zone 1 relays at one or more laying scherne should be selected as outlined in Figure 16·22.
stations, (2) where ali terminals require high speed trípping, Again, the presence or absence of a series capacitar in the sta-
and (3) where fault detecting relays (including phase under- tion wil\ determine whether phase comparison or directional
voltage and zero sequence overvoltage) cannot recognize ali comparison unblocking systerns are appropriate. A dual
internal faults. phase comparison unblocking system is selected for short
16-20
C,,olisef-0
ForT 'TW:"lrifl
M!trowave
orTOl'!H
(,ig1)
No'o
Ae.!p,on••
18F Sc111ng, -~~-
Figure 16-22: Logic Guide for Selecting • Frequency·Shitt Carrier Releyíng Sy,tem.
and moderatcly long t wo-tcrminal lines where the backup distancc-controlled backup timing function nor clear out-oí-
and out-of-step trip functions are to be independent of the step condit ions, the less expensive phase comparison systern
-primar)' te\a)"mi system. may be useó for a\\ bu\ extreme\y \one,-\ine, two-terrninal
applications.
For thrce-terminal frequency-shift carrier applications, the
unblock ing sysrern is preferred if rhere is sufficient carricr On three-terminal lines, the direclional comparison system
frequency spectrum. Three-terminal phase comparison svs- requires no rclaying action at weak-feed locatioris in order
terns, while possible, are not al\owed by this selection proc- for high speed clearing to occur at the strong-fecd location
ess in the intercst of restricting choices to flexible, easily for interna! faults. This characteristic, however, ho\ds true
realizable schemes. only if there is no continuous use of the carrier systcm at
thc weak-feed location. Otherwise, the weak-feed carrier
VI.O. Relaying Systems with On-Off Carrier Channels must be stopped for interna! faults to clear.
The select ion process for a directional comparison or phase As with frequency-shift systerns, three-terminal applications
comparison on-off carrier system is shown in Figure 16-23. of phase comparison systems are not considered because of
As abo ve, the presence or absence of a series capacitor in thci.r inflexibility and restrictive nature. However, where
the station determines whether a phase cornparison systern permitted by system characteristics, such installations have
is required. lf the primary relaying need not incorporate a performed successfully for many years.
16-21
U!H>
Freq....--cy
ShlltC-nel
(TCF-10)
N N N
134>M•n Pha$8
t 51 Load 1Max) eos~'.1°"
N
Dls1enee
Pt,-
Compa,Json
SKBU-11
SKOu.3
ª=,º
OlrtcUona!
Comparlaon
N
N
Add Our-ot-Step
RecloseBlock
Is L,ne y
· 200 M,les
long
N N N
Nolo
Response
(BF Setting)
Figure 16·23: Logic Guide for Selecting an ON·OFF Carrier Relaying System.
VI.E. Additional System Options Zone 1 Pitase and/or Ground Relaying. Pitase and/or
ground-distance relays can be applied to lines that are long
Any pilot protection systern can be equipped with options enough for a fault at the balance point to produce adequatc
to give the desired degree of redundancy orto provide ad- energy for the relays to operate reliability. These relays are
ditional features required by a particular application. These not responsive to externa! faults; they are fast and require
options include high-set overcurrent trips, Zone I phase and/ no information frorn the remote terminal via the communi-
or ground relaying, a T2 timer, and out-of-step relaying. cation channel. They provide an excellent support function
to most pilot relaying systerns and are available as a part of
ali standard systems.
High-Set Overcurrent Trips. Available for the standard sys-
terns, high-set overcurrent trips are highly recommended for T2 Timer. Any system equipped with overreaching phase
applications where faults can be located on the basis of cur- and ground-distance relays may drive a timer to provide re-
rent magnitude alone. Air-gap units (overcurrent elements mole backup. While local backup systems have been used
with a gapped iron circuit) are available with no more than increasingly in recent years to cover the breaker-failure con-
17-percent overreach with the maximum asymmetry dueto tingency, t here is still a place for dista nce-controlled tímers.
the de cornponcnt of fault current. These units should be
set 25 percent greater than the maximum curren! fer an ex- A single timer is adequate Ior both the phase and ground
terna! fault in the forward or reverse direction. Where us- functions with sepárate indication.
able, high-set overcurrent trips provide fast, simple, and in·
expensive back up, independent of ali other sensing elements Out-of-Step Relaying. Figure 16-24 provides a logíc guide
and of the communications channel. for selecting an out-of-step relaying system. Although
16-22
OST
OSR8
A1eOS Tr1p
.r,,nd Aeciose 8IOC:k
Onl'( Reouued
N
y
-=
S08U-IISNJ
OST8
._,.os34> y Is Bhnoe, Req
Tu:, Bloc:11.and:or
OSRB OS RecloseBlodung to,3$Faul1'load
Requued 01scnm1nation
N N
OSTB
osr
OSR8
...
OS JC, T110 Block,
COf"loo•'ed Roccwe,y
VOII.IGe. OS fflpp.ng
and Reclose Blodung
~,.mees
N
y IS tne OS h1Qplng
ana 8too1ng Achon
1'o&eVai-1e<1
Frequently
N
y
--·
Dual91-
(I.DIIIOS-2)
RI
IS811Aotc
ROQ.a11ect10, To1~~~':'<t,r y
'.IG> Fa,ullllo.a wnen ZOl\e: 1 Pha,e
01sr.• m1n11eon 01,1anu Qpe,atn
N N
Figure 16-24: Logic Guide for Selecting en Out·of·Step Releying System. The single·blinder scheme uses distence elements heving a
cherecteristic on • resistance-reectence plot consisting of two perellel lines centered ebout the origin and sloping at
16 degreea from the verticel. The duel·blindar scheme uses two such units. the second heving • wíder specing th1n th1 firat.
The concentric·circle scheme, as the neme impli1s. uses distence units heving circuler cherecteristics on I resiatenc•
reectence plot. Usuelly the three·phese unit of the zon•2 reley in the trensmission fine releying scheme i1 usedfor the lnner
circle end • seperete reley equipped with the eppropriete logic provides the outer-clrcle cherecteristíc.
many other considerations enter into the selection, this catcd in Figure 16-24 may be applied to the standard sys-
logíc displays the key factors influencing the proper system tems (sce Chaptcr 19).
choice once the desired philosophy is deterrnined.
VI.F. Choice of Reclosing System
Determining the appropriate philosophy is not easy. For
example, much depends on whether instability can develop Automatic reclosing is an advantage in any application where
in the systern, and where the electrical center will be if in- a fault may clear before the circuit is reenergized. For ex-
stability does develop. Other critica) factors include the arnple, rnult i-shot reclosing relays will improve service con-
mínimum interna! three-phase fault current , the maximum tinuity with overhead distribution circuits. In transmission
load current, and whether an out-of-step condition produces applications, reclosing relays are often used to provide a sin-
enough current to cause an interruption problem with the gle high speed reclosure upon pilot relay tripping, followed
very high recovery voltage that may accompany out-of-step by one or more time-delayed reclosures in response to syn-
tripping. Ali these factors must be determined within reason- chronism check or live bus/dead line control. High speed
a ble contingency lírnits, and each factor may manifest its crit- reclosing occurs in response to ali high speed tripping; nor-
ical case for a completely different system arrangernent. In mally, a control switch contact prevents high speed recios-
any event, each of the out-of-srep relaying variations indi- ing unless pilot tripping is in service (see Chapter 20).
16·23
I I I
pole will not prevcnt the operation of the other poles. The 52o 520 520
protective relays trip ali three poles for any type of fault , 2o 2b 2c
providing a very high degree of assurancc that at least two Negar ve
poles will open for any system fault. Thus, the most severe
stability criterion-the three-phase fault-is reduced by in- Figure 16·25: lndependent Pole Tripping With Trip Coils in Series.
in thc adjaccnt systern. In any case, this effect should be In single-pole tripping, thc protect ivc relays must accurat cly
carefully cvaluated. determine which phase is Iaulted and init iat c tripping a nd
reclosing Ior o nly that phase brcakcr mcchanism. Figure
Single-pole rcla y ing , while used in many countries, has had 2-46 (Chapter 2) shows t hat , Ior single-ph.rsc-to-grouud
very limit ed application in the Unitcd Sta les. Unt il recently, faults, the negativo ami zero sequence curre nts are csseu-
power circuir brea kcrs wcre not normully applied wit h sep- tially in pilase for tite Iault cd phase an d csscnt ially 120° out
ara te operating mechanisms. The relaying schernes are gen- of pilase f'or the unfaulted phascs. This phcnomeuou pro-
crally more complicatcd , ancl stability crit eria must be bascd vides thc critcria íor the (aultcd phasc sclcctio n.
on phase Iaults, Furt hcr , cxccpt Ior the early sí ages of a
highcr voltage overlay, thc USA systerns are highly intcrcon- In the KQS (8JC) relay, t hrce dircclional units are op-
nect cd , minimizing the stability advantages of single-pole erated by zero scqucnce curren! anti Ihrcc-phusc ncgat ivc
rclay ing. The availability of modern circuit breukcrs with sequence curren! írom a sequence net work . h,r a phase-a-to-
indcpcndcnt pole mecha nisms, along with present econornic grourid faull. thc phasc a clirectional unit (SA) operares.
and cnvironmental trends, muy rcsult in a wider application while pilase b anJ e dircct io nal unit s restrain. Suuilurly. l'or
of siuglc-pote relaying. phase b-to-ground tuults, t hc phuse b unit (SB) operares
whilc phasc a ande units rcst rain ; and for phasc c-to-ground
Singlc-po!e relaying should only be used wilh pilot relay ing. faults, the phasc e unit (SC) operares whilc phasc a and b
units rcstrain.
VII.B. l. KQS·KDAR Single-Pote Tripping System
Figure 16-26 shows t he basic circuits for singlc-polt: l npping
This basic systern, [irst applicd in the United States in the with clt:ctromecha ni ca 1-ty pt' rela ys. M iscclla ncous cirrn it s
carly l 940's, has sincc bce n used primarily for overseas a p- not directly conncctcd wilh unJerslanding of tht' operation
plications. are omittecl for simplicity.
I . ,. .
O.lc.e1c
Gmunc1
/'..uiulio,y to T,1p ,'\v,;11,a,y fo fr(p
ou ft'uee Pnoses 011 r,,ces Pnoses
se I ',
7o"f!}
TX.l
ISAISB
)(3
x,; f3ock ú(-'
4~-BOP<J
10·4C!DO
A..1x.1l10,y 1C Tf,p
f'nose o l'b1e º"'Y
~~o t.;2n 520
J J J
O
b \,eqn•,ve
ALJx, llor +; to for,
Phose b f':)11• C•,ly
Au(1'i10,y ltl fr1p
Device Numbe, Chart !:>ca '.i?o ':>2o
IºI I
Aux.1IOf)' IC Tftp 011 fn,ee Ptto..,es
OS Out ot-Srep Block,ng IWhén Use.di P,,ose e Pt,1c On y b e
Coil Cucuus Not Shown ~--- ....
----+-Neqo\'e
1
Figu,e 16-26· Basic Schematic ol The KOS-KDAA Single Pote Tripping Svstem.
16-25
For internal single-line-to-ground faults, ground relay 67N The phase KDAR with the SRD relays operares to trip ali
operates with pilot supervisión, initiating single-pele trip- three peles for ali phase faults-including two-phase-to-
ping of the faulted phase breaker through the phasc selec- ground faults. For these latter faults, the phase selector for
tor contacts SA, SB, or SC. Simultaneously, 67N energizes the sound phase will operate. (See the phasors in Figure
units X3, 48, and X. Relay X3 opens ali the single-pele trip 2-46 of Chapter 2.) For example, the phase a negative and
circuits, after a short time delay permits the particular zero sequence currents are essentially in phase for b-c-to-
faulted phase circuit to seal in. Relay X ensures that ali ground fault to opérate the SA phase selector. While this
three-pole tríp paths are blocked for the single phase trip. action initiates tripping of the phase A breaker pole, Zone I
While the non-pilot Zone 2, 3, and time-overcurrent relays (21-1) and/or phase pilot (21 P) simultaneously opera te to
are shown blocked out, this function might be omitted if trip all three poles. The short pickup time of X perrnits
the relays can be set not to operate during the single phas- these three-pole trip paths to be sealed in (circuits not
ing period. shown for simplicity) before the back X contacts can open.
When the faulted phase pole opens, its S2b contact doses During the open phasing period, the line voltage on the open
to keep X3, 48, and X rclays energized and to o perate the phase is determined by the interphase capacitance to the
X2 unit. Relay X2 inserts XS delay in the phase pilot trip two sound phases and not by the system. This can cause
(21 P), bypasses SON and the SRD contacts, bypasses X4 misoperation of distance r elays when line-side voltage is
delay in the non-pilot ground instantaneous trip circuit, and used. In these applications, auxiliary relays are used to dis-
connects 67N for subsequent three-pole tripping. The lat- connect the 21 P, 21 S, 68, and 83 relays from the potentiat
ter connection permits both protection of the sound phases source on the opened phase and connect them to ground.
during single phasing (65 to 200 ms after one pole opens) This assures their correct operation.
and three-pole tripping if the open breaker pole recloses
into a fault. VII.8.2. Segregated Phase Comparison Single-Pele
Relaying
The SRD (83) relay compares the magnitudes of the three-
As illustrated in Figure 16-27, the three-subsystem segre-
phase-to-ground voltages. When one voltage is larger than
gated phase cornparison systern is easily adapted to single-
the other two, the rclay operates. Thus, its contacts close
pole tripping. The three pilase cornparison systems deter-
for faults involving two phases, but not for three-phase or
mine the faulted phase and initiates tripping of that phase.
for single-phase-to-ground faults. The SRD opera tes on a
If two or more phases are involved, these phases are tripped.
mínimum of l O Volts difference bet ween the one voltage
At the same time, OR-2 (which provides an output only with
and the larger of the remaining two voltages.
two or more inputs) will have an output to assure tripping of
ali three phases. Pilot secondary and high speed backup trip-
The SRD contact is used to block the Zone 1 phase-to-phase ping is inhibited through OR-1 if any subsystern of the SPCU
unit and both units of the pilot Zone 2 KDAR phase relay relay operates to avoid three-pole operation on single phase
from operating on phase-to-ground faults .. Otherwise, three- faults. During the open phasing period, the pote disagree-
pole tr ipping might occur on sorne line-to-ground faults. ment timer, through the OR-1 and the AND-1 circuit, atso
The SON unit, operated by 310 ground current, has its back inhibit secondary and backup tripping. This pole disagree-
contact in parallel with the SRD contact in the phase pilot ment circuit also operates a back-up tírner to trip ali phases
trip circuit to permit tripping on three-phase faults. Thus, if single phasing exists after the normal cycle.
the parallel combination of SON and the SRD contacts pro-
vide a trip path for ali fault types except single-phase-to- VH.8.3. Reclosing for Single-Pote Tripping
ground.
A conventional single-shot recloser can be used in the single-
Relay 48 is a TD-S-type timer set for longer than the single pole relaying system. While the opening of one pole initiates
phasing period. lt serves as a backup to trip ali three reclosing of ali three poles, two would airead y be closed.
breaker peles directly when one pole is open tonger than Three separate reclosers will be required where this method
the normal trip/dead-time/reclose cycle. presents a problern.
AuA~.ory to r,o
Phose o -----------, Pilase o
Tr,p Oó,y
Au .. 1,0,y to Tr,p
Pnose e ----1--1-------1--~ Phose e
frip OrAy
A.ml,ory
io r,,p oll
521> :,zb S2D r11,ee l'l:>les
o b e
Pole o,sogremen1 "Ou1pu1 Onty W11h
r,mer Two or More Input>
Figure 16-27: BHic: Sc:hemetic: of SPCU The Single Poi• Rel•ving Svatem.
lf single-pele relaying is used when three-pole reclosing is VIII. BREAKER POLE DISAGREEMENT PROTECTION
not perrnissible, reclosure must be locked-out for ali three-
pole tripping. lf system and stability requirements permit Using a separate and indcpendent breaker mechanism for
both single-polo and thrcc-pole reclosíng, one single-pele each of the thrce pales or pitases irnproves systern reliabil-
rccloser and one thrce-pole recloser should be used , with ity during fault clearing. This generalization assurnes that
differcnt reclosing cycle times. AII schemes should block at lcast onc pole will open in a darnagcd breaker to reduce
subseque nt reclosure upon reclosing into a pcrmanent fault. systcm instability during a fault. Independcnt peles, how-
cver, increase the possibility of unintcntional "pole disagree-
Vll.C. Selective Pole Tripping me nt" if one or more pales are open during non-fault condi-
tions while the others are still closcd.
Selective pole tripping opens the faulted phases Ior all typc
of faults: onc pote for single-phase-to-ground and phase-to- The standard brcaker-failure schemes previously described
phase fault, two potes for double-phasc-to-ground faults, provide protection in most pole disagreements during fault
and ali three potes for three-phasc faults. This systern allows clearing. In addition, the type SLB relay providcs sensitive
interchange of synchronizing powcr for phasc f'aults. as well detection of pote disagrccment during normal operation,
as for ground faults so that the line is only o pe ned when all The SLB relay monitors each phase of the secondary cur-
three phases open on three phase faults. rent, sensing whcther any phase is below a low threshold
value whilc any other is above a high threshold value. The
Severa! selective pote rclaying installations were made in the low and high threshold sett ings are adjustable. It is recom-
l 9SO's, but the system is no longer in general use. Selective mended that the high threshold be set about three times the
pole tripping is complex and, in view of the relatively small low threshold setting. These values are selected to detect
nurnbcr of inter-phase faults, its advantages are not particu- an open phase or pole when the breaker is only charging the
larly significant , The SPCU system can, however, provide line.
selective pole relaying with mínimum additional complexity.
16-27
Typical timer settings are 1.0 sec for tripping ancl 2 .O scc
Detector r >----.. . ._...
1L·b
for breaker failure lockout to trip ancl lockout ali adjacent
breakers after a sustained pole disagreement condition.
Ic Level (O)
o
--t-r-.---. Detector r >-....;....---+-
ll:c ANO
b
-3 (0)
+ Pos.llve
Note:
Log,c S1a1esÚO)
ar ( 1 ijShown lar
Normal Load Curren!
!CS
SLB Rekly -2 (Balanced 5 Amperes)
Figure 16-29: Simplified Logic Diagram for The SLB Pole
Timer ICS Disagreement Relay.
T2 1
Figure 16-29 is a simplificd logic diagram for the SLB rclay. e) Shunt-reactor protection
The phase current for the current transforrners passes
through three low leve! detectors and one high Jevel detec- d) Remete brcaker-failure protection
tor. When one or two of thc pitase currents are below the
low leve! rhreshold and one or two are above the high leve] IX.A. Transformer Protection
threshold, onc or more of the three ANO logic circuits will
have an output to OR-2. The OR-2 output energizes two A typical transformer protection scherne is illustrated in
tirners (T2 and T3) that, in turn, operare telephone relays Figure 1 6-30. A direct trip channel is keyed to the trip
TR-2 and TR-3 to provide contact outputs. statc when the transformer protective relays opera te. The
received trip signa! will then trip the remate end breaker
IX. DIRECT TRANSFER-TRIP SYSTEMS and lock out reclosing.
Direct transfer-trip systems provide circuit-breaker tripping
"Non-permissive underreaching transfer-tríp systems are discussed
at remate or receiver terminals, without any supervisión by in Section 111.D, above,
16-28
H
Tronsmiss,on L,ne
Shun1 Reoclion
Protec11on
87, 50/51,63 et.,
\ Cnopter B I
1 \ I
1 T.+ > e <,
/
L - - - O,rect Tronsfer Trip ChOnnel / <,
<,
---~DTI /
+T
/ <,
e
¿_ 81-0.recttonol Direct
lionsler Tr,pChannel
--"'
'
T +
----•¿TT
DTT~+----
_ _l 520
C
Figure 16-30: Oirect Trip for Transformer Protection. ~
520
Altcrnatively, a ground switch operated by the transformer -l l~º
protcctive relays may be used for transformer protection. Figure 16-31: Oirect Transfer Trip for Shunt Reactor Protection.
While a single switch on one phase is normally applied, a b) Audio frequency signa! on a communication line or
dou ble switch on t wo pilases may be used to initiate a mícrowave channel
double-phase-to-ground fault. In the latter case, both phase
and ground relays can operatc to ensure redundance. Fault e) High frequency signals over the power line.
grounding is not applicable to ali systerns, either because of
high short-circuit capacity or psychologically. Application of the de system is explained in Chapter 14, in
connection with pilot wire relaying. The other two types
IX.B. Shunt Reactor Protection generally ernploy frequency-shift transmitter-receiver ter-
minal equipment. While other types of modulation are pos-
As discussed in Chapter 8, shunt reactors are frequently used sible, frequency-shift keyed (FSK) equipment offers the
on HV and EHV lines. These line reactors are connected on best cornprornise between noise rejection capability and
the line side of the circuit breakers {Figure 16-31 ). A rernote equipment complexity. Two frequencies are usually trans-
trip channel is thus required for a fault in the shunt reactor. mitted in an FSK system: the "guard" frequency is trans-
mitted during no n-trip conditions, and the "trip" frequency
IX.C. Remole Breaker-Failure Protection is transmitted when a breaker trip is required. Since a signa!
is always present, the FSK systern will allow the channel to
A remote breaker-failure system is necessary where a rnulti- be continuously monitored. Continuous channel rnonitoring
breaker bus, such as a breaker-and-a-half or ring bus scheme, is necessary in a direct trip systern, since breaker tripping is
is applied ata transmission line terminal. A direct transfer- not supervised by any local relays.
trip system will be a part of the remole breaker-failure pro-
tection (see Chapter 18). As noise in the channel increases, a point is reached where
there is a high probability of false tripping. The leve! of
IX.D. Direct Trip Channel Considerations noise at which the channel becomes unreliable must be de-
termined by tests. Signal-to-noise ratio monitors must then
Toe channel and its terminal equipment are rnajor factors in be included with any direct trip channel, in order to block
the proper operation of the direct transfer-trip system. The possible false tripping. lt is irnportant, however, not to set
16-29
the noise monitors any more sensitively than required, since IX.E.2. Dual Channel Systerns
their operation will prevent tripping.
A dual channel system is recornmended for direct trip appli-
cations. Two FSK channels should be used in series, so that
IX.E. Application of Frequency Shift (FSK) for both must trip before the breaker is tripped. Many tests have
Direct Trip indicated that dual channels improve the security of the di-
rect trip system by severaJ orders of magnitude. Use of a
There are three important aspects to the application of dual channel system has very little effect on dependability,
FSK channels to direct trip systems: channel bandwidth, even if both channels are on the sarne transmission medium.
dual channel systems, and channel protection.
IX.E.3. Channel Prorectíon
IX.E. l. Channel Bandwidth The channel must function properly during the time of sys-
tem trouble which is often a severe time for the channel.
Although faults should be cleared in the shortest possible Careful attention to channel protection is the key to high
time, speed, is not the only criterion for selecting equipment. system reliability-both dependability and securit y, Wherc
lt is important to use the narrowest bandwidth equipment audio tones are used on a communication line, such as a
possible. A wide bandwidth channel may give the desired leased line f'acility ora long metalJic pair, the channcl must
speed, but more noise enters the system. Thus, the channel be properly protected from longitudinal induced voltagcs
will block tripping sooner than a narrower bandwidth chan- and station ground mat rise. Further, the protection equip-
nel with the same received signal level. A wideband channel ment used must properly protect the channcl from damage,
will consequently not be as dependa ble as a narrower chan- yet allow the tones to remain operative for protective relay
nel under equal receive-level conditions. purposes.
17-1
Chapter 17 l. INTRODUCTION
~R
, .. L ... ,
A~
Lood
1.n( Mox.)
l.5!l.(Min.)
2 12.02 + J 35.83 rent flows out of R and over line RH to lhe inlerna1 fault
z apparent (minimum generation) =
X
12_02
X
d_l-
4) 5.29- 3.87 4) 12.35-11.61
5) 13.63-10.04 5) 8.18- 6.02
6) 8.49- 6.48 6) 10.75- 9.32
The actual irnpedance to this fault from the relays at either
bus G or bus R is 3.0 ohms. The relays at G would "see"
1> 5.22-
2) 7.15-
5.74
7.90
f an -----"1o"'n"'----~
3) 7.06- 7.74 - 1) 10.4"- 9 68
this impedance if the breaker at R were open, or if there 4) 7.06- 7.74 .., · 1)40.00-30.00
•5} 5.45- 4.02~._..._-.R -~)) .501~ .76 2) .51- .76
were no source of fault power al station R. Although this .., O 3)40.00-30.00
6) 2.26- 2.84 t 4) O- O 4) O- O
fault is within the 3.6-ohm Z 1 setting, the Zone I relays at 5) 5.45- 4.02 5)40.00-30.00
f
-+
1l 15.65- 15.42 +- 6) 2.26- 2.84 6) 2.26- 2.84
G will not operate with the source and breaker at R closed 2) 6.64 - 7. 14
31 7.06- 7.74
for the 1, 2, 3, and 4 operating conditions. The reason is 4) 7.06- 7. 74 lfi(Max.)
5} O- O 1.5fi(Min.)
that the apparent impedance "seen" by the relays is greater 6} O- O
( •)-Curren!lntoBus
than the 3.6-ohm setting (Table 17-l). Sirnilarly, the Z¡ re-
lays at R will not operate for this fault, except for condi- Note:
Currems ,n Amperes. lmpedances in Ohms on a Secondarv (Relay) Base
tions l, 2, 3 and 4 minimurn. First Current is for Maximum Generation. Second Curren! for M,n,mum
Generation.
Conditions:
Table 17-1 1) Svstern as Shown, ali Lmesand Sources,n Services.
Apparent lrnpedances "Seen" by Distance Relays ali Breakers Ctosed
at Busses G and R in Figure 17-3 2) Same as 1 but Breaker on Une GH Open a1 H. With Line End Fault.
3) Line RH Open.
(Z Actual for Relays at G and R is 3.0 ohms.) 4) t.me RH Open. Breaker on Une GH Open at H, With Line End Fault.
51 Generator at R Out of Service.
61 Same as 5. bu1 Breaker on L,ne GH Open a, H. W,th Line End Faull
Operating Z Apparent for Z Apparent for
Condition Relays at G (Ohms)* Relays at R (Ohms)* Figure 17-4: Current Distribution for a Three Phase Fault
Occuring on Bus H Under Various Operating and
Switching Conditions.
I max 4.32 3.76
I min 4.98 3.50 As shown in Table 17-11, condition 5, lhe appare nt imped-
2 max 4.40 3.73 anee for the bus H fault is only 6.8 ohms, while the actual
2 min 5.09 3.48 irnpedance is 10 ohms. Zone I at Gis not affected by t he
3 or 4 max 4.33 3. 75 outfeed and the reduced apparent impedance. since the 2-
3 or 4 min 5.00 3.50 ohm tap to R is less than the 8-ohm branch to 1-1. However,
5 max 3.17 8.76 assuming there is no source at R and line Rl-1 is in service,
5 min 3.32 6.64 Zone I at G would have to be set for the apparent imped-
6 max 3.27 6.75 ance to H if the irnpedance from lhe tap point to R were
6 min 3.44 5.29 greater than that to H. That is, the setting would be lower
than the actual ohms.
*Zone I set 3.6 ohms
Curren! from the breaker at R indicates an apparenl exter-
11.A.2. The Outfeed Effect na! fault for an actual interna! faull near H. Thus. direc-
tional distance relays and pilot relaying systerns at R will
When a tap has no source except a tie to a re mote bus, cur- not respond until the breaker at H opens to reverse the cur-
rent can flow out of this tap terminal for an internal fault rent (Figure 17--4, condition 6). The HCB pilo! wire system
near the remate terminal (Figure 17--4, condition 5). While can operate under such conditions, but only if the curren!
the fault is shown on bus H, it could be near or at breaker H flowing from one terminal is small relative to the fault cur-
on line GH. With no source at R other than line RH, cur- ren! flowing into the Jine from the other two termina Is.
l 7-4
1
percent). Given terminal R and a 9-ohrn setting, however,
lhe G distance relay would operate for faults externa! to the
r
21-1 (lf Toree Terminal)
.,''
,
1
line at station R, which is actually only 4 ohrns away. Thus, 1
the tap location and impedance to station R require the G 2!1 8!1 H
r-ci
1
(9.0!1)
21-1 (11 TwoTerm,nol)
'
•I Figure 17-6: Zone 1 Oistance Refay Cover aqe at Terminal G íor a
Mullí- Terminal Line With a Transformer Bank in The
(3.6!1)
21 • 1 ( lf Three Term,nol) 1
Lineal Station R.
The faull shown in Figure 17-3 is within lhe operat ing zone
of the Zone I relays at H; t herefore , 11 will he cleared at
high speed. Conditions 2, 4. ami 6 show lhe redistribution
of fault currents with hreaker 11 open. The redist ribu t ion
does not change the apparent impedances at G or R. such
so their Zone I relays would "see" the fault. Thus, in this
example, high speed sequential tripping does not occur, al-
Figure 17-5: Zone 1 Distance Relay Covera9e at Terminal G for a though in ot her cases it rnight. For this reason , rnult i-terrni-
Multi-Terminal Line. nal lines require pilot relaying for high speed fault clearance,
l 7-5
Zone l at any terminal, then, must always be set on the line sections may not be possible or may cause excessive
basis of the smallest value of either the actual or apparent overreach under sorne operating conditions. Thus, in many
ohms to any remote terminal. Thus, Zone 1 at G and R applications, remote backup is either impossible or imprac-
would be set on the basis of 4 ohms-the mínimum actual tical. Additional infeeds at the remote busses further com-
ohms from G to R or from R to G (Figure 17-4 and Table plicate setting z3 to cover ali of an adjacent line and may
17-JI). This procedure will avoid overreach of Zone I at G aJso help to 1imit overreach.
or R when the breaker at H is open. With infeed from one
remote terminal, the reach of the relay on the other line sec- Il.B. Pilot Protection for Multi-Terminal Lines
tion will be less than that determined by the setting, That
is, the relays will "underreach" according to the "infeed," Multi-terminal lines require pilot protection for high speed
but never to the junction point, or less. This reduced effec- protection in ali but a few cases. The choice of a pilot sys-
tiveness of Zone I severely restricts the applicability of non- tem is determined by two basic considerations: protection
pilot and underreach transfer-trip pilot schemes. features and pilot channel availability.
11.A.4. Zone 2 Distance Relay Settings Where a pilot wire channel is available, ac pilot wire relay-
ing (HCB, HCB-1) is preferred for short lines. In other
For the second zone to protect all line sections, it must he cases, either a pilot blocking system ora transfer-trip pilot
set above the maximum apparent or actual ohms to any re- system may be used, although a blocking system is generally
mote terminal. For example, in Figure 17-4, Zone 2 at G preferred. Blocking pilot systerns are either directional
must be set for more than 26.68 ohms (Table 17-11). The comparison or phase comparison; transfer-trip pilot systerns
maximum actual impedance is only 10 ohms. For the out- are direct underreachíng, perrnissive underreaching, or over-
feed effect of condition 5, however, a fault at the remote H reaching. The fea tu res of the blocking and transfer-trip sys-
terminal appears to the G relay to be only 6.8 ohrns distant. tems can be combined in a directional comparison unblock
Thus, the setting required is approximately four times the system.
mínimum impedance condition. Sirnilarly , Zone 2 at R
must be sel for more lhan 40.05 ohms; that is, more than 11.8. l. Alternating-Current PiJot Wire Schemes
four times the actual impedance of 10 ohms (Table 17-11).
As described in Chapter 14, the ac pilot wire scherne is a
To set z2 at H, an additional fault study must be made un- current-differential system that is applicable to thrce-termi-
der ali operating conditions to determine the máximum ap- nal lines. Because it operates on the total fault current, the
parent impedance that may occur for a faull on either bus systern is relatively independenl of the distribution of the
G or bus R. To avoid operation on heavy load or system current arnong the three terminals. Figure 17-7 illustrates
z
swings, long 2 settings may require such restrictions as off- the HCB, HCB-1 relay application for a typical case with
set circles or blinders. (See Chapter 19 .) zero infeed al two terminals. This scheme wiJI provide si-
multancous high speed tripping of ali terminals for pitase
A nominal overreach under the maximum apparenl ohm and ground interna! faults, with small or even zero infeed
condition may resull in excessive Zone 2 overreach under from one or two of the terminals, provided there is a rela-
other operating conditions. Coordination with relays pro- tively high infeed from the rernaining terminal or terrninals.
tecting the lines from the remote busses may thus require
long time settings or compromises. Por sorne applications For the ac pilot wire schernes, the pilot channet must be a
requiring nominal operating times for faults near the remote continuous metal1ic pair with resistance and capacitance
terminal, it may be necessary to tolerate miscoordination values as indicated in Figure 17-8. (See also Chapter 14,
and possible incorrect operation for remole faults occurring Table 14-IV .) The series resistance of each leg must be bal-
under conditions that permit a large z2 overreach. anced, which involves adding resistance to the shorter legs.
These requirements limit the ac pilot wire scheme to fairly
Il.A.5. Zone 3 Distance Relay Settings and short lines, usually less than I O to 15 miles. Also, applica-
Remote Backup tion to more than three terminals is not recommended.
The conditions that result in very long Zone 2 settings also Since it is preferable to set the relays above maximum load,
apply to Zone 3. Setting Zone 3 to protect ali the adjacent the ratio of the minimum interna! fault current to maxi-
17-ó
Terminal G Terminal H fault has occurred within their zone. The distance relays
(Strong Source) (Zero Source)
must be set to overreach both remote terminals. The nor-
mal relay setting and application criteria for the HCB,
HCB-1 relays are covered in Chapter 14.
l
Series Res,stonce W,th 4/1 tnsulot,ng Tronsfo,mers ( 500 Ohrns per Leq) avoid possible cancellation of a received signaí. On a three-
Series Res,stonce W,th 6/1 lnsuloting TronsfO(me,s ( 1000 Ohrns pe, Leq)
Bolonc,ng Resosto,s Moy be ReQuired ,n 1 or 2 Leqs Connected on The ReklySode terminal line, for exarnple, one transmilter is tuned Lo fe,
Terminal H another to fe plus 100 Hz, and the third to fe minus 100
Terminal G
lnsuloting lnsulolonq Hz. Ali receivers are tuned to the channel center frequency
!i~~:b1 ~--··----------..11d~::l
L---~
Transforme, Tronslorme,
L---J
fe.
o
used, but distance types may also he applied. The funda-
tnsulOhng mental criteria for relay application are:
Total Oistributed
Transforme,
Shunt Ccpocuonce
L1m11: 1.8¡.,.f W1th 4/1 a. The trip units must overreach ali remote terminals.
Terminal R
!
r- - ,
lnsulatong Transforme,
: HCB·I
0.75¡.,.f With 6/1
lnsulot ,ng Transforme,
I Relay I
L---J b. The start units must coordinale with the trip units. Start
Figure 17-8: Three Terminal Pilot Wire Requirements for The HCB. units may be non-directional or directional. lf direc-
HCB-1 Relay. (See also Chapter 14-VI A Table 14-IV)
tional, they are set looking out or away from the pro-
tected line section.
mum load must be 150 percent greater for three-terminal
than for two-terrninal applícation. This criterion may not c. The start units must be set further (or more sensitively)
be a limitation since, for a multi-terminal Line, the third ter- than ali the remole terminal trip units.
minal may supply the additional fault current. Where the
minimum interna! fault current is not sufficiently greater The trip units are set as described above for Zone 2 distance
than maximurn load, distance relays can be used lo super- relay settings. Very long carrier start settings may be re-
vise the pilot wire relays. The pilot wire relays, which are quired to compensate for high infeed and for the possibility
set below load on the basis of the mínimum fault current, of considerable overreach during sorne operating conditions.
will block correctly under ali loads and for externa! faull lt is irnportant to realize that the apparent impedance
conditions, except in the event of an open pilot wire. In "seen" by the remote trip relays can vary significantly from
such a case, the distance relays will prevent tripping unless a the apparent impedance "seen" by the start relays. The trip
J ,- ,
relays are affected by the infeed within lhe Line section, as On the other hand , transfer-trip schemes do not require car-
well as by lhe infeed at the remote bus, while lhe start re- rier start units and thus etiminate the need for coordinating
lays are affected only by the remole-bus infeed. With multi- trip and start units under the various infeed ancl outf'eed op-
terminal lines, then, the start units' settings must be coordi- erating conditions.
nated with ali remole trip units.
ll.8.2.b.i. Permissive and Non-Permissive Underreaching
Overcurrent settings for ground relays pose fewer problems. Transfer-Trip
Because of infeed eff'ects, however, lhe setting magnitudes
can be quite low. In all cases, the 310 start unit pickup Trip fault detectors at ali terminals must overlap each other,
must he sel at least 25 to 50 percenl lower (t hat is, more at least in pairs, but must not overreach any remote terrni-
sensitively) than any 310 trip unit pickup. nal. That is, ali of the protected line must be covered by
one or more trip fault detectors. Zone I distance setting
The directional comparison block ing system allows tripping will provide this requirement on multi-terminal lines. Since
al lhe other termina Is if one or more of lhe carrier I rip re- setting ground overcurrent relays to meet these require-
lays do not respond to a particular interna! fault. With lhe ments may be difficull or impossible, distance ground relays
opening of the breakers al Lhe terminals responding to the are preferred. A simplified setting diagram and de sche-
interna! fault, a redistribution of faull current may provide matic are shown in Figure 17-9.
high speed sequential tripping.
G H G H
•
1 1
---+--
Ironsíer Tnp •
Cnonne' to Tronsfer Trip
R(f1) R
Chonnel 10 R
R(f1)
rl I
Detector 01 Foúlt Oetec1or
DetectorotG (Zone2\
G (Zonell at G (Zone2l
In overreaching transfer-trip systems, the trip fault detector Directional comparison unblocking schemes combine fea·
at each terminal must operate for aU interna) faults. That is, tures of the blocking and transfer-trip systems. Essentially,
17-9
the scheme consists of a blocking system that transmits the versal then perrnits high speed sequential tripping of aU
blocking signal continuously. Carrier start units are thus other terminals.
not required. Continuous channel monitoring is also pro-
vided with the continuous transmission of a blocking signal, When any terminal is removed from service, hlocking must
be removed from that terminal. (See Chapter 16.)
Overreaching phase- and ground-fault detectors are applied
and set as for directional comparison blocking or overreach- 11.B.3. Phase Comparison Systems (See Chapter 16)
ing transfer-trip systems. For an interna) fault, the direc-
tional fault detectors at each terminal must remove block- Phase cornparison systems are not usually applied to multi-
ing. The absence of blocking from all terminals may cause terminal lines. With tbese systems, it is often difficult to
simultaneous tripping of all terminals (Figure 17-12). obtain the proper pickup ratio and still keep the units set
above maximum load and below mínimum fault curren! al
Tnp Foulf Detecto, otG{Zooe2) ali terrninals. For the single-comparer scheme used with an
on-off carrier channel, the ratio should be 2.5: 1 between
G H
the pickup of the low set (carrier start) unit and the high set
( carrier trip} unit.
-----~
--------,, Continuous Block,ng
1 Ch<Jnnet to H (f 1 l
1 lf a lower rnargin, or the two-terrninal line margin ratio of
1
1
1
1.25: 1 were used, the trip unit at H (Figure l 7- l 3a) could
~ pick up under externa! fault conditions without operating
ChonneltoR(f 1) ----R
ConttnuovsBlock,ng
the start unit at either G or R. The system would thus pcr-
mit incorrect tripping of the H relay for the externa! fault
shown. Under outfeed conditions (Figure l 7-l 3b), a false
trip could occur at G with a pickup ratio of less than 2: 1
between the carrier trip and start units.
TripFoult
Detect0<s 01 G
(Zone 21
-
Block F,equency from H G H
Block Frequency fromR
Sh,ft •o Unbtock Stale
Tronsm,tters ot
G to H ond R
LO
ti.o
-
2.0
Externo!
Fou11
a) lnfeed Case R
Note:
-
Trip Fault Detectors Required for Both Phase and Ground Faults G H
Figure 17-12: Simplified Setting Requirements and Basic De
Schematic of an Unblock Directional Comparison Externa,
Protection System for Station G of a Three Terminal 2.0 fi:)ult
line. Similar Equipment is Required at H and R. The
Trip Fault Detector at G. H and A Must Overreach J.to
all Remote Busses.
b) Outfeed Case
For a three-terminal line, three frequencies are required; Figure 17-13: Distribution of Fault Currents Establishing The
power line carrier channels with narrow-band frequency Setting Criteria for Phase Comparison Pilot Relaying.
fe, the other two should be tuned to approxirnately fe plus ZR, and ZT). In addition, they must coordina te with the
100 Hz and fe minus 100 Hz. Ali three receivers operate relays protecting bus R and its load feeder circuits, as weU
at fe. as with the relays beyond either bus G or H. When bus R is
energized, there can be a magnetiz.ing inrush al G or H to
A dual-comparer system has better sensitivity and is less dif- the banks tapped on the line. This inrush is not expected to
ficult to set for maximum load and minimum faults. This operate relays at G or 1( unless there are severa! transformer
systern uses either a frequency-shift power line carrier or banks and/or very Jarge capacity bank(s) together with rela-
audio tones overa telephone-type line or microwave. The tively short line sections.
frequency shift channel is continuously operated and
square-wave keyed by load current, at approximately 1.0 A.
For this reason, the low-Jevel start fault detector is not re-
quired. An arming fault detector, set above maximum load
and below the minimum interna! phase-fault current, re-
stricts operation to fault conditions and avoids incorrect op-
eration in case of channel problems.
Fault current outfeed for an interna] fault will block ali ter-
minals in both types of phase comparison systems. Addi- Distance relays with long settings are more suhject to opera-
tional Zone I distance relays or instantaneous trip units are tion on inrush than those with shorter settings. Where a
usually applied. These units provide instantaneous tripping problem exists, the HRU three-phase, instantaneous over-
of the breaker nearest the fault. Subsequent reversa) of current relay , which provides second-harmonic restrainl,
fault current will permit high speed sequential tripping of can be used to supervise the line relays. This relay responds
ali the remaining terminals. to the high second-harrnonic component presenl in the
transformer inrush current and block s tripping.
Taps offer an economical way of using a transmission or Zone I relays at G are set for 80 to 90 percent of the im-
subtransmission line for distribution. The transformer bank pedance (ZG + ZH) or (Zc; + ZR + ZT), whichever is
is often connected directly to the line, without a high-side smaller (Figure 17-14). Since there is no source behind bus
breaker (Figure 17-2). The bank may be a two- or three- R, there is no apparent impedance problem. Good coverage
winding type-or an auto transformer. To design a protec- of the line sections is obtained when (Z R + ZT) is approxi-
tion scherne for such a system, the connections, grounding, mately egua! to or greater than either Zll or Zc;.
and bank impedance must be known.
If a line-side breaker is used at the transformer, then Zone I
This section will cover taps which supply load only. Taps at G must be set for 80 to 90 percent of the smaller imped-
with local generation, heavy motor loads, or interconnect- ance-either (ZG + z8) or (ZG + ZR). Sirnilarly, Zone I al
ing ties that supply low energy (sufficient to maintain a H must be set for the smaller of the impedances (ZI-1 + ZG)
fault on the protected line) will be discussed under weak- or (ZH + ZR). With ZR frequently zero (a transformer
feed terminals below. bank at the tap point), the reach of Zone I may he limited-
either at G when Zc is small cornpared to ZH, oral H when
With a transformer as part of the line, the relays at G and H ZH is small compared to Zc;· Altematively, t he Zone I re-
in Figure 17-14 must operate for ali faults on the line sec- lays can be set as if the line-side breaker did not e xist , on
tions and in the tap transformer (that is, within Zc, ZH, the assumption that very few transformer faults will occur,
l 7-11
The Zone 2 distance relay at G must be set above the maxi- R. lf the line side is wye-grounded, zcro sequence current
mum of either (ZG + ZH) or (Zc + ZR), whichever is will be supplied to the Line Iaults, producing apparenl im-
greater, and perhaps for more than (ZG + ZR + ZT). Like- pedance or reduced current. This situation is shown in Fig-
wise, the Zone 2 distance relays at H must be set higher ure 17-14, assuming a ground faull on the line near bus H.
z
than the maximum of (ZH + 0) or (Z11 + ZR), and per- The infeed from ZT will shorten the reach of a distance
haps more than (ZH + ZR + ZT). The setting al G, relative ground relay al G. Alternatively, the zero sequence current
to lhe impedance (Zc + Zu), is a function of the relaying lhrough a directional overcurrent relay at G may be reduced
on t he Jines to the right of H; at H, relative to (Z11 + Zc), because of the current supplied via z,.. Fault studies are
the setting is a function of relaying on lines to the left of G. necessary to study this effecl. lf the bank has no high-side
breakers, fuses, or automatic disconnects (if, in other words,
Zone 2 relays must be coordinated for time and distance lhe bank is permanently connected to the line), this effect
with the protection on the lines from the remote bus. (See may help instantaneous trip or Zone 1 relays lo provide
Chapter I O.) As a result, relay reach through the trans- more Jine coverage, They can be sel into but not through
Iormer ZT may be limiled, eLiminating potential coordina- the bank.
lion problems with lines from bus R. lf the Zonc 2 relays
reach through Zp lhey must be coordinated with the relays Where zero sequence currents can pass through the bank-
on the circuits from bus R. such as wit h an aulotransformer ora wye-grounded, delta-
wye-grounded transformer lhe relays at G and H will "see"
Similar coordination is necessary for Zone 3 relays at G and ground faults at R. They must then be coordinated wilh
H, which are sel as for Zone 2 but for a greater distance. the bus and circuits from R. Also, if there are other ground
sources at R or beyond, an apparent or reduced curren! ef-
The reach of single-phase phase distance relays al G or H for fect can occur.
ground Iaults at ornear bus R should also be considered.
Such ground faults appear as phase faulls on the line side. 111.C. Protecting Tapped Transformers
This phenomenon, however, is nota problem with the
K-DA R-type relays, which have a fixed reach through ali Distance or overcurrent relays al a remole localion, set into
lypes of lransformer connections and will not respond lo or through a transformer, provide Limited protection for
remote ground faults. tapped transformers. The best protection for lhe trans-
former is, however, a Iocal-differential scheme with sudden
For múltiple taps on a Jine seclion, the same logic appLies: pressure relays. (See Chapter 8.) Such a scheme requires
the Zone 1 al each terminal must not overreach the remole high-side currenl lransformers usually available for ali but
source terminal or reach through any transformer tap. Zone very small units, Alternatively, a sudden-pressure relay can
2 and Zone 3 must overreach the remole source terminal be used with the dístance-overcurrent protection at lhe re-
and into the adjacenl lines and must always be set into each mole terminals set into or through the bank.
tap transformer. Obtaining lhis coverage may require reach-
ing lhrough one or more of the lap transformers and, there- With local-differential or sudden-pressure protection, the re-
fore, coordinating with relays protecting the circuits on the lays must trip the remole breakers, which will operate for
other side. light faulls not detected by the remole relays. A direct
transfer-trip channel to each source terminal ora line
Ill.B. Ground Relay Settings grounding switch are often used for lhis purpose. A line
grounding switch initiates a solid fault on the line that can
The fundamentals of distance relay setlings apply to both be detected by the remole terrninals. Transfer-trip systems
phase and ground relays. Setting directional overcurrenl re- for tapped transforrners are discussed in Chapter 16.
lays requires coordinalion, as described below.
111.D. Blocking Terrninals
lf the tapped lransformer bank or banks are ali connecled
wye-delta or delta-wye, the ground relays will not opérate The above discussion of tapped Line protection is based on
for ground faults on the opposite side of the bank. The re- non-pilot protection. Tapped lines, however, are more
lays do not , then, require coordination with relays on bus likely to be protected by pilot relays. In many cases, the
17-12
pitase and ground relays at G or H (Figure 17-14) can be set IV. PROTECTING WEAK-FEED TERMINALS
to overreach the remole source terminal but not the tap ter-
minals, such as bus R. In these systems, conventional Jine A weak-feed terminal or tap is characteristically unable to
pilot protection can be used without any protective equip- contribute sufficient current to operate local fault-detectíng
ment at the tap. If, however, the terminal relays reach relays (distance or overcurrent) for sorne or alJ internal
through the tap transformer to overreach the other source faults. At the same time, however, its very low fault contri-
termina Is, a blocking terminal is required at the tap termi- bution can rnaintain the fault. The terminal must thus be
nal. The block ing terminal is designed onJy to prevent the opened to clear the fault. If high speed reclosing is used,
pilot relays at the source terminals from tripping for faults this weak-feed terminal or tap must be opened quickly to
at or beyond the tap bus (such as R in Figure l 7-14 ). The permit deionization of a transient fault are.
blocking terminal does not provide tripping, since the tap
terminal (load onJy) does not have to be open for the line A weak-feed may occur for phase and/or ground fuults and
fault to clear, A blocking terminal is usuaJly required where weak-feed protection is required. Normal protection may
there is a line-side breaker at the tap. be used for either phase or ground faults where the weak-
feed condition does not exist. Care should be exercised for
Figure 17-15 illustrates the fundamental application of phase relay operation on ground faults, and vice versa, in
block ing terminals. Relays at the tap should coordinate mixed systems.
with the tripping relays at G or H. For phase cornparison,
overcurrent relays (50) are used. A distance relay is pre- Where high speed clearing at ali terminals is required, sorne
ferred for distance units, although an overcurrent relay can form of pilot relaying must be applied. Pilot wire, clirec-
be used if it will operate for ali types and levels of faults on tional comparison, or phase cornparison systerns can be
bus R or on the circuits connected to bus R. lf zero se- used, In such applications, the strong-feed terminal(s) must
quence cannot flow through the bank, only phase relays are provide ample fault current for alJ faults under ali operation
required. conditions.
Figure 17-15: A Blocking Terminal at Tap R for Pilot Retaying Blocking systems using an on-off channel permit strong-feed
Protecting Line GH.
terminal operation independent of the status of the weak-
feed terminal, for ali interna] faults. Dur ing normal condi-
The relays (50 or 21) opérate for faults at bus R and on the tions no channel signa! is transmitted from either terminal.
connected circuits externa! to line GH, sending a blocking In the event of an external fault behind the weak-feed ter-
signa! to botb G and H. These relays will not operate for in- minal, its phase- and/or ground-fault detection operates on
ternal faults, since there is no source connected to bus R. the through-Iault current, transmitting a blocking signal
However, the relays must be set sufficiently b.igh to avoid that prevents the strong-feed terminal(s) from tripping. The
operation on momentary motor contribution to a line fault. reverse is not true as the weak-feed terminal will not see ex-
If overcurrent or distance types cannot meet this criterion, temal and most internal faults without weak-feed line pro-
directional relays may be required. tection.
17-13
weak-feed terminal. This procedure will avoid tripping the Figure 17· 16: Simplifred One line Diegrem lllustreting The
weak-fced terminal for externa) faults behínd the strong- Week·Feed Loglc.
fced terminal(s).
opera tes, in conjunction with 21 P and/or 67NP or 21 NP, to
lrip breaker G. This phenomenon, known as "echo lrip-
IV.C. Permissive Pilot Schemes
ping," is sumrnarized in Table 17-111.
Table 17-111
IV.C. l. Unblocking and Permissive Overreach Sirnplifíed Tripping and Keying Logic for the
Transfer-Trip Permissive Schemes as Applíed to a Weak-Feed
Transmíssion Líne in Figure 17-16
These permissive schernes requíre that ali of the line terrni-
Strong Source G Weak Source H
nals recognize the fault. Consequently , a complement of
additional relays is required al the weak-feed terminal. lf Breaker Tripping (21P and 94) or ('27 or 59N) and
the terminal will always be a weak-feed source, the normal (21 NP and 94) (IB and 21NS)
cornplement of forward-lookíng relays may be ornitted, and and 94
the weak-Ieed equipment substítuted. lf the terminal is Transmitter 21P or 21NP (27 or 59N) and
sometimes weak and sometimes strong, both the normal and Keying (IB and 21NS)
weak-Ieed complement of relays should be applied. This ar- and (94-1 or
rangernent ensures hígh speed sirnultaneous clearing at ali 94-2)
line terminals, for ali faults, and under ali operating con-
ditions. Note: 2 l S indica les operation while 21 S indicatcs no operanon.
IV.C.2. Phase Comparison Schemes a. The ac pilot wire scheme provides high speed simultane-
ous tripping of aU terminals. lts use is limited to short
Permissive dual-phase comparison systems that use a fre- lines with no more than three terminals.
quency shift channel normally have continuous keying. The
b. Blocking systems with directional cornparison permita
weak-feed terminal will thus perrnit the strong-Ieed terminal
complement of phase-undervoltage and/or ground-over-
to trip for intemal faults, in a manner similar to the block-
voltage relays to be applied for high speed tripping of
ing schernes. A direct-trip channel from the strong-feed to
the weak-feed terminal(s).
the weak-feed terminal is required if the weak-feed terminal
must be tripped at high speed. c. Blocking systems without directional compa rison require
a trip channel from the strong-feed source to trip the
IV.O. Underreaching Pilot Schemes weak-feed terminal(s).
Underreaching schemes are not applicable to Jines with d. The directional comparison permissive schemes (un block
weak-feed terminaJ(s), since the protection at the strong- or permissive-overreaching, transfer-trip types) can be
feed terminal does not "see" faults near the remote termi- used if a complement of relays for weak-feed logic is ap-
nal. By definition, the weak-feed terminal cannot support plied at the weak-feed terminal(s).
the normal underreaching trip fault detectors. e. The dual-phase comparison permissive schemes can be
used only with a direct-trip channel from the strong-feed
IV.E. Summary
terminal(s) to trip the weak-feed terminal(s).
Schemes for protecting weak-feed terminal(s) can be surn- f. Underreaching transfer-trip schemes (director permis-
rnarized as follows: sive) cannot be used for weak-feed lines.
18-J
Chapter 18 l. lNTRODUCTION
The maximum practica} redundancy in separating two proteo- In designing remole backup systems, their selectivity, sensí-
tion systems is shown in Figure 18-1. The common element tivity, speed, and application must be considered.
is the circuit breaker; even so, separate trip coils are shown.
lf a comrnon station battery is used , separate fused leads H R
G 2
from the battery are used for the two protection systems.
5
Quite frequently, only one voltage so urce is used, and sepa·
3 s
rate leads are run from the transformer to t he relays. \. . ......
,vyv,
1
~11 T
4
-J
'r'
1
de SJpply
--+--
-~T---chome --• •
1
Topped Load
(ofUse<f)
PrimorySystem Note:
The lnfeed Effect at Bus H Reduces The Curren! Magnitude and
- 52 520
The Reach of Distance Relays at Breaker 1. Bus G for Faultson
lines HR, HS or HT.
~
Figure 18-2: Remate Back·up at Bus G, Breaker 1 Requires
These Relays to Selectively Operate for Faults on
Unes HR, HS and HT Under all Operating Conditions.
--·--
'·'1
lnstantaneous relays can be considered as an independent
+' protective system. Because these relays do not fully cover
Topped Lood
the line section, however, a remo te end-zone faull would re-
Figure 18-3: Remote Back·up at Bus G. Breaker 1 for Line HR
Wlth lnverse Time Overcurrent Relays. quire an additional protection system. Local backup is usu-
ally applied only on lines equipped with a primary pilot sys-
tem backed up by a second pilot system or by non-pilot
Bock-vp T,me backup relays, or both.
Coord1no1tnq Time lntervol r--l---ZDn_e_3
__
Zone 2 Zone 2 11.8.2. Basic Schematic and Operation
G
Zone
Zonel lDnel I R
Figures 18-5 and 18-6 illustrate basic local backup and
Foull
breaker-Iailure schemes for electromechanical and solid-
,,,,,,,,
' state relays, respectively. The operating principie is thc
¡l~
,,, same for either scheme. In Figure 18-5, operation of one
1
---+--
..
Topped Lood
'
of the protective relay systems trips its associated brcaker
and energizes 62X and/or 62Y, which are auxiliary SG-,
Figure 18-4: Remote Back-up at Bus G, Breaker 1 for Line HR
MG-6-, or AR-type relays. Contacts on 62X and 62Y oper-
With Dlstance Relays. ate the timer 62 only if thc instantancous overcurrent relay
50 indicates that current is continuing to flow. This con-
H.A.4. Application tinued current ílow, indicating a failure to clear the fault,
causes the timer to energize the rnulti-contact 86 (type W L)
The application and setting of relays for re mote backup re- relay, tripping ali the adjacent breakers. The 86 relay may
quires an understanding of fault levels under ali possible op- aJso be used to block reclosing; to stop carrier with blocking-
erating conditions. type pilot relaying, so that the remole end can trip, if possi-
ble; and to initiate transfer-trip.
II.B. LocaJ Backup and Breaker Failure
Since transformer faults may not provide sufficient current
U. B. l. Definitions to opérate device 50, a transformer differential relay can be
used instead, supervised by the breaker "a" switch to oper-
Local backup and breaker-faiJure protection are character- ate time 62 (Figure 18-6).
ized by fault detection and initiation of tripping at the local
terminal. For exarnple, if a fault on line HR (Figure 18-2) Timer 62 should be energized with device 50 (Figure 18-5)
is not properly cleared by the primary protection system be- rather than through the breaker auxiliary contacts 52a,
cause of a failure in any part of the system other than the since these contacts may be open while the contacts in a
circuit breakcr, the secondary relaying system will detect damaged breaker are closed. AJternatively, breaker 52a
the fault and trip breaker 2. lf the fault on line HR is not contact can be used together with the 50 relay (Figure
properly cleared beca use of a failure of breaker 2, then the 18-6).
primary and/or secondary protective relays will initiate
local breaker-f'ailure backup to open breakers 3, 4, and 5 at The three overcurrent units (50) are normally connected
bus H. in phases a and e and to ground, but can be connected in alJ
JO ...
three phases if necessary. The phase units can be set below 11.C. Applications Requiring Remote Backup with
minimum fault current for high sensitivity to current flow, Breaker-Failure Protection
or above maximum load if operation can occur on the rnin-
imum fault for which protection is required. Setting above Whcre r ing busses or breaker-and-a-half schemes are used ,
maximum load helps to prevent undesirable tripping dur- breaker-Iailure protection does not necessarily eliminare the
ing testing. need for remote backup. As shown in Figure 18- 7, a fault
on any line requires tripping two breakers at station 11. A
fault on line HR, for example, requires tripping both break-
ForThe Second Breoker Wíth Breoker
ond Holf ond Ring Bus Schemes ers 2 and 3 at station H. lf breaker 2 fails to cleur the fault,
breaker failure would initiate tripping of breaker 5 but
Posmve Pos1t,ve
I
would leave line CH still connected to the fault. The breaker-
T};otective Pl-otect,ve failure protection for breaker 2 frequently initíates transfer-
94 Reloy Reloys
System 1 System2 tripping of breaker 1 at station G. lf transfer-trip is not ap-
plied or is not operative, however, remo te backup at breaker l
is still req uired to clear the fault.
Seol ,n
62X
--j
62Y
--j
For The 2nd{ 62X ¡·
Breoker With --: ~ - -' '
R,ng ond 6~.Y :
Breoker ond - -: ~-- ~
R,ng Bus
Half Schemes Figure 18·7: Remote Back·up Required With Breaker Failure et
Station H Where Ring Bus or Breaker anda Half
Schemes are Used.
J_ J_ J_ j,
TTTt 111. BREAKER-F AILURE/LOCAL BACKUP
Tnpond Lockouf
Cwcu1ts os
APPLICATIONS
Required
Optroocl
lt is recommended that ( 1) one breaker-failure circuit per
Figure 18·6: Simplified De Schematic Logic Diagram for Solid breaker be applied , regardless of the bus configuration and
State Breaker Failure and Local Back·up Protection.
(Ac Circuit per Figure 18· 1, 12. or 13). (2) that ali adjacent breakers be tripped, regardless of fault
18-5
location. One tirncr per bus or one timer per breaker rnay
1 1 1
1
1
be used. The latter is recommcnded, since it provides rnaxi- 62X,Y
I I I
62X,Y 62X,Y :i:62X, Y
mum isolation and ílexibility, even though it does in vol ve L,nel L,ne2 L,ne3 : L,neN
50·1 50·2 50·3 .L""-N
additional timers. These methods will be illustrated for var- T.,v
ious bus arrangements.
---------------- - - - - . - - - --
III.A. Single-Line/Single-Breaker Busses
r r r---t + t----
62
a. Method I is less costly than method 2, since fewer timers Figure 18-9: Typical Simplified Oc Schematic for Breaker Failure
Local Back-up Protection Using a Common Timar for
are required. a Single Line Single Breaker Bus of Figure 18-8.
the common timer circuit may be energized long enough Lme N { 62X,Y -,
50-N - -"
AND 1---.l
N I
L--~
to operate and trip ali breakers, even though both line I
Figure 18-10: Typical Simplified Oc Logic Oiagrem for Breaker
and line 2 breakers trip normally. With method 2, each Failure Local Back-up Using • Common Timer for a
Single Line Single Breaker Bus of Figure 18-8.
timer is deenergized as soon as the associated line fault is
cleared.
S1m1klr Cwcu11
G IOf Eoch8reoker
1------------------L,nel
t-------------------L,ne2
31------------------L,ne3
----+ +--+ +--
Tr,pond Lock·Ou1 011 Breokers
1 on Bus ·G ond Tronsle< • Tnp
1
1 Remole Breoker on L,ne 1
111.B. Breaker-and-a-Half and Ring Busses lt is simpler, howcver, to trip ali breakers involved. This
practice also provides syrnrnetrical protection around the
Typical breaker-and-a-half and ring busses are shown in Fig- bus.
ures 18-12 and 18-13. These arra ngerncnts require tripping
two breakers and paralleling the current transformers for
each line, as shown. A current detector (50) is provided for L,ne I Line2
each breaker. Onc timer per breaker is recommended for Primory Reloys.--+--4------1-+----'
Line I
all these bus conf'igurations. Breaker-Iailure/Iocal backup
protection systerns are shown in Figures 18-5 and 18-6. An- Secondory---+-'--1 Pr,mory
Reloys L-----+--- Reloys
other set of 62X, 62Y auxiliarles (shown dottetl) must be uoe I Line 2
added for lhe sccond breaker. '---------1--1---Secondory
Reloys
Une 2
L,nel Lme 2
Seco<1dory Reloys
Bus L Llne I
8usR
Secondory Reloys
Line2
Line3
Tronsformer
Di fferentiol Primor y Reloys
Pro1ec1ion L,ne 3
SecondoryReloys
L,ne 3
8usl Bus H
01fferen1iol Oifferen1io1
Pro1ec1,on Prolect,on Table 18-l
Figure 18-12: Single Line Oiegram of a Breaker end e Helf Bus. Breaker-Failure/Local Backup Operations
for Bus Type of Figure 18-12.
(Breaker anda Half Bus)
(See schematics of Figures 18-5 or 18-6.)
The breaker-Failure/local backup circuits are the sarne for
each breaker, except for the application of thc 86 relay con- For Local Backup
tacts. The 86 relay operations are outlined in Table 18-1 for or Breaker Failure 86 Relay Operations
No.
Figure 18-12 and in Table 18-11 for Figure 18-13. Neither
table includes reclosing lockout, which may be desired. Trip 2 and ali other bus brcakers, such
as 4, etc., on bus L. Transfer-trip line
lt will be noted from Tables 18-1 and 18-11 that ali adjacent 1. Consider option of 86T and 52a of
breakers are tripped, regardless of fault location. For sirn- Figure 18-6.
plicity and reliability, breakers which are already tripped
will be retripped. Assurne, for example, that a fault occurs 2 Trip I and 3. Transf'er-trip lines I
on line 1 of Figure 18-13. The protective relays for line 1 and 2.
will attempt to trip breakers 1 and 4 and the remete end of
line 1. Assurne breaker I fails to clear, but breaker 4 and 3 Trip 2 and ali other bus breakers, such
the remo te line I breaker do open. Then breaker-f'ailure/ as 5, etc., on bus R. Transfer-trip line
local backup need not retrip 4 and transfer-trip line 1, as 2. Consider option of 86T and 52a of
shown in Table 18-11. Similiarly, for a fault on line 2, it may Figure 18-6.
be unnecessary to retrip breaker 2 and transfer-trip linc 2.
18-7
Table 18-11 at least as fast as the protective relay plus the 62X, 62Y
Breaker-FaiJure/Local Backup Operations time. lf not, thc backup clearing time will be longer and
for Bus Type of Figure 18-13. (Ring Bus) the mar gin incrcased.
(See schematics of Figures 18-S or 18-6.)
V. BREAKER-FAILURE/LOCAL BACKUP
a. Excessive breaker interrupting time. According to ANSI
RELA Y CHARACTERISTICS
Standard C37.04, the interrupting lime may be one cycle
longer for three-cycle breakers at currents below 25% Five types of protective rclays are used: current detector
of maximum rating. Also, the interrupting time may relays, timer relays, auxiliary relays, multi-trip auxiJiary re-
be longer on close-open duty. lays, and static breaker-Iailure relays.
b. lnconsistency in 62X and 62Y times. In the SRU relay, V.A. Current Detector Relay (SO)
with a 0.25-ms operating time, such inconsistencies are
minimized by static breaker failure initiation (BFI). There are two types of overcurrent relays: type KC-4
The AR relay BFI in the SRU relay has a 6-ms operating (electrornechanical) and type SI, SIU (solid-state). Both
lime. lt is assumed that thc pickup of device SO will be are high speed units with a 98% or greater ratio of dropout
JB-8
to pickup. The KC-4 relay has three cylinder-type over- ure 18-5. The T0-50 is used in solid-state schemes with
current units in an FT case. lt is available in 0.5-2.0, 1-4, transitar input, as shown in Figure 18-6. Both units pro·
2-8, 4-16, 10-40, and 20-80 Amp ranges, with continuous vide telephone relay outputs. The range for the breaker-
ratings of 5 .O • 8.0 - 8 .O - 1 O.O - 1 O.O - 20.0 Amp, respec- failure/local backup applications is O.OS to 0.4 sec.
tively. The pickup is approximately 18 to 24 ms at four
times pickup current, and 12 to 16 ms at eight times V.C. Auxiliary Relay (62X, 62Y)
pickup. Drop-out times are on the order of 20 ms after the
current decreases to zero. Various combinations of ranges Operating times are 16 to 50 ms for the SG and MG relays,
for phase and ground applications are available. and 2 to 3 ms for the AR relays.
The SI relays have three solid-state magnitude comparison V.O. Multi-trip Auxiliary Relay (86)
units, which are mounted in the FT case. (See Chapter 3.)
The application is the same as for the KC-4 relay. Ranges The type WL rclay is used, and the operating times are ap-
are 0.25-1.0, 0.5-2.0, 1-4, 2-8, 4-16, and 10-40 Amp each, proximately 16 ms.
with a continuous rating of 6.0 - 8.0 - 1 O.O - 12.0 - 15.0 -
20.0 Amp, respectively. Operating times are in the range of V.E. Static Breaker-Failure Relay (SBFU)
1.0 to 4 ms at four times pickup current with drop-out
times of under 5 ms when the current goes to zero. The This rack-type unit combines the various functions in onc
SIU relays are similar to the SI relays, but are rack mounted. unit. The SBFU includes ali the protection from the 62X,
62Y inputs to the 86BF auxiliary relay shown in Figure
V.B. Timer Relay (62) 18-6. With solid-state pilot protection for the lines, lhe
SRU pilot auxiliary relay replaces the 62X and 62Y rclays
Direct-current static timers, either the TD-5 or the TD-50, with a breaker-Iailurc initiation (BFI) output operating in
are used in ali schemes. The TD-5 is used in the electro· 0.25 ms. This voltage output will work into the SBFU
mechanical schernes with contact input, as shown in Fig- relay.
J 9-1
Chaprer 19 l. INTRODUCTION
A. Electromechanical Types
B. Solid-state Types
11. STEADY-STATE STABILITY met by increasing VS or V R· A11 increase in 1/¡ would cause
a reduct ion , rather than an increase , in power transfer.
The íundamentals of power transmission and stability are
more easily understood if both systern resistance, excluding
the load impedances, and rnachine saliency are neglected. lll. TRANSIENT STABILITY
In this case, the power (P) transmitted over circuits con-
necting two portions of the systems is given by the follow- Transient stability is the ability of the system to properly
ing equation: adjust (rernain in synchronism) to sudden large changes
such as load changes, faults, or switching. Again, ignoring
(19-1) systern resistance and machine saliency, the power trans-
mitted during the transient interval. P, is given by the fol-
where lowing equation:
V 'V '
VS and VR = Sending- and receiving-end P= S
X'
R Sin m (19-2)
voltages, respectively
where
X= reactance between VS and V R
VS' = voltage behind transient reactance at the
et,= angle by which VS leads VR·
sending end
machines. At point F. brea ker A opens, and the transmitted as system resistance, will dampen the oscillation, until the
powcr increases to G. The swing then continues along G-H. final operating point is reachcd.
--x--i
45 90 135
Angle m Vp_ t.ocos
Figure 19. 1: Power Tranafer Curves Befo re. During and Aftar
Line·to-Line Fault.
v;
S
r!:::::::::::::=:==:::=z-\q;;----~~I;><Z;;-
IVR'I
X and jy-;¡ =ratio of magnitudes of receiving-to
S sending-end voltages. See explanation
following:
The radius of the swing ohm locus (Figure 19-3) is: 1 al an angle of 8 - p. p + m + u = 180° and substituting
ZT O - p = 8 + m + u - 180°. 180° can be eliminated by
S'O = --je + rn - 90°
2Sin rn ~----
(I 9-3) cbanging the sign to give equation 19-4.
ZT = total systern impedance between V s' and Since Sin p - Sin (180 - m - u)= Sin (m + u). Expanding
VR'·
R'L= Sin m Cos u+ Cos m Sin u
m = angle between V s' and V R. in degrees S'L Sin u
The ohmic value, as viewed from S', for a given value of m Solving for u:
is:
ZT Sin u
S'L = -
Sin m -
/<8
+ m + u)? (I 9-4)
R'L) -Cos m
(-
u0 = are Cot .>...:::.S....::'L:;..!...
_
Sin m
where
lf phasor R'S' is the total system impedance between the
u0 = are cot
lv 'I -Cosm
~
_s'I
V
_
J equivalen! source voltages V'R and V's, and mis thc angle
between these two voltages, the circle becornes a load locus.
R' V'
~ is the ratio of the voltages ~ so that
~ Sin m S'L V's
1
A ngle S'OR' is 2m. Chord S'R' = 2 (S'O) Sin 1/2 (2m). A perpen-
dicular from O to chord S'R' bisects angle S'OR'. From this right
V'RI
V'sl - Cos m
J
triangle angle OS'R · is (90 - m). This angle of radius from the u0 = are Cot
R-axis is (8 + m - 90° .) ~ Sin m
19-5
This calculation can be applied to a transmission line in a the relay reach. In Figure 19-5, for example, there must be
power systcm by relocating thc R-X diagram origin to the a 90° phase displacernent between the voltage phasors al
location under consideration, as was done for bus G in Fig- relay location A and a point at 90 percent of the line
ure 19-4. Howevcr, the impedancc, as rneasured from G, lengtb, for a 90 percent reach zone I relay to opera te on a
must be multiplicd by J /K, whcre K is the part {in per unit) swing, The effective generator voltages will be displaced
of the total current between V s' and V R' flowing in the substantially more than 90° (angle m in Figure 19-5). The
transmission line under consideration. (In Figure 19-4, K likelihood of a systern attaining a stable operating condi-
is l.) tion after such a swing is virtually ni!. In general. zone 1
swing-trips occur only on unrecoverable swings.
In Figure 19-4, it is assumed that, when a fault is clearcd,
V s' leads V R. by 60°. This relation corresponds to point J Some form of blinding is required to screen overreaching
in Figure 19-1. (This initial poinl is shown on the right side ohm relays against tripping on severe swings from which
of Figure 19-4.) As the swing continues, the impedance recovery is possible.
seen at bus G will have a straight line locus and move to-
wards the clectrical center if IV s'' = IV R'I. lf the swing is Operating independently, phase-distance relays (21) will in-
arrested at point K (Figure 19-1 ), the impedance movement itiate tripping when the angle bctween the two system volt-
will reverse. If the swing is not arrcsted, it will co ntinue ages is very large and increasing (Figure 19-5).
through thc electrical centcr (ncar m = 180°) and leave to
left at minus inf'init y , when m equals oº. The impedance
X R'
will return from plus infinity on the right and swing through
again.
G H
Generoto,
v's
Zs Swng
Sw,ng t.me X R Zs• J3 Lrne
lvs'l>lvlil zL, 3+i6
ZR•J2
....__
Sw,ng L,ne/
lvsHViil F\:Joll J Figure 19-5: Source Angle Relationship for Swing Trip on The
Figure 19·1 System of Figure 19· 1.
~~~~~~~~~,f'--,1--~~"""'-<::>"":--=--o°'<-~~-:-:-~~R
When swing ohms en ter the operating area of a zone I relay Phase-comparison or pilot-wire schemes are solcly curren!
with a circular characteristic, there is a 90° angle between rcsponsivc, and since swings produce a through currcnt con-
the voltages at the points along the line angle identiíied by dition. tripping does not occur.
l9·6
V.G. Reclosing
V.F. Overcurrent Relays Figure 19-7 also illustrates that OS tripping is desirable at
Figure 19-2 can be used to illust rate the conditions encoun- sorne points, but should be blocked at others. This selec-
tered by phase overcurrent units during swings. Assume, tive tripping/blocking philosophy is basic to the intelligent
for example, that an instantaneous overcurrent unit set for application of OS relaying.
2.5 times full load were used in a line connecting Vs' and
V R'• and that X equals 0.765 per unit on the full Joad base.
During an OS condition, the instantaneous unit would op-
erate beca use the current reaches at least 2.65 (2/0. 765)
times full Ioad when V R. lags by 180°. Swings during sta-
ble conditions will also result in higher than normal cur-
rents, although currents will be considerably less than dur- 0.33 0.33 O 33
ing an OS condition. Figure 19-7; Generation and Load Oistribution.
VI.A. Generator Out-of-Step Relaying lf swmg ohms pass through the unit transformcr, OS dciec-
tion may not be possible with either a Ioss-of-Iield relay or
Generator pcr-unit reactances have steadily increased over a simple distance relay. Moving the directional unit char-
the years, and inertia constants have decrcased as rnachine acterrstic output to point G on Figure 19-8 substantially
ratings havc increased. This, in rurn. has rcduced critica! increases the possibility of a false trip on a stablc swing,
clearing times and increased thc need for OS rclaying for such as GCD. Alternatively, the time critcrion could be in-
genera tors. creased to the point where thc stable swing would not trig-
ger relay operation, but then the fastest out-of-step swing
Loss-of-ficld relays, cquipped with dircct iorial units and may not be recognized.
undervoltage supervisión. providc a measure of OS protec-
tion for generators. Vicwed from the terminals of a largo
For severa! reasons. then. other schernes are less desirable
modern machinc, t he ohms will, in general, fall within the
than those specifrcally committccl for OS rcluying for gen·
machine or within thc unit transformer when t he machine
erators. This is because of the inherent inadequacies in de-
is out of step with thc system. lf thc swing ohms fall within
tecting OS condiuons with a rclaying systcrn designcd to
the rnachmc for thc systcrn shown in Figure 19-8. the KLF
derect field Iailure, the increased tendencics toward mstu-
(or K LF-1) loss-of-field rclay, (40), will o peral e if swing
bility, and the diffcrent responses requircd upon recogni-
ohms stay inside the characteristic circle for 0.25 sec.
tion of the two phenomena.
/
/ Thc prime critcrion in OS tripping is to mu mta in a
/
Unol
(401
I Xd' generation/load match in the islands crcatcd. lf such a
/#1
KLF_._ 1 match wcre perfect , no large load shifts ano no load drop-
Selhn<¡ 1
ping would be requíred. Also, lit tic or no gencration would
be dropped. To even approximale this ideal would, in ali
probability , require trip-blocking al sorne local ions and
I.IXd
tr ip-imtiation ar others.
VII. PHILOSOPHIES OF OUT-OF-STEP RELAYING b) Allowing the loss-of-field relays to initiate OS generator
tripping.
Certain fundamental objectives should influence the design
of protection systems: e) Restricting relay-trip sensitivity at lhe higher power fac-
tors.
e) lnitiate tripping while the systems are less than 120° out
of phase and thc angle is closing, in order to minimize VUI. TYPES OF OUT-OF-STEP SCHEMES
breaker stress.
Sorne typical systems used in OS relay ing are described here,
f) Minimize the possibility of an OS condition occurring
by:
VIII.A. Offset Distance Scheme
J) using high speed relaying ,
Figure 19-9 shows how an offset distance relay (21) can be
2) using a high speed excitation systern, used to decrease the susceptibility of a distance relay from
tripping on severe but stable swings. The cross-hatched
3) employing loss-of-field relays to rernove a unit which area represents the effectíve trip arca when the offset dis-
is drawing excessive reactive power from the system, tance relay is added. The swing shown would have caused
the distance relay to opera te if the relay had the reach
4) providing sufficient transmission capacit y , shown by the dotted circle, rather than by the screening
technique (the two circles).
S) tripping generators u pon the loss of critica! transmis-
sion lines,
X
6) applying generator braking resistors or inserting se-
Required Reoch
ries capacitors for critica! faults, 3(il
Setting
Hequired
7) applying fast valving techniques , and w,1hout //
KD·3 ~/
Sloble
8) using independent mechanisms for each breaker pole I Swmg
a) Allowing the line-protection relays to initiate OS line Figure 19-9: Screening Technique Using Offset Oistence Reley.
tripping. (The Phese-to-Phase Unit of The K·DAR Oiatence
Releys not Shown as it Ooea not Reapond to Swing1.)
19-9
Vlll.B. Concentric Circle Scheme resetting sequence is correct. This lessens the load ohm
difficulties associated with the three-circle scheme.
A concentric circle scheme for OS detectíon on terminal A
is shown in Figure 19-1 O. Custornarily, an OS relay with a For thrce-terminal applications. in-feed can adversely affcct
characteristic as shown for 68 is added to a transmission OS blocking relays that use tite concentric circle scheme
line relaying systern and surrounds an overreaching element, if sequential clearing of a three-phase faull can occur. The
such as 21 P. For all swings, the swing locus enters 68 be- reach-shortening effect of the third terminal in-feed can
fore 21 P. Because of rotating apparatus inertia, a signifi- cause an interna! line-end fault to o peral e 68-but not 21 P.
cant time is required for the torquc angle to advancc, and Clearing tite in-feed may then allow 21 P to opera te. This
the swing locus to pass from 68 to 21 P. For a fault within sequence can cause undesirable OS trip-blocking at one ter-
the 21 P reach, however, both elemcnts operate essentially minal. Out-of-step block ing, then, should not be used in a
sirnult aneously. The relaying logic senses the sequence, three-terminal application unless remo te terminal coverage
identifies swing or fault, and initiatcs the appropriatc action. can be obtained with maximum in-feed.
(218)
SOBu 1
Figure 19- 1 O: The Concentric Circle Scheme for Out-of-Sf ep
Detection.
L--~--1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
To TripC,rcuil
1
Redasing : 1
1
The two-blinder scheme (Figure 19-12) senses OS condi- 1
L_ ---------- KS(68~
lions by observing the operating sequence of the outer and
inner blinders. A fault produces essentially simultaneous
operation; an OS condition causes the outer blinder to op-
ZOS(681
era te first followed by operation of the inner blinder. The
two-blinder scheme allows trip-area restriction of distance
relays, OS trip-blocking, OS reclose-blocking, or OS trip-
ping, regardless of normal load-flow direclion.
21-2(30)
~->.c-~~f.;.;,,==-...c_~-,,...~~~R
r; IT2
are placed in parallel and the operation of either produces
121-2
3~ 1 tripping. Such a system allows tripping on severe swings
that enter the characteristic circle of either unit.
AR
.-~OS,-i:--..--- -1Ty IX.B. Solid-state Types
os Trip ond
Reclose Block
AR
IX.B. I. SKSU (68) OS Blocking Scheme
-+---------------------
--------a
1 l-i-1 To Otner Funct,ons
1
1
1
1
1
1
i
1L 21·2 1-- .....
- .J1
ToOther
21N.2t- .... _-Fu_nc_t_io_n_s_-+--------<l 25·45/0 Reclose
BIOcking
68 Logic 95
Fault clearing with 21-1 will occur through AN0-3. The across B¡ to reset it, ANO 6 has an output. An output
fault operation of 21-2 removes the OR input to AND-l from AR occurs 20 ms later for tripping and/or reclose
so that tripping by pilot or Zone 2 timer can occur thru block.
AND-4.
Swings originating to the left of B travelling left to right
1
produce identical action thru ANO 1, ANO 3 and ANO S.
IX.B.2. SDBU-1 (21 B), SI (50), ARS (94 ), OS Tripping
Scheme
The restricted trip feature prevents tripping on recoverable
swings. Both B 1 and B2 must operate thru ANO 7 to super-
For lhe single-blinder OS tripping scherne (Figure 19-16),
vise operation of the SKDU lhree phase unit.
swings from right to lefl cause B to operate, B2 to oper-
1
a te, B to reset , and then B2 to reset. lt is of no conse-
1 Out-of-step block reclosing is not available wilh this corn-
qucnce whether B is initially operated by load and B2 does
1 plernent, unless OS trip is uscd.
nol subsequenlly reset.
Reclose
Trip Block
Op1,onot Superv,s,on of
3 ~ Un,1 of Si<OU Reloy TIIT
1
1
TTTT
..
SOBU·I J ARS
.
cannot cause misoperation, regardless of timing involved in As the swing continues, the inner blinder elernent , 83 op-
the transien t. era tes to produce 21 B-1 output. AND S is t hen satisfied
and, after 20 ms, produces an output from ANO 3 to "seal
JX.B.3. SDBU-2 (21 B), SIU (SO). SRU (95). OS Tripping in" the 21 B-1 input through OR 2. Al this point , a lrip
and Blocking Scherne commitment is made with the top input to AN D 4 satis-
fied but the operation of the outer blinders 218-0 negates
The block diagram for the two-blinder scheme is shown in AND 4 so that tripping does not yet take place. Also at this
Figure 19-1 7. Characteristics B 1 and B4 ( the o u ter blinders) point, relay unit Y causes reclose-blocking.
control one output (218-0) of the SDBU-2 B2 and 83
(the inner blinders) control another (21 B-1). After the swing progresses to the point where B I resets to
remove the 21 B-0 input. AKD 4 output appears although
lf swing ohms progress from right to left on the R-X día- ANO 1 output is simultaneously removed. The drop-out
grarn, optional device 50 or alternate optional device 21-2 time of the 0/500 timer continues thc top ANO 4 input
opera tes early in t he swing. As the ohms seen by the relay for 500 rns, providing a continuing "breaker Iailure initiate "
cross the 84 characteristic, the 218-0 out put appears. input.
ANO I output drives lhe 50-ms timer. If 83 does not op-
erate to produce a 21 B-1 output within this 50-ms interval, lf the "out-of-step trip" switch is closed, trip-mit iation
the feedback to OR I from the timer causes 21 B-1 to lose takes place 20 ms after reset of 218-0. ata point where
control of AND 1. At this point, three-phase unit blocking breaker interruption is more desirable as outlined in Section
of tripping occurs, if the "three-phase trip block" switch is V.E. earlier. An available option also allows OS tripping to
closed. be initiated simu1taneously with reclose-blocking.
Opt,onol
C'ose to Block SKOU Block Ovemde
3fl! UnitTriponO·S",,._ r----,
lq
~--------------- ..... ____., 62 l
BKXks SKDU
Reqwed Only L----' 30 Untt Trop
for O·S Tr,pping
Outer
Bl,nder-l--"-21-8--C-+--------t
BIXB4 01500 Pulse
C.rcu,1
lnne, 2181
Blinder-
B2XB3 Trop
50 8Fl
L
UseE,tner
X ~.::_-:: T T BIOcking
--1_v_J__v_J__vj_Re_cio_se----~
,.,.~
Non
Operate
When a fault occurs, 21 B-1 opera tes well within 50 ms of breaker damage caused by premature opening must be
218-0 and ANO l is blocked. Therefore, no blocking of weighed against the possibility of thermal Line damage.
either tripping or reclosing takes place.
This package provides maximum flexibility of operation
Timer (62) is an available option designcd to release a sus- and sophistication of control.
tained out-of-step block of tripping. This function is use·
ful in the unlikely event that (1) a three-phase fault oc· X. SELECTION OF AN OUT-OF-STEP RELA Y SYSTEM
curs during an out-of-step condition, or (2) the out-of-
step swing were so slow that thc transmission line werc en- Figure 19-18 provides a logic table to aid the sclection of
dangered thermally. In the lalter case, the possibility of relaying schemes for OS relaying functions.
19-15
Start Out of
St ep System
Setec non
Concentric
"l~ Circle Scheme
(K:ST)
IX.A.2
y Concentric
Static
l
Circte Se.heme
Preferred
(SKSÜI
IX.8.1
N
Concentric
Clrcle Scheme
(KSI
IX.A.1
-~
N
Sta tic
Preferred - y
. . • ..1¡1;; JN
fílq " ..
.;, 11;
>· ..
Static y
Out-of:~!+Pi:, Preferred
Rel3ytng · "·
~' ;; 4 * :i: •
·-
Legend: N
Qttset
os . o ut of
Step Dist.antli
OST · O ut of Step Trip 0(f<M!I'
OSRB • O ut of Step Reclose Block IX.A.3
OSTB · Out of Step Trip Block '---T--'
RT · Restrictive T rip Sections in Which The Equipment
Y = Yes Operation is Described.
N = No
Chaptcr 20 l. INTRODUCTION
A. Feeders with No Fault-Power Back-Feed and Mín- The desired attributes of a reclosing systern vary widcly
imum Motor Load
B. Single Ties to Industrial Plants with Local Genera- with user requirements. In an area with a high leve! of light-
tion Equipment ning incidence most transmission line breakers will be suc-
C. Lines with Sources at Both Ends cessfully reclosed on the first try, Here, the small addi-
VI. Reclosing Rclays and Their Operation tional percentage of successful reclosures afforded by rnulti-
ple operations does not warrant the additional breaker op-
A. Review of Breaker Operation erations. Single-shot reclosing relays are entirely justified.
B. Single-Shot Reclosing Relays
1. Electromechanical SG R-12 Relay Operation
2. Solid-State SGR-51 Relay Operation Subtransmission circuit reclosing practices also vary widely,
3. Solid-State SGR-52 Relay Operation dcpending on rcquirements of the loads supplied. lf there
C. Multi-Shot Reclosing Relays
are motors or generators in the systern, the first rcclosu re
l. Solid-State SGRU-54 Relay Operation
2. Electromechanical RC and Serni-Static DRC may be time delayed. Most often, two or threc reclosures
Relays are uscd for subtransmission circuits operating radially, and
3. Solid-State S RCU-2 Relay only one or two reclosures for tie circuits. Approximatcly
4. Surnmary of Reclosing Relay Characteristics
half the utilities use sorne form of circuit checking before
V. Synchronism Check time-delayed reclosure to assure that either synchronisrn
exists or onc circuir is dcad.
VI. Dead Line or Dead Bus Reclosing
Number of Successful Reclosures Percent ing the devíce in thc protected environment of the control
housc and of havíng a more accurate timing devíce, tite time
lmmediate 83.25 delay should be in thc reclosing relay rathcr than in the
Second ( 15 to 45 seconds) 10.05 breaker.
Third ( 120 seconds) 1.42
Total Successful 94.72 11.D. Synchronism Check
Lockouts 5.28
A synchronism check relay is an elernent in the reclosing
system which senses that the voltages on the two sides of a
The data show that increasing the nurnber of reclosures does breaker are in exact synchronism. (An autornat ic synchro-
improve service continuity , but thc incremental benefit of nizer , on the othcr hand, initiates closure al an optimurn
each additonal reclosure is less than for the preceding one. point when thc two systcrn scgrncnts are not in precise syn-
chronisrn but have a small beat frequency across Lhc breuker
11.B. Selective Reclosing contacts.) Thc setting for a synchronisrn check relay is
bascd on the angular tlifference between the two voltages
The speed of tripping is a significant factor in the success of and is designed to minimize the shock to the systcm when
a rcclosure on a transmission circuit , The faster thc clear- the breaker doses. The angular difference between the
ing, the less fault damage and/or degree oí are ionization, voltages does not, however, determine the transient to which
the less the shock to the system on reclosure, and the thc systcm will be subjcctcd upon closure. Rather, the
greater the likclihood of rcenergization without subscquent shock to thc systcrn is related to the voltage across thc
tripping. The probability of successful reclosing, then, is breakcr contacts (thc "phasing voltage"). The phasing volt·
improved if reclosing occurs only after a high speed pilot age is thc critica! quantity in deterrnining whether or nota
trip. By allowing only pilot tripping to initiate high speed breaker is allowcd to close.
reclosing, maximum success can be assured for single-shot
reclosing, and many unsuccessful reclosures can be avoided. 11. E. Live Line/Dead Bus, Live Bus/Dead Line Control
Such a systern eliminates the high probability of unsuccess- (LLDB/LBDL)
ful reclosure on non-pilot trips, particularly for end zone
faults where clearing occurs sequentially and the deener· The LLDB/LBDL control is frequcntly intro duced in a re-
gized time is short. closing system for a transmission or subtransrnission circuit.
This scheme allows thc breakcr to be closcd when the cir-
11.C. Deionizing Times for Three-Pole Reclosing cuit on onc sidc is cnergized at full voltage and the circuit
on the other side is dead. The sy nchronisrn check and
When reclosing at high speed, the dead time required to de- LLDB/LBDL controls are complementary. The sy nchro-
ionize the fault are must be considered. Based on a study nism check unit allows closure whe n the two voltages are
of 40 years of operating experience, mínimum dead times high but in sy nchronism: the volt age control allows closure
can reasonably be represented by a straight line, using the when one voltagc is normal and the other is very low pref-
following eq uation: erably zero.
ll.G. lntermediate Lockout tiating a trip on the basis of DBDL (dead bus/dead line) af-
ter five seconds. Under control of LLDB, LBDL, or syn-
Unattended substations not equipped with supervisory con- chronism check, as muchas possible of the system is then
trol can be controlled more effectively by a reclosing scheme put back together automatically. lf a permanent fault ex-
that locks out on a permanent fault before exhausting ali its ists, only the faulty section is isolated. This will be de-
reclosing shots. With an attended (or supervisory controlled) scribed later in section IY.C.3.
substation at the other terminal of the line, a manual reclos-
ure can be attempted after Iockout, whenever the operator n.K. Factors Governing Application of Reclosing
judges that the fault no longer exists. lf manual closure is
successful, a synchronism check relay will operate-in con- Thc factors governing the application of reclosing are surn-
junction with the reclosing relay in the Intermediare lock- marizcd below.
out condition at the unattended station-to restore the
second-line terminal to servícc. This reclosing scheme is a. For instantaneous reclosing, the protective relay con·
very effective for multiterminal Unes where severa) unat- tacts must open in less than the breaker reclose time.
tended stations without supervisory control are discon- This presents no problern with high spced relays but on
nectcd for line faults. sorne slow speed relays, it rnay be necessary to reduce
the contact íollow, or "wipe."
11.H. Compatibility with Supervisory Control
b. The breaker latch check ( LC) and, whcrc applicable, the
Ali reclosing systems should incorporate sorne provision al- low pressure switch (LPC) should be used to avoid op-
lowing circuit breakers to be tripped manually or by super- crating the breaker if the trip latch and gas pressure are
visory control without inadvertent reclosing action. Such a not functional.
provision is inherent in any reclosing systern that has an
"initiate" function. In other reclosing systerns, lockout c. The breaker should be derated according to NEMA or
must be accomplished by other rneans, such as a breaker the breaker rnanufacturer's standards.
control switch slip contact or the temporary removal of
control voltage to the reclosing relay. d. For instantaneous reclosing, are dcionizing time must be
considered (see Scction 11.C.).
11.1 lnhibit Control
In sorne applications, rcclosing should be inhibited until fur- 111. CONSIDERATIONS FOR APPLICATIONS
ther action takes place in other devices. For example, if a OF INSTANTANEOUS RECLOSING
dual breaker schcme is used, and one of the breakers fails
while clearing a fault, a transfer trip signa) would be sent to The applications of instantaneous reclosing fall into three
the rcrnote terminal to clear the fault contribution from categories:
that source. Reclosing of the remote breakcr would be pre-
vented until the transfer trip signa! was removed. (There a. Feeders with no fault power back-feed and mínimum
must also be assurance that removal of the transfer trip motor load.
signal is not a result of channel failurc.) With this addi-
tional logic in the reclosing relay, the remete breaker can b. Single tiesto industrial plants equipped with local gener-
be reclosed reliably , simply by resetting tite local breaker ation.
failure lockout relay after the faulty breaker has been prop-
erly isolated. c. Lines with sources at both ends.
L---f-,
1
1 52LPC Breaker Low Pressure Check
52 52
X 52CC Cucuu Breaker Closong C0tl
X
52X Breaker Control Relay
52Y Breaker Cutoff Relay
79 Automauc Reclos,ng Relay (Type SGR 121
79M Timer Un,1 ol Type SGR· 12 Relay
l.
M
79X Toggle Un,1 or SGR· 12 Relay
O · Operator C0tl
R - Reset COII
r-- ......---+--, Contacts Shown alter Reset Co,1 Energ,zed
1101 52 (Rcset Pos,1,onl
0 TT y 868 Bus Lockout Relay
101 Manual Control Switch
Nego11ve
L-----~~~-~~---- ---------- J 0 When Synchronmng SV111tch Supervises 1 O 1 C contact
an Extra 101T Con11c1 IS Needed as Shown
IV.B. Sinale-Shot Reclosing Relays If the breaker does not remain closed, 52a reopens to deen-
ergize the motor 79M, and the SGR-12 is locked out. The
Single-shot reclosing relays are available in both electrome- relay remains in this state and can produce no further re·
chanical and solid-state form. closing action until the breaker is closed manually and the
motor times out to reset 79X.
IV.B.I. Electromechanical SGR-12 Relay Operation
Thc breaker mechanism shown is only one of a number of
Toe schematic for this type of reclosing relay is shown in schemes used, but the reclosing action as similar for ali the
Figure 20·2. When the breaker is tripped by protective re- othcr schemes.
lays I O I SC will be closed so that as 52bb closes, reclosing is
initiated. This energlzes the 52X coil through the preclosed
contacts 79X, IOISC, 43, 52LC, 52LPC and 52Y. The 52X IV.B.2. Solid-State SGR-51 Relay Operation
make contact energizes the 52CC breaker close coi! to
The logic diagram for the SGR-51 is shown in Figure 20·3.
close the breaker. At the same time, another 52X make
contact "seals" the 52X coil, anda third 52X make contact lt is functionally identical to the SGR-12 but requires only
energizes 79X-O to toggle the 79X latching unit. This opens a 52b contact to indicate breaker status. The single-shot
the 79X contact in the closing circuit and closes the 79X function provides an output during the closing strokc of the
contact in the reset motor circuit. Closing the breaker and brcaker, similar to the action of a 52X contact. lt has a
52a contact energizes 52Y to deenergize 52X. The 52X/52Y short output immediately following a" l " input. lt then re-
verts to "O", regardless of whether the input "I" is short or
scheme prevents pumping when the systern is closed man-
ually into a permanent fault. contínuous. Thus, with the SGR-51 reset and the breaker
closcd, the 52b switch is open, anda continuous "L" exists
If the breaker remains closed, 52a stays closed, and the at the single-shot input with a steady-state "O" output. For
motor is energized. After a preset interval, timer motor this condition, the flip-flop outputs are as shown. With the
contact 79M energizes the 79X-R reset coil to toggle the 79 negated input to the upper arnplifier, relay CR is continu-
unit back and restore the SGR-12 to its "normal" condition, ously energized, providing a closed contact CR in the
ready for a subsequent breaker trip. breaker close circuit.
Positive Device Number Chart
43 - Automatoc Operation Cutout Switch
868 52b - Crrcuu 8reaker Aux1hary Switch
(Closed When 8reaker is Open)
52bb - Circuu 8reaker Aux1hary Switch
• (Closed When 8reaker is Open)
IlOlC 52LC - Latch Check Switch
52LPC • 8reaker low Pressure Check
43$ 79 - SGR-51 Automatic Reclosing Relay
r---------- --- -- ------- -------- ---- 868 • Bus Lockout Relay
: RS t 01 · Manual Control Switch
' 1 435 · Synchronozing Switch
11 ~ - Contact of Normal Energized Relay
<>-* - Relay Terminal and FT
Case Test Switch
8reoker
Close
Circu11s
1
52b
L-------------- -- ------- - --------- --- ......J
As the breaker is tripped by the relays, the only open con- initiate circuit. This reclose-initiate contact may be on an
tact in this breaker close circuit, 52bb, closes (Figure 20-3). auxiliary in the SRU relay or, in an electromechanical pilot
Shortly after, 52b closes to produce a "O" input to the system, on the 62X breaker-failure-initiate auxiliary. The
single-shot. Then, as the breakcr recloses, 52b opens, put- reclose initiate circuit includes a 100/0 millisecond timer
ting a "I" on the single-shot input. A short "I" output fol- which aJlows time for the 52b contact to operate even if
lows to opérate the flip-flop. The upper output of the flip- only a momentary closure of the reclose-initiate contact oc·
flop changes to "I ", putting a" I" on the negated amplifier curs.
input and dcenergizing CR relay, This opcns contact CR in
thc close circuit. The lower output of the flip-flop changes When a trip for which reclosing is desired (such as a pilot
to "O", operating the amber lamp to indicate a lockout. trip) occurs, the reclose-initiate auxiliary contact closes to
provide a "I" input to OR-1. The output deenergizes the
lf the breaker stays closed (52b open), the two "L" inputs
100/0 timer and places a zero on the input of O R-2. This
to ANO permit an output to the reset timer. lf this condi- puts a "O" on the negated ANO-! input. As the breaker
tion continues for the reset interval (adjustable írom 3 to
opens and 52b closes, the middle negated input to the
30 seconds), the lower input (e) to the flip-flop is ener-
AND-1 goes to "O". lf a lockout has not occurred, the
gized. This resets the Ilip-flop, turns off the amber light,
three-input AND-1 is satisfied to initiate the reclosing tirner
and closes CR ready for the next automatic reclose opera-
(O to 2 or 2 to 20 seconds). The output of the timer satis·
tion.
fies AN 0-2 to opera te CR and initiate reclosing.
If the breaker retrips before the reset timer times out, the
The 52b switch may close several cycles after breaker ínter-
closing of 52b rernoves the "I" from the ANO to stop the
ruption, If the reclose timer is set on zero, the CR relay
timer and prevent the reset. Further action is blocked un-
will close its contacts at approximately the same time as the
til the breaker is closed manualJy.
52b switch closure. This produces only a slight delay in re·
closing relative to the SGR-51 with its preclosed CR con·
IV.B.3. Solid-State SGR-52 Relay Operation
tacts and reclosing initiated by the faster 52bb switch. For
The SGR-52 logic, shown in Figure 20·4, is similar to the EHV applications where intentional delay is required, the
SG R-51 but has reclose-initiate and reclose-blocking func- delay is provided by the O-to-2-second timer. Where longer
tions. Also, the closing contacts CR are not preclosed. To delays are required, 2-to-20 or 6-to-60 second timers are
initiate reclosing, CR must be energized vía the reclose- available.
Posinve
Reclose
Reclose lnitiote 868
Block
Auxiliory
Note2 G
CA
Note3
1--<~---------=-1º
S 01----4---4
Flip·
Flop
Negot,ve
Reclosc blocking is necessary for functions such as out-of- ice without affecting thc ability to test it. Ali rclay connec-
step tripping and breaker failurc transfer tripping. The re- tions are made through a plug connector and harness,
close block input to OR-3 operates a timcr to input OR-2.
This output of OR-2 overrides the initiate input and blocks IV.C. Multi-Shot Reclosing Relays
rcclosing by rernoving one of the AND-1 inputs, evcn though
the pilot systern may be calling for a reclosure. To avoid IV.C. l. Solid-State SGRU-54 Relay Operation
critica) resetting between initiate and block inputs, the 0.2/
60-millisecond tirner provides a continuing block signa! for The SGRU-54 rclay is a two-shot reclosing relay that pro·
60 milliseconds after removal of the blocking input. vides one high speed rcclosurc on pilot trips and one time-
delayed reclosurc on ali rclay-initiated trips. Basically, it
The lockout and reset operation is the same manncr as de- consists of two SGR-52 relays: one provides the high speed
scribed above for the SGR-51 relay. reclosing function; the other provides the time-delayed re·
closing function.
IV.8.4. Solid-State SGRU-52 Relay
For HIV applications, initial reclosure may be delayed to
This relay is virtually identical to the SGR-52; the cornpo- allow an appropriate dead time. lf necessary , the time·
nents, however, are enclosed in a 19-inch rack mounting delayed reclosure may be supervised by an externa! CVE-1
chassis. Also, the relay contains an interna! reclose cut-out synchronism check relay (equipped with LBDL/LLDB con·
switch, which allows the SGRU-52 to be taken out of serv- trol). lf a synchronism check is not used, the reclosing
20-8
times (2 to 20 seconds) are controlled solely by the S2b speed reclosure, followed by one or two time-delayed re-
switch input. closures.
The SGRU-54 relay can assist in equalizing the reclosing duty The high speed initiated reclosure is controlled by a O-to-1-
on the circuit breakers in a breaker-and-a-half or ring bus second calibrated tirner, adjustable from no intentionaJ de-
configuration. This function can be accomplished by (1) al- lay to the appropriate dead time for EHV applications. For
lowing the reclosing relay for one breaker to reclose at high additional reliability, the high-speed reclose-initiate input
speed on pilot trips, with a fairly long second reclosing time incorporales an 8/0 millisecond seal-in circuit.
delay and (2) by setting up the reclosing relay for the adja-
cent breaker for short time-dela y reclosing only. Toe SRCU-2 also provides a high specd reclosure inhibit in-
put. This circuit is designed so that the inhibit signal takes
Thus, on a high speed pilot trip, the first breaker will re- precedence over the initiate input and blocks only high
close at high speed. If reclosure were unsuccessful, the sec- speed reclosing. To avoid critical resetting between the ini-
ond breaker would provide the second reclosure. lf that tiate and block inputs, a 0.2/60-millisecond timcr provides
were also unsuccessful, both reclosing relays would be a continuing block signal for 60 milliseconds after the block-
locked out by interconnecting circuitry. ing input is removed.
This three-shot reclosing relay for subtransrnission and Four voltage level detectors indicate line and bus status.
transmission line applications incorporates a synchronism Each is independently adjustable from 3 to 120 V for live
check and LLDB/LBDL control f'eatures. It provides high and dead conditions.
20-9
The synchronism check detector, indicating the phasing One Line Diagram
5 to 120 V. A
voltage bctwecn linc and bus, has a range of
synchronism confirmation requires that one of the voltages
be above thc live voltagc leve! sctt ing.
An optional inhibit input blocks ali reclosing as long asan Load Load
input persists-such as a reception of a transfer trip signal SRCU·2 Settings
from a remote station. This inhibit input is retained if loss A B e o E F
of signa! occurs when "trip" is being received. LLDB 2 Sec 14 Sec 12 Sec 2 Sec
LBDL 10 Sec 14 Sec 12 Sec 14 Sec t 2 Sec 10 Sec.
Reset 10 sec. 10 Sec tO Sec 10 Sec 10 Sec
Another option, the supervisory close input, overrides lock-
Permanent Fault on Une CD Temporary Fault on Line CD
out to provide one additional reclosure if either synchro- A and F Trip A and F Trip
nism or the LLDB/LBDL conditions are satisfied for more B. C. O and E Trip B. C, O and E Trip
A and F Reclose (LBDL) A and F Rectase (LBDLI
than 2 seconds, lf the circuit recloses and retrips and dur- B and E Reclose (LLDB) B and E Redase (LLDB)
ing this time the supervisory close input continues, a second SRCU·2 at B and E Reset SRCU·2 at B and E Reset
C Clases (LBDL) c Clases ILBDL)
reclose wiJI not occur. A Tnps o Clases (LBDLI
O Clases (LBOL)
F Trips
B and C Trip
Another option is a voltage output on a DLDB condition D and E Trip
after a 5-second delay. An externa! A RS relay driven by A Recloses
B Recloses (LLDB)
this output can provide trip control. This use of this option F Recloses
E Recloses (LLDB)
is diagramrncd in Figures 20-5 and 20-6. Faults are isolated
by tripping ali intervening devíces-ssuch as switches B, C, O Figure 20-5: Typical Example al an Application of The SRCU-2 on a
and E when breakers A and F trip-and then reclosing them Subtran~mission Circuit.
..
Closed 10,___ i-,,. Closed -o
Breoker A Breoker A 10
Open
--ho
...,~••
Open
Switch B ---¡-,. 1z Sw11ch 8 12
e -l.-,, e -- ho ••
- -
Switch Sw1ICh
o -- • o --r-i,
-
Switch ... )1 SwolCh
,. -- r-i.
... ,
Switch E --:-.. 1Z S1 Switch E "'
1 '1
Breoker F Breoker F -o 10
=t-10 1 1 1
Reset 1 Rese, -o 1
2or----,21 1 ~. 1 ._
-- -,.
SRCU-2 A SRCU-2 A 20
SRCU·2 B
Not Rese1
--.-,, •• r-1~1. : '
"' SRCU-2 B
No1 Reset
1
SRCU·2 e __¡.._.
1 1 SRCU-2 e -- -,. 1
•
-- -,.
I, _
SRCU·2 o -+-,. 1 SRCU·2 o 1 1
E ----,, l1r"- .. 1
•• E -- -,. 1
---,
SRCU·2 SRCU-2
SRCU·2 F -,º f.o, ..1 1 SRCU-2 F -o 1 20
Seconds -+O
1
10 20 30 '
40 50 60 70 80 90 Seconds-+ o 10 20 ' 30 40 !IO 6 o
Faull Locoted ond lsoloted Al I Load Restored AII Load Restared AII Unes Restored
Figure 20-6: Timing Chart for Fault on Line CD in The System of Figure 20-5.
20-10
Table 20-1
Lockout relay X X
3~ ------------------------------.-------t-- o 25/R
52
. Restramt Elec1romagne1 (Type CVE)
· Power Circuu Breaker
101 52b · Breaker Auxihary Contact
se (Closed When Breaker is Open)
1O1 Circun Breaker Control Sw,tch
25 25 1, 1 O 1-0 . Contact as Shown m Off Positoon
52b R o 101-SC. Contact Closed Dunng and Aher a
~
I
Close Operatioo
25
2!I 25
R o Other Dev,ces Requored for
Anti·Pump Control Not Shown
Closing
Circuit
of Breoker
V. SYNCHRONISM CHECK
Figure 20-1 O plots the maximum beat frequency across the 70° 70°
open breaker that will allow the CVE contacts to close. For
exarnple, ata 20-degree angle of closure, a slip frequency of
.O 16 7 (the valu e that gives a synchroscope pointer rnove-
90º 90°
ment at the rate of a clock's second hand), would requíre a
Figure 20-9: Typical Voltage Anglo Characteristics of CVE for
time dial setting on the CVE of 2 or less. Various Angle Settings. (Rated Voltaqe on One C,rcuit)
20-12
.30
\ -, Partial Schematic
I 143
:-,..
'\
.20
<,
.15 -- -- ~ r-, --- --- -- ,_ __ --
:----1------- -- ------1--- - -- -- M-i:
>---
---
60º 179
r--- IOlC
.10
.08 . "
'
-
i
"r-, "'r---...._
l : CVE !V2 V2
.06 1 '
\ 1 1
.05 I V1 V1 :
.04
\ 1
1
1
1
1 40°
1 .............. ......__ L---- ---- --------------- - -- ---~
.03
--..
.02
\\ r-- r--
¡-_
,_ __ ,_ __ ,_ __ --- - - --
..,
i~
.015
¡\ r-,-- -- -- >- --
..
g .o 1 .......
s
r-;
~ .008 ..... Device Number Chart
........ 20º 52c · Close Cost of Circuit Breaker
--
. 9- .006
vi .005
Opero te r-- 43
79
· Automatic Reclose Lockout
· Reclosong Relay
E
:, r---
.004 101 C · Control Swotch Contact (Closed in "Clcse"]
·~ V1 • Voltage Umt for One Side of Breaker
o
;'!;: V2 • Voltage Unit for Other Side of Breaker
.0030 l 4 7
2 3 5 6 8 9 10 11
Time Dial
Figure 20- 1 O: Approximate Maximum Slip Frequency for Which Figure 20-11: Typical Synchronism Check Control of Breaker
Operation Occurs. (Rated Voltage on Both Sodes) Closing Using CVE- 1.
At sorne Jocations, reclosing is initiated when the bus is hot Partial Schematic
LBDL controls. Figure 20-11 illustrates its basic operation L.--------- - -- --cvE-21
for controlling breaker closure. Manual breaker closures by ~lnitiote
1
T SX-1 HighSpeed 1
1 O 1 C can also be supervised as shown. ~ Reclosures 1
1
_
1 ~ Synchronism
will the antipump scheme in the breaker reliably prevent 1
._
1
1 _____ _J 1
pumping when closing into a permanent fault.
Figure 20-12 shows how the CVE-2 relay is used to selec- high speed and tirne-delayed reclosures; tirne-delayed relay
tively initiate reclosures. The reclosing action is modified trips initiate only time-delayed synchronism check recio·
by the nature of the trip: high speed relay trips initiate sures; and manual trips do not initiate reclosures.
20-13
VIII. AUTOMATIC SYNCHRONIZING The automatic synchronizer can also be equipped with the
following options:
The type XASV synchronizing system can be used at unat-
tended locations or at attended locations for automatic a. An acceptor (A) to restrict the range of voltages at which
synchronizing or supervision of manual synchronizing, The breaker closing is initiated
heart of this system is the X synchronizer, which compares
b. A governor control auxiliary (S) to initiate angular adjust-
the voltage on two sides of an open breaker and energizes
ments needed for synchronizing
the breaker close coil under the following conditions:
c. A regulator control auxiliary (V) to initiate voltage level
a. lf the frequency difference is below a preset amount adjustments needed for synchronizing
b. At such a phase angle that the breaker contacts close d. A synchronism check device (Y) to avoid possible clo-
when the systems are in phase. sure because of component failure in the XASV.
21-1
Chapter 21 l. INTRODUCTION
A. CF-1 Induction-Disc Underfrequency Relay Unit govemors sense small changes in speed resulting from
B. KF Induction-Cylinder Underfrequency Relay gradual load changes. These govemors adjust the mechan-
C. SDF-1 Digital Solid-State Underfrequency Relay
ical input power to the generating units in order to maintain
VI. Formulating a Load-Shedding Scheme normal frequency operation. Sudden and large changes in
generation capacity through the loss of a generator or key
A. Maximum Anticipated Overload
B. Number of Load-Shedding Steps inter-tie, can produce a severe generation and load irnbal-
C. Size of the Load Shed at Each Step anee, resulting in a rapid frequency decline. lf the gover-
D. Frequency Settings nors and boilers cannot respond quickly enough, the system
E. Time Delay
may collapse. Rapid, selective, and temporary dropping of
F. Location of the Frequency Relays
loads can rnake recovery possible, avoid prolonged systern
VII. Special Considerations for Industrial Systems outage, and restore custorner service with mínimum delay.
·{- ::: )
Power systerns are becoming more prone to serious fre-
quency disturbances for given arnounts of sudden load
(21-2) change.
where
Since the inertia constant is based on the unit capacity, the
R = average rate of change of frequency, Hz/s effective constant for a machine operating at partial load
is higher than the rated value. Even so, since load-shedding
p = power factor rating of the machines schemes must function most effectively during heavy sys-
tem loading, the rated, rather than effective, H value should
L = average per unit overload be used to calcula te the largest expected average rate of
change of frequency, R.
= Load - power input
(21-3)
Power input
tbese cornponents at the rated speed. Por exarnple, a 200 MW from s1 to s2. The inertia constant for s2 is 4,
turbine-generator rated at 100 MV A, with an inertia con- and the power factor rating of the machines there is 0.85.
stant of 4, has a kinetic energy of 400 MW-s, or 400 MJ, in If the tie is suddenly lost, the average rate of frequency
its rotor when spinning at 3600 rpm. lf both power output drop between 60 and 58 Hz in system s2 is calculated as
and load were constant with declining frequency and speed, follows. From Equation (21-3):
the generator could supply its full load ( with p = l) for 4
Average Per Uni it Over I oa d L --------=--
= Load - Generator Input
secor.ds, with no power input to the turbine, before the ro- Generator Input
tor would come to a complete halt. The inertia constant
(H) for an individual unit is available from the manufac- 1200 - 1000
turer. For a system, a composite value is calculated as fol- 1000
lows:
=0.2
,{-:~:)
(21-2)
(.85) (.2) (58-60) frequency declines, the overload is reduced and the fre-
4 (.0656) q uency drop slows. At 57 .3 Hz, the freq uency is down by
4.5 percent, and the load is reduced by 9 percent to 91 O
= -1.30 Hz/s MW. This reduction completely relieves the overloac.l, and
the frequency will level off here.
The negative rate of change indicates frequency drop. Halv-
ing the inertia constant-putting H = 2 rather than H = 4-
60
will double R. Repeating the caJculation for the intervaJ be- H(Cons1on1)
tween 58 and 56 Hz: +
58 10% Overíood --1----1
J: 480 4 12
Assuming that the load and the power input to the genera- 8 16 20 24 28 32 36
Time, Seconds
tor remained constant with frequency, the rate of drop (R)
Figure 21-2: Behavior ol Frequency During Overload.
would decrease only slightly even after an intolerably large
frequency reduction. Real loads, however (particularly mo-
Figure 21-2 shows the behavior of system frequency for
tor loads), do vary with frequency, tending to decrease as
several combinations of inertia constant and percent over-
frequency drops. This effect relieves sorne or all of the
load, assuming d = 2. The ratio of d to the percent overload
overload that caused the frequency disturbance. The load
determines the final settling frequency of the system; the
reduction factor, (d) is defined as follows:
inertia constant affects only the speed with which the new
percent change in load (21-5) steady-state condition will be reached.
d = ----------~
percent change in frequency
The effect of d on the value of R, calculated using Equation
This factor may vary from 1 /2 to 7, depending on the mix (21-2), can be determined by using small decrements of fre-
of loads, although typically most utilities assume d = 2 (that quency, f1 - f0. L must also be adjusted each time to retlect
is, a 2 percent decrease in load for each l percenl decrease the reduction in loading as the frequency drops. This series
in frequency). An exact valué of d can be determined only of solutions will yield a close approximation of the desired
by observing variation of load with frequency on the system curve.
under consideration.
= 0.1 per unit (or 10 percent) (21-3) Generating plants, where optirnum performance is essential
to ride through overloads, are highly sensitive to frequency
The frequency will initially drop at 0.65 Hz/s, but, as the drop. There are two rnajor problcm areas:
a. Motor-driven auxiliaries, particularly boiler feedwater system collapse. In general, non-critica! loads, usuaJly resi-
pumps, will slow down, reducing generator output. dentia1, can be interrupted for short periods, minimizing the
Safety margins in generator cooling and bearing lubrica- impact of the disturbance on service.
tion systems may become dangerously Most
small,
plants will operate effectively only down to the 56.5- to Automatic load-shedding, based on underfrequency, is nec-
5 7 .5-Hz range. essary since sudden, rnoderate-to-severe overloads can
plunge a system into a hazardous state much faster than an
b. The last rows of long, low-pressure blades in steam and operator can react. Underfrequency relays are usually in-
gas turbines are tuned to opera te free of resonance stalled at distribution substations, where selected loads can
around 60 Hz. When running under heavy load at about be disconnected.
58.5 Hz or below, the steam excitation frequency ap-
proaches blade resonance. The blades may thus vibra te The object of load-shedding is to balance load and genera-
severely, producing fatigue stress. On the average, blades tion. Since the amount of overload is not readily measured
should not be subjected to a total of more than 1 O min- at the instant of a disturbance, the load is shed a block ata
utes of severe vibration over their lifespan-fatigue is time, until the frequency stabilizes. This is accomplished by
cumulative. A11 possible precautions should be taken to using several groups of frequency relays, each controlling its
avoid operation below 58 to 58.5 Hz. Frequency and own block of load and each set to a successively lower fre-
time limits for turbine units should be specified by the quency. The first line of frequency relays is set just below
man u facturer. the normal operating frequency range, usually 59.4 to 59.7
Hz. When the frequency drops below this level, these relays
will drop a significant percentage of system load. If this
IV. LOAD-SH EDDING load drop is sufficient, the frequency will stabilize or actu-
ally increase again. lf this first load drop is not sufficient,
For gradual increases in load, or for sudden but mild over- the frequency wil1 continue to drop, but at a slower rate,
loads, unit govemors will sense speed change and increase until the frequency range of the second line of relays is
power input to the generator. Extra load is handled by us- reached. At this point, a second block of load is shed. This
ing spinning reserve-the unused capacity of alJ generators process will continue until the overload is relieved or until
operating and synchronized to the system. lf alJ generators all the frequency relays have operated. An alternative
are operating at maximum capacity, the spinning reserve is scheme is to set a number of relays at the same frequency
zero, and the governors may be powerless to relieve over- or at close frequencies, and use different tripping time de-
loads. lays.
In any case, the rapid frequency plunges that accompany Techniques for developing schemes and calculating settings
severe overloads require impossibly fast governor and boiler are described below in Section VI.
response. To halt such a drop, it is necessary to intention-
ally and automatically disconnect a portion of the load V. FREQUENCY RELA YS
equal to or greater than the overload. After the decline has
been arrested, and the frequency returns to normal, the load Three types of underfrequency relays are available. The
may be restored in small increments, aJlowing the spinning induction-disc and the induction-cylinder relays are both
reserve to become active and any additional available gen- electro-mechanicaJ and use a frequency-sensitive phase-
erators to be brought on line. shifting network. The third and most sophisticated is a
solid-state device that uses digital logic for precise and
Frequency is a reliable indicator of an overload condition. stable setting. All frequency relays use ac voltage from a
Frequency-sensitive relays can therefore be used to discon- voltage transformer ora capacitive voltage device for fre-
nect load automatically. Such an arrangement is referred to quency measurement.
as a Ioad-shedding or load-saving scheme, and is designed to
preserve system integrity and rninimize outages. Although V.A. CF-1 lnduction-Disc Underfrequency Relay
utilities generally avoid intentionally interrupting service, it
is sometimes necessary to do so in order to avert a major The induction disc (detailed in Chapter 3) is subjected to
21-5
two ac fluxes whose phase relationship changes with fre- time dial setting of 1 /2; they are connected to trip 6-cycle
quency to produce contact opening torque above the fre- breakers. Figure 21-3b shows that, for a 1-Hz/s frequency
quency setting and closing torque below it. Characteristics decline at point X, the relays will trip 3.2 seconds after the
of the type CF-1 underfrequency relay for a frequency set- disturbance begins.
)O- 116 -2- ,.... \ vi/ at load interruption will be 3.3 x 1 = 3.3 Hz below normal,
\ \ / 1\\ V I/ V
~ 5 or 56.7 Hz.
.,¡ 4 \ / V ' '( I/ V
1\. / "'r-..v
~ 3
~ r-, '>.;: .... ~ ""'-~
:? 2
·c.
.9- 1
¡.!;:
059 - 17' r-,... !"-- .._
0o
..... ...._
- V.B. KF lnduction-Cylinder Underfrequency Relay
57 55 53 51 49 2 4 s s 10
Frequency,Hz Rote 01 Whoch Frequency Droos, The induction-cylinder underfrequency relay is more accu-
Hz/Seconds rate and much faster than is the CF-J disc relay. The oper-
(a) Response to lnstantaneous (b) Response to Constant
Frequency Change. F requency Dechne
ating principie, however, is the same: two ac fluxes, whose
/Trip Frequency = 58 Hz) (Trip Frequency = 58 Hz) phase relationship changes with frequency, produce contact-
Figure 21-3: Characteristics of 60 Hz lnduction Disc (CF-1) closing torque in the cylinder unit (detailed in Chapter 3)
Frequency Relay.
when the frequency drops below the setting. The contacts
have a fixed initial separation and may close in as líttle as
ting of 58 Hz are given in Figures 21-3a and 21-3b. As the 5 to 6 cycles after application of underfrequency potential.
curves of Figure 21-3a show, the relay has an in verse time-
underfrequency characteristic. The time-lever parameter re-
Phase shifts in the ac potential supply, resulting from fault
fers to the adjustment for initial contact separation, which
inception or clearing, may appear to the relay as sudden fre-
determines the operating time for a given applied frequency.
quency changes, and may result in incorrect cylinder unit
For predicting relay behavior during actual frequency dis-
contact closure. For this reason, at least 6 cycles of inten-
turbances, a more useful plot is operating time as a function
tional delay must be added to the relay operating time be-
of rate of change of frequency (Figure 21-3b).
fore tripping. This delay may be obtained either by picking
up a 6-cycle telephone relay or by energízing an adjustable
The induction-disc underfrequency relay is accurate to
static timer in the KF relay. The frequency setting accu-
within 0.1 to 0.2 Hz ofsetting, depending on temperature
racy of such a relay is about ±0.1 Hz, depending on voltage
and ac potential variations. It is designed for applications
and temperature changes.
where high tripping speed is not essential.
The operating time of the CF-1 relay can be calculated as The tripping characteristics for the KF induction-cylinder
follows. lf the relay is applied to a system in which H = 8 relay are shown in Figure 21-4. This type of plot is use ful
and which is subjected to a 31 percent overload, the initial for predicting the frequency at which tripping will occur
rate of frequency decline between 60 and 58 Hz can be cal- during frequency declines. It reflects the fact that the fre-
culated using Equation (21-2). quency will continue to drop after the relay setting fre-
quency is crossed and during the time the relay is operating.
(.85) (.31) (-2) As a result, the actual contact closure freguency will be
R
8 (.0656) somewhat below the set value.
= -1.0 Hz/s The cycles of delay para meter associated with each curve in
the family is the intentional time delay setting after the cyl-
The CF-1 relays have a frequency setting of 58 Hz and a inder unit doses its contacts. The plot shown in Figure
21-6
6
J quency decline indicates that the trip contact will close
1 1 1 1 IJ
when the frequency is 2 Hz below the setting. Total operar-
30Cycte Deloy
\ 1/ ing time wilJ thus be:
,v I
V 2
I - x 60 {base) = 12 cycles (21-6)
JO
V
' 20Cycte Oeloy 1- 1-
\
V
,, V
1/
6Cycle Oeloy - 1-
H = 2 and which has a 31 percent overload, the initial rate
of frequency decline is 4 Hz/s (Equation 21-2). lf the delay
/
, ,,,
V V \
2 v:
J 1 .......... timer is set for 1 O cycles, and the relay trips a 5-cycle
/ V ........
/ breaker, the total effective delay in disconnecting the load
1/ V t> ,V
....... is 15 cycles. Figure 21-4 indicates that, if the K F relay is
I V l/ 1 .....
Clock
(Crystol
Oscillotorl
~
Ac Potentiol 0--- lsolotion Zero· 168,t Trip
Oeloy Shed
Supply ond Crossing
.
Bnory .-----; Control
Timer
TripO...!put ~ Load
120Vol!S o--- Filtering Detector COU'lter Counter
~~
INHIBIT
r
Timer Setting
Entered Here
RES ET
Under
vouoqe Frequency Sett,ng -'3
Penod 1---
Detector
Detector Entered Here
Figure 21·5: Simplified Block Diagram of SDF-1 Solid State Underfrequency Relay.
21-7
~
lator in a 16-bit binary counter. The next zero-crossing
pulse signals the end of the period and the period detector
s
1
:,..
2
circuitry checks the accumulated pulse count. The counter
is then cleared for the next cycle, and a new count is begun, j
The lower the Irequency, the longer the period and the
e
~
greater the number of clock pulses accumulated in the 16- J¡
bit counter during each cycle. ~ 2
e
..s
~
ie:
The relay frequency is set using a series of binary-weighted ::r: 2
ºo 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1()-
tap-screw inputs in the period detector circuitry, Inputs are
Ro!eof FrequencyOecllne, Hz/Second
set to the binary count for the period corresponding to the 1() 20 30 40 SO 60 70
H•2
desired tripping frequency. If the period detector circuitry 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
H•4
10 20 JO 40 SO 60 70 80 90 100 120 140
senses an accumulated count larger than indicated by the App,o11mo1e Pe<cent System Olle<lood
relay setting, the period detector signals the trip control {Assume Lood Constont W1!h Freouencvond PF•.85)
H ~ System Inertia Constant, KW Sec/KVA
counter that an underfrequency cycle has been detected.
( • )· Totol lnterrupt,nq Time ,s 2Cycles Greote,
The trip control counter will immediately start the delay
Figure 21-6: Characteristics of Digital Solid State (SDF· 1)
timer, but will not enable the trip output circuits until three Underfrequency Relay.
consecutive underfrequency cycles have been detected. The
trip output will reset and the timer stop only after two con- front panel. The curves are plotted, however, to show total
secutive cycles with frequencies higher than the set value relay operating time, which is approximately 2 cycles longer
have been detected. than the delay setting. Again, externa! delay should be
added to the delay setting when determining the time or
The relay tripping frequency is accurate to within ± 0.007 frequency at which load will actually be disconnected. The
Hz of the frequency setting. Total minimum operating time overload nomograph at the bottom of Figure 21-6 relates
is 4 cycles, including one cycle for pickup of the interna! percent overload to initial rate of frequency decline, based
tripping telephone relay. The delay timer is adjustable in on Equation (21-2) with a frequency interval of 60-58 Hz
1 cycle setting increments from 2 to 99 cycles, 33.3 ms lo and 0.85 power factor.
1.65 sec. 1 t starts after the first detected underfrequency
cycle. Thus with a 2 cycle setting, it wiU time out al the The total time frorn disturbance inception to load-shedding
same time that tripping is enabled by the trip control using the SDF-1 is calculated as follows. Assuming the re-
counter. lay is applied to a system in which H = 2 and which has a
38.5 percent overload. The rate of frequency decline is
If the ac potential faUs below approximately 40 Vac, an un- 5 Hz/s (Figure 21-6). lf the relay is set al 3 cycles (50 ms)
dervoltage detector blocks underfrequency cycle counting intentional delay and is connected to trip a 5-cycle breaker
in the trip control counter and resets the trip out pu t. for load-shedding, the curve delay is 8 cycles. With a fre-
quency setting of 59.5 Hz on the SDF-1 anda curve delay
The tripping behavior of the SDF-1 relay can be predicted of 8 cycles, Figure 21-6 indica tes that the load will be dis-
using Figure 21-6. The cycles of delay pararneter on each connected at 0.83 Hz below the relay frequency setting, or
curve corresponds to the actual delay setting on the relay's 58.67 Hz. Since the relay has an operating time of 2 cycles
21-8
longer than the intentional delay , the total interrupting sidered, since it may reduce the overload once the frequency
time is I O cycles (0.17 sec.). The total time from disturb- has dropped. If spinning reserve, oran additional genera-
anee inception to load·shedding is: tion capacity equal to the overload compcnsated for by d,
is not available shortly after the disturbancc, it will be irn-
60.0 Hz - 58.67 Hz= 0_27 scc.
(21- 7) possible to bring the system back to 60-1 tz operalion. This
S Hz/s
will mean that an islanded system cannot be resynchro-
nized, and interconnections to neighboring utilities cannot
VI. FORMULATING A LOAD-SHEDDING SCHEME be reclosed. (It should also be remembered that the turbine-
gencrators must not be operated for extended periods below
Severa! procedures and criteria must be considered when rated speed.)
designing load-shedding schemes for specific systems. These
inelude: The load reduction factor (d) is rarely known exactly and
may vary with time. To design a conservativa scheme,
a. Maximum anticípated overload wltich will tend to shed enough load for system recovery to
normal frequency, it is safest to assume that d equals tero.
b. Number of load-shedding steps
Vl.8. Number oí Load-Shedding Steps
c. Size of the load shed al each step
Tite simplest load-shedding scheme is one in which the pre·
d. Frcquency scttings determined percentage of tite load is shed at once when a
group of relays senses a Irequency drop. While this scheme
e. Time delay will arrest any anticipated frequency decline, it will often
disconnect far more customers than necessary. A refine·
f. Location of the frequency relays. ment, then, would be to use two groups of relays, onc oper-
ating ata lower frequency than the other, and each shed-
VI.A. Maximum Anticipated Overload ding half the predetermined load. The higher-set relays
would trip first, halting tite frequency decline as long as the
Underfrequency rclays should be able to shed a load equal overload were half or less of the worst-case valué. For more
to the maximum anticipated overload. Logically, there is severe overloads, the frequency would continue to drop, al·
no reason to limit load-shedding to any percentage of load. though ata slower rate, until the second group of relays op-
lndeed, it is prcferahlc to shed 100 percent of load, preserv- erated to shed the other half of the expendable load.
ing interconnections and keeping generating units on line
and synchronized, than to allow the system to collapse with The number of load-shedding steps can be increased virtu-
customers still connected. E ven if 100 percenl of the load ally without limit. With a great many steps, the system can
is shed, service can be restored rapidly; if the system col- shed load in small increments until tite decline stops; almost
lapses, a prolonged outage would result. For this reason, it no excess load need be shed. Such a scheme rnay, however,
is necessary to evaluare the cost of the load-shedding inhibit system recovery. As noted below, it may also be
scheme in light of the probability that an overload of a difficult to coordinate so many steps.
given severity can occur.
Most utilities use between two and five load-shedding steps,
The system should be studied with respect to the overload with three being the most common.
that would result from the unexpected loss of key general·
ing units, transmíssion ties, and busses. Stability studies can
help identify arcas which, if separated or islanded from the YI.C. Size of the Load Shed at Eacb Step
rest of the system, would have a severe generation defi-
ciency. These arcas will need more cornprehensive load· Where possible, the size of the load-shedding steps should
shedding. be related to expected percentage overloads. When a study
of the system configuration, ora stability study, reveals
In theory, the load reduction factor (d) must also be con· that there is a relatively high probability of losing certain
21-9
1:
11 generating units or lransmission lines, the load-shedding If the systern under consideration is large, there may be
¡11 blocks should be sized accordingly. Sizing can be deter- many possible combinations of losses to consider, each
1, mined as follows. causing onJy a small percentage overload in itself. In this
case, a number of overload situations rnay be Jumped lo-
Assume that a power system has a generating plant (A) ata gether and handled in one step. Conversely, it may be suffi-
remole location; that this plant is tied to the rest of the sys- cient to shed a percentage of the overload in a few equal
tem by long Lines; and that the system also is connected by steps. To implement the shedding evenly and at the distri-
" a transmission tie (B) to a neighboring utility. Assume also bution level, such a system would require a large number of
that A carries up to 20 percent of system load and B carries frequency relays, distributed over the system. With so
up to 12 percent. Stability studies show that certain faults many relays, there is no cost penalty in using more but
,1
or disturbances may result in loss of synchronism between smaller steps (five, for exarnple) to more closely balance
A and the system, so that its transmission ties must be generation and load, provided ali the steps can be coor-
','
opened. Furthermore, problems on the neighboring utility dinated.
systern may necessitate tripping of B. lt is important for
such a systern to implementa load-shedding scheme that VI.O. Frequency Settings
will preserve the remaining systern if A and B are lost. lt is
logical, therefore, to use three load-shedding steps to handle The frequency al which each step will shed load depends on
overloads resulting from: ( 1) loss of A, (2) loss of B, or the system's normal operating frequency range, on the op-
(3) loss of both A and B simultaneously. The overloads, in erating speed and accuracy of the relays, and on the number
order of increasing probability and seriousness, are listed in of load-shedding steps.
Table 21-1.
The frequency of the first step sbould be just below the
Table 21-1
normal operating frequency band of the systern , allowing
Percent for variation i11 the tripping frequency of the relay. The
Percent of Overload stable, solid-state relays may be set from 59 .6 to 59 .8 Hz to
Generation (from
Event Lost Equation 21-3) trip al the Iirst indication of trouble. For electromechani-
cal relays, the highest frequency setting should be approxi-
Loss of intercon- mately 0.1 to 0.2 Hz below the system's lowest normal op-
nection B 12 13.6 erating frequency. Whatever type of relay is used, the fre-
quency should be selected to avoid shedding for minor dis-
Loss of generator A 20 25 turbances from which the system can recover on its own.
The following load-shedding steps are implernented to han- a. Using relay tripping curves, caJculate the actual frequency
die each situation in succession: at which load will be shed by the first-step relays for the
most severe expected overload. (See Section V, Fre-
Step I Shed 12% of total load ( 12% of total)
quency Relays.)
Step 2 Shed an additional 8% of remaining load (20% of
total) b. Set the second-step relays just below this frequency, al-
lowing a margin that will tolerate frequency drift for
Step 3 Shed an additional 12% of remaining load (32% of
both sets of relays.
total).
I!
z i-ru
d. Again, allowing a margin for relay drift, set the third- terrupting lime of 6 cycles, the curve delay for removing
step relays below the Jowest second-step shedcling fre- the loads is 8 cycles. Figure 2 1-6 indica tes tha t, for the
quency. worst case of the simultaneous loss of generator A and inter-
tie 8, the first load block will be shed when the frequency is
e. Repeat the calculations until settings are obtained for alJ 0.5 Hz below the first step setting of 59.65 Hz, or 59.15 Hz.
steps. Determine the system's lowest frequency value The 12% reduction in the load of step I causes a corre-
before the final load block is interrupted for the worst- sponding drop in percent overload. Using equation 21-3
case overload. This value should not exceed the systern's with the reduced load of 12% ancl the same 32% generation
low-frequency operatíng limit. To avoid turbine blade .88 - .68
loss, the overload now is x 100 = 29.4 percent.
vibration and the attendanl chance of fatigue damage, .68
the limit should be no lower than 58 to 58.5 Hz. lf the The rate of frequency decline is now approximately 1.91
turbines are permitted to opérate below this level but Hz/s as can be observed from the nomograph of Figure 21-6
within the fatigue time limit, t he load-shedding scherne which assurnes an interval of 60-58 Hz or calculated directly
can be desígned to allow the frequency to drop to be- from equation 21-2 using any I to 2 Hz interval around
tween 56.5 and 57.5 Hz. Below this limit, generating 59.J 5 Hz. This calculated rate is not significantly changed
plant performance will suffer. by the choice of the interval as long as it is within 1 or 2 Hz
sin ce equation 21 -2 is nearly linear.
If the lowest calculated frequency clip is well above the
lowest tolerable operating frequency, either the margin be- AIJowing a safety margin of O.OS Hz (these relays are accu-
tween steps or the number of steps can be increased to min- rate to± 0.007 Hz), the second-step frequency can be set at
irnize the chance of unnecessary load interruption. lf, on 59 .1 O Hz. Using the same time dela y and breaker interrup-
the other hand, the low-frequency operating Limit is ex- tion time, the 8-cycles-of-delay curve of Figure 21-6 for
ceeded for the worst-case overload, one or more of the fol- 29.4% overload indicates that the frequency will drop
lowing remedies may be applied, after which the settings another 0.32 Hz to 58. 78 Hz when the second-step loads
must be recalculated: are removed for a 20% total. The overload is now reduced
.8 - .68 , or 17 . 6 percent , and the rate of frequency de-
to ---
a. Reduce intentional and/or auxiliary time delays .68
cline falls to approximately l .14 Hz/s. The third-step should
b. Use a higher first-step frequency setting, if possible be set at 58.75 Hz, 0.03 Hz below the seco nd-step shedding
frequency , Again using the 8-cycles-of-delay curve, for a
c. Use faster frequency relays 17.6 percent overload, the frequency will drop another 0.19
Hz to 58.56 Hz when the final step is interrupted. At this
d. Use more accurate frequency relays to reduce the coor- point, the overload is completely removed, and the fre-
dinating margin between steps quency is stiJI high enough to avoid turbine bla de stress.
e. lncrease the proportion of load shed in the early shed- lf the KF induction-cylinder relays were used in the above
ding steps example, the settings would be caJculated as follows. The
mínimum intentional delay setting of this relay is 6 cycles.
f. Reduce the nurnber of steps and increase the size of Cornbined with the 6-cycle interrupting time of the distri-
each step. bution breakers, the total effective time delay is thus 12
cycles. The 12-cycle-of-delay curve can be found by calcu-
Continuing with the exarnple given in Section Vl.C above, Jating how far the frequency will drop during the excess
frequency settings may be calculated as follows. Assume time delay and adding this drop to the value obtained from
the first-step load-shedding frequency is 59 .65 Hz, and that the 6-cycle curve (Figure 12-4).
H = 4. From Table 21-1, the worst expected overload is 47
percent, and, from Figure 21-6, a 4 7 percent overload will In this e xarnple, the extra delay from the break er is 6
cause a frequency decline of approximately 3 Hz/s. Apply- cycles, or 0.1 second, Since the frequency initialJy is drop-
ing SDF-1 relays with the minimum possible intentionaJ de- ping at 3 Hz/s, it will fall an extra 0.1 x 3, or 0.3 Hz while
lay setting (2 cycles) and distribution breakers with an in- the breaker is interrupting. Figure 21-4 indicates that, with
21-U
6 cycles of interna! delay, the relay closes its tripping con- Dc Posmve
tact at 0.8 Hz below setting frequency-yielding a l. l Hz
(0.8 + 0.3 Hz) total frequency drop below the setting of the
first-step relays, That is, if the first-step relays are set to UnderfrequencyReloy lmriotes
Shedd,ng of Feeders 4, 5 ond 6
59.5 Hz, the load will be shed at 58.4 Hz. AUowing a mar-
gin of 0.2 Hz, the second-step relays can be set at 58.2 Hz.
l
res
Since the frequency is now declining at approximately 1.91 tnducnon
Hz/s, the second-step relays will shed their load at: MoiorLoods
Again, aUowing a 0.2-Hz margin, third-step relays are set at Figure 21-7: Underfrequency Relay With lnduction Motor Load.
57.2 Hz. The rate of decline is now approximately J .l l
Hz/s*, so the th.ird-step relays will shed their load at:
excite the bus with ac potential of declin.ing frequency, pos-
57.2Hz-0.38Hz-(O.I SX l.l Hz/s):56.71 Hz. sibly for 0.5 second or longer. As a result, the load-shedding
frequency relay will trip unnecessarily and lock out the
Although this value is quite low, the system can be held to- feeder breakers 4, 5, and 6. When remole breakers J and 2
gether and restored to normal-frequency operation with reclose, service to the motors will not be restored, and
d-factor load reduction, govemor response, and diligent op- breakers 4, 5, and 6 must be reclosed manually. This situa-
erator monitoring. Sorne additional manual shedding may tion has caused frequency relays with up to 30 cycles of de-
be necessary. lay to trip.
Naturally, there are exceptions where extra time dela y may VI.F. Location of the Frequency Relays
be needed. One such case is a frequency relay connected to
a potential supply from a bus that supplies induction motor In large systerns, the load-shedding relays should be spread
loads (Figure 21-7). lfthe line breakers I and 2 trip and in- throughout the system to avoid heavy power flows and un-
terrupt current to the motors, the motors will slow down desirable islanding. Load-shedding in one concentrated
rapidly. Because of trapped, decaying flux, the motors will area, for exarnple, can cause heavy power flow over trans-
mission lines from the area where the load was shed to areas
of excess load. Because of the original disturbance, these
*This 1.11-Hz/s rate ofdecline, compared with 1.14 Hz/sin the lines may airead y be operating at h.igh emergency levels, and
previous example, occurs beca use the frequency is 57 .2 Hz rather the u neven load shedding may cause thermal overload or
than 58.7 Hz as before. As a result, R is calculated from Equation system instabil.ity.
21-2 using a 58-to-56-Hz interval for f1 and f0, rather than a 60-to-
58-Hz interval, The calculated valuc of R changes only slightly,
?"d thc effect on the KF load-shedding calculations is not signif- Concentrated loss of generation in certain areas of the sys-
icant. tem will also result in frequency dispersion; that is, the fre-
.lJ • l .l
quency in the overloaded areas will drop faster than else- incompatible with security requirernents for rnilder dis-
where. The difference in frequencies, na tu rally, produces turbances.
rapidly increasing torque angles on the transmission lines, Oc Posotove
which may cause the system to go out of step. Fortunately, E UhlotyToe
load-shedding relays in the area of greatest frequency de-
cline wiU trip firsl. This action alleviates the u neven load·
ing, helps to bring the system back to uniform frequency,
and avoids the irnpending loss of synchronism. It is clearly
KO·l Resets ond
res
importunt, however, lo install sorne extra load-shedding ca- E nobles Shedd ,r19
pability in any portien of the system that is prone to con- lo, Lossof Utohty Toe
centrated overload. Tri~
Expendoble WL
Feede,s
Flnally, load-shedding priorilies must be establishe d. The
nature of the loads shed can usually be controlled only by
KFor SOF·l Set lo, Short Oeloyond DcNegohve
tripping feeders at the distribution level. The implication FrequencyJust SelowNormol
is thal frequency relays will be instalJed in many distribu- (a) Fost Sheddong Scheme for t.oss of External Source
tion substations and will control relatively small blocks of
load.
Utd11y T,e
KH·2lorCW Po .. e, Reloy CIOses Contocrs Whenover
Power FIOws Ql¡J From Plont ,nto Utoloty Tie 2
Essen1,a1
Essennot
Expendoble Expendoble
lncom,no lneommg
Feeders 3 Feeders
fromu1,111y C0-6
from Ut1li1y se C0-6
Expendoble Expendable
Essentiol
Pfonr Loods
Notes:
11 C0·6 Relays Sel 10 P,ck Up for Transformer Overload Notes:
1) C0-6 Relays Set 10 P1ck Up for Feeder Overload
l.
2) SC Relays Set to P,ck Up Well Below Full Load Current
-:.~ l. :ªIf.
De Pos,1ive
B B lrcs
lICS
[[] m
'°L
52b 52b
.._ _, 52b 52b B
O] @] 50 se
A A B B
50 se 50 se
A A B e
Trips Expendoble Brea~e,s 7and8
DcNegotive
Notes: De Negar,ve
1) 52b- Breaker Auxiliary Contact Wh,ch is Closed When Breaker is
Open Notes:
2) Circuu Perrnus Shedding When One Transformer is Overloaded 11 51 (C0-61 Contact Will Close 11 Respective Transformer rs Overloaded
and The Other is Disconnecred from The System on The High Side. 21 50 (SC) Contacts Will Cornotete Tripping Pa1h When One Feeder
Low Side or Both Carries Current and The Other ,s Open
(a) Protection against Transformer Overload. b) Protection Against lncoming Feeder Overload.
Figure 21-10: Load Shedding Schemes for Industrial Plants With No Local Generation.
21-14
or transformer capacity but below fault relay setting, will c. Load should be restored in very srnall blocks. Recon-
detect overloads and drop low-priority plant loads. necting an entice shedding-step load at once, even at nor-
mal system frequency, can cause an overload. Not only
To avoid unnecessary shedding during faults, these load- may its size exceed spinning reserve, but high currents
shedding relays should be coordinated with fault relays, as resulting from cold load pickup can temporarily cause a
shown in Figure 21-9. If the coordinating margins are nar- severe overload. Reconnecting small blocks of load wW
row, or if feeders or transformers frequently opera te at cause only small frequency dips, which can be handled
near-capacity, relays may be supervised to limit shedding to by the govemors.
situations where not all apparatus is in service. Figure
21-1 Oa shows two transformers with 51 overload-detecting More small blocks may be reconnected until most or all
(C0-6) relays designed to shed low-priority plant loads. of spinning reserve is active. At this point, no further
Each tripping circuit is supervised by auxiliary contacts on load should be added until additional generating capacity
the breakers associated with the other transformer: load can is available. Restoring excessive load may cause the fre-
be shed only when one transformer is out of service and the quency to settle below normal system frequency, making
other is overloaded. For example, if breaker 5 is open further reclosing of interconnections impossible.
and/or if both breakers 2 and 3 are sirnultaneously open,
then transformer B is not in service, and the overload relay d. lf a significant loss of generation occurs in a concen-
on A is permitted to shed load. trated area of the system, transmission lines into that
area may be heavily Ioaded just to supply essential loads.
Figure 21-1 Ob shows overload protection for two feeders In this case, the imbalance should not be increased by
where, again, load is only to be shed when one is lost. Aux- restoring expendable loads.
iliary contacts from remote breakers are not available, so
low-current detectors establish whether a feeder is in or out If overfrequency relays are used for automatic restoration,
of service. The contact interconnection of Figure 21-1 Ob as they sometimes are at unattended installations, they
permits shedding if one low-current detector resets (feeder should have a frequency setting of the normal system fre-
out of service) at the sarne time that the other is picked up quency. The load should be restored in blocks of 1 to 2
(feeder in service), and if the live feeder is overloaded. percent of systern load, and restoration should be sequenced
by time dela y. After the initial system recovery to normal
vm. RESTORING SERVICE system frequency , there should be a delay of 30 seconds to
severa! minutes, implemented automatically with a tirner or
In general, the reclosing of feeders that have been tripped manually via supervisory control. This delay allows for re-
for load-shedding is left to the discretion of system or sta- synchronizing of islands, reclosing of interconnections, and
tion operators. Frequency relays can be used, however, starting of peaking generators when available. The first
either to supervise restoration orto restore loads auto- block of load may then be resto red; the frequency will dip
matically. and retum to the normal system frequency. The next block
should also incorporate several seconds delay to permit fre-
The following considerations apply to any restoration of quency stabilization.
service, whether manual or automatic:
Each successive block should use a slightly longer time de-
a. Frequency should be allowed to return to normal before lay than the previous one. Thus, the second-block relays
any load is restored. Reclosing feeders when the fre- will time out before the third, and will reclose next. The
quency is still recovering may plunge the system back frequency will dip again; the third- and successive-block fre-
into crisis and will certainly prevent reunification of is- quency relays will reset. The frequency will restabilize at
lands. Resetting of load-shedding frequency relays cannot the normal system frequency, and the third block will time
be used for the supervisión of restoration. out and reclose. This process will continue until ali blocks
are restored or spinning reserve is used up.
b. Once the frequency has retumed to normal, all service-
able interconnections must be allowed to resynchroniz.e When restoring cold loads, it may be necessary to temperar-
and reclose. Unifying an islanded system as muchas ily disable the instantaneous overcurrent fault protection to
possible generally facilitates service restoration. prevent the initial current surge from retripping the feeder.
21-15
Restoring load for the example used in Section VI, C and D, IX. OTHER FREQUENCY RELAY APPLICATIONS
can be described as follows. Assume 10 percent of geuera-
tion is lost, causing an 11 percent overload. The first-step a. Overfrequency relays, usually of the induction-disc type,
relays shed a block equal to 12 percent of system load. The are often applied to generators. These relays protect
block shed consists of groups of distribution feeders located against overspeed during startup or when the unil is sud-
at six different unattended substations, each equipped with denly separated frorn the system with little or no load.
an underfrequency relay. A second set of six static- Relay contacts either sound an alarrn or remove power
frequency relays, used in the overfrequency mode, auto- input to the turbine.
rnatica.lly restores service. All relays are set at the normal
system frequency and reclose feeders, one substation at a
b. Underfrequency relays, with long externa! time delays,
time, using externa! timers for sequencing and delay. The
may also be connectecl to generating units to protect
initial de/ay is 45 seconds after frequency returns to nor-
against turbine blade damage resulting from prolonged
mal; subsequent delays are as follows:
full-load underspeed operation. Jf the overload exceeds
Substation No. External Delay (Sec.) the capability of the load-shedding scherne, these gener-
ator relays will ísolate the unit (with sorne load, if possi-
1 10 ble) to keep it in operation and to avoid blade fatigue.
2 12 When load is srnall or absent and vibration is minimal, a
3 14 supervisory overcurrent relay ora manual switch can be
4 16 used to prevent trípping during startup.
s 18
6 20 c. Underfrequency relays can also be used to sense disturb-
Figure 21-11 shows the behavior of frequency over time for anees and intentionaUy split systems by opening ties.
this shedding and restoration action. System splitting is not usually a recommended way of
60.5
DISTURBANCE
Causes l1%0verlood
Figure 21-11: Behavior of Frequency Ouring Automatic Load Shedding and Restoration. (Example for a 60 Hz System)
21-16
alleviating overloads, but it can be useful, especially on anees on other systems. In such cases, the shedding utility
interconnections between adjacent systems. could use underfrequency relays to trip the interconnec-
tions (possibly in coniunctíon with reverse power relays).
Neighboring utilities should agree to uniform load- This scheme would eliminate the possibility of a utility ag-
shedding programs, otherwise the utility which sheds the gravating its own loading problems by adding those of a
most load may find itself relieving overloads for disturb- neighboring utility without adequate load-shedding.
22·1
l. INTRODUCTION With rising costs and manpower shortages, the area of test·
ing, particularly maintenance testing is being studied by
Yarious classes of tests can be made on protective relays many utilities. A number of users indicate that less fre-
each with varying degrees of cornplexity and results. lt is quent testing has resulted in an improvement in the operat-
most importan/ that ali tests be geared to the objectives ing record. The reduction in errors caused by ernploye
which they are intended to meet and that they be strearn- carelessness are inherently reduced by less frequent maintc-
lined within these objectives. The keynote is mínimum test· nance. The studies show that the two prime causes of
ing for maximum performance. The actual operating time troubles, equipment defects and ernploye carelessness, are
of protective relays is extrernely small overa long life on both decreasing, and in such a manner that employe care-
the power systern. Thus, the natural question arises, "Will lessness is now showing upas the cause of a much largor
the relay or relay systern opera te properly if an intolerable percentage of troubles. Severa! companies who previously
situation such as a fault occurs?" In cases having no recenl used maintenance intervals of 6 months havc extended
operation experiencc, the answer is lo test. Relay testing these now to two years and are considering a further cxten-
tends to relieve this concern more than to check the actual sion to two and one-half years. There is a trend toward
wear, etc. Yet any testing has the potcntial liability of add- longer intervals between maintenancc.
ing more trouble lhan that corrected (if any). Thus over-
testing is to be avoided. 111. TEST CONCEPTS
11. TEST I NTER V A LS The main concept of testing relays is to apply the same
voltages and currents at the proper phase angles to the re-
There appears to have been a general tendency toward over- lay which would be applied during normal relay operating
testing of protective relays. This is justified on the basis of conditions. These conditions not only includes faults
thcir importance in the power system and the serious con- within the relay zone of operation but also thosc outsidc
scquences of mis-operation or failure to opérate. While the zone of operation and under non-fault or normal sys-
this importance is a fact, il has been interesting to observe tem conditions. The accuracy of the test quantities directly
that the relay performance récords of power systems vary determines the accuracy of the test results obtained. Ac·
very little while the amount of testing varíes widely. curate meter readings should be continuously made and ad·
[usted if needed. ltems such as meter reading accuracy,
To avoid over-testing, two areas need constant vigilance. lead length, wave distortion from the test equipment, in·
The first includes tests which are added to take care of tern- strument calibration, etc. will ali affect the test results and
porary or local problems. These are very easy to add to a should be taken into consideration when analyzing the test
test procedure but difficult to remove later when the origi- results.
nal problem no longer exists and time has obscurcd the ob-
jectives. A test log where the reasons and objectives of each IV. TEST OBJECTIVES
test are briefly summarized is helpful in controlling this.
The objectives of protective relay testing suggest four
lntermittent problems are a prime area and cause for over-
classes o f tests:
testing and may also be the cause of other problems in·
duced especially on solid state relays. 1. Acceptance Tests
The other area is the increased tendency to lose test per- a. New products first time applied
spective as the test group is separated from the application b. Tests on each product received
22-2
3. Adjustments checkcd ,
Acceptance tests are done once and generally in the labora-
tory. Thesc are scparated into the two types, (a) new
4. Breakcrs tripped by manual contacl closing or in the
products which havo not been previously used ; extensive
case of solid state relay systerns elcclrically by the use
testing on a samplc rnay be desired to gain experience and
oí thc íunctional test unit.
knowledge and/or additional technical information. The
second type test (b) on cach product received from the
S. "As lef't" conditions recordcd (quite a fe w also record
manufacturer should be strcamlined to a mínimum including
"as found" conditions).
only the important practica! check points to assurc that the
product is what the manufacturer specifies.
Repair Tests
rent circuits from the relay panel for sepárate source test- industrial user. Variations from this composite summary in
ing. When testing on line, it is imporlant to take out only actual practice wiU be the rule rather than the exception.
one relay or relay system at a time, leaving the other
backup relay or relay system intacl in the event of a faulr. lnformation Used - Relay and test equipment manufac-
turers' bulletins, or thc user's own test procedures based on
Caution must be taken when using separa te source test thcir experiences and requirements.
quantities. The test plug must be inserted into the test
switch insuring isolation from the power system before any Analysis of Relay Performance - Past records of relay per-
equipment is connected to the test plug. Ungrounded test formances are analyzed, (both correct and incorrect ). Rec-
supplies should be used to prevent accidenlly introducing a ords from automatic oscillographs are also used.
ground on the secondary circuits which could cause a false
trip. Al ali times when testing relays on an energized power Test Equiprnent Used - The test equipment required to test
system ali safety precautions for both personnel and equip- relays is directly dependent on the types of relays to be
ment must be observed. tested. The relay rnanufacturers' bulletins and the test
equipment bulletins should be consulted prior to testing.
Functional test units are normally supplied with solid state Wave distortion must be taken into consideration when an-
relay systerns. These test units are often "hard wired" into alyzing test results as mentioned earlier. Porta ble test in-
the relay systern. A trip cutout switch is used to open the struments and equipment are available and should be con-
trip circuits and initiate a trip light for indication. Tests sidered.
can be done with or without the trip activated.
Test Methods Used - Secondary tests only are normally
The test units are normally of the "go-no-go" type. A for- made. Thorough periodic tests per the rnanufacturers' rec-
ward fault within the reach of the relays can be simulated ommendations are made. The circuit or relay eq uiprnent is
during which time all forward looking relays should oper- separatcd from the power system at the time of testing un-
ate. A reverse fault can also be simulated during which less the tripping circuit is also to be checked.
time only the reverse looking relays should only opera te.
Both single station and station-to-station tests can be pcr- Test lnterval - Nominally one year with a trend to longer
formed. The functional test units also can be used during intervals, as previously discussed.
installation of the relay system to assure that the correct
connections were made to the power systern. The test units Tests of Overcurrenr Relays - Tested at several points on the
are not designed for acceptance or calibration testing. They time curve with intervals between testing for cooling.
are intended to provide an indication that the relay system
opera tes properly. The test units are also useful tools whcn Mínimum operating currents are obtained and instantaneous
trouble shooting and doing maintenance testing. units are checked for pickup curren t.
Sorne manufacturers offer a variety of portable test sets Tests of Directional Overcurrent Relays - The overcurrent
varying in function and capability. Porta ble functional test units are checked in a similar manner to that of an over-
sets are available for use with sorne solid state relay systems. current relay with the directional unit blocked closed. Care
Such test sets plug into the relay system by mea ns of test should be taken to remove the blocking from the directional
switches and are able to simulate not only forward or re- element prior to placing the relay back into service. Cor-
verse faults but also the type of faults (phase or ground) rect operations of the directional units are verified by sirn-
and the phases involved in the simulated fault. These test ulating fault currents and voltages. Mínimum operating
sets allow the tester to loca te the fault within the reach of currents at normal voltages are checked.
the relay or beyond ,
Tests of Differential Relays - Mínimum operating values are
VI. TYPICAL RELA Y TESTS checked. Operating and differential currents under load are
checked. A majority of users trip all circuir breakers from
The following summarizes the typical protective relay test the relays as a regular procedure.
procedure which rnight be followed by an electric utility or
22-4
Tests of Distance is
Relays · The distance characteristic ing list. Test equipment requircments, like relays, varíes
checked at or near both the fault and load angles. ALI op- from user to user. Requirements should be based on needs.
erating sequences tried.
ltem •use Quant. Description
Tests of Pilot Wire Schernes • Circuits are rested for conti-
nuity , shorts, and grounds in the pilot wircs. Operating E-S 2 Variable autotransformer, 120
values are checked. Additional tests of the scquence filter volts, 5 amperes continuous rat-
and the operating unir shouJd be performed if the relays do ing.
not meet acceptance tests. Supcrvisory and alarm relays
are checked for correct calibration , 2 E-S Vana ble autotransformcr, 120
volts, 15-20 amperes continuous
Tests of Synchro-Check and Reclosing Relays · Timing and rating.
synchronizing chaructcristics are checkcd along with aU re·
closing sequences. 3 E·S·C Type ac Volt meter. rectifier
type, 5000 ohms per volt, 3-15·
Tests of Plungcr and Hingcd Armature Relays · Operating 1 SO volts.
values are checked by gradually increasing or decreasing the
opcrating current or voltage. 4 E·S·C de Amrneter, 0·5-20-50 amperes.
Tests of Associated Current Transformers · Tcsted only on 5 E-S ac Arnmeter, 0-5 amperes.
installation. Ratio chccked with arnrncter.
6 E·S ac Ammeter, 0-2-5-10·20-50-100·
Tests of Frequency Relays • The trip frequency and time de· 200 amperes.
lay are checked. The interfacing relays as well as the total
trip circuits are chcckcd. 7 1:.-S Phase angle meter, 5-10-30 am-
peres, 1 S-30·50·120-240-480
Tests of Associated Potential Transformers and Capacitive volts.
Potential Devices- Testcd only on installation. Ratio
checked by comparing secondary voltages when energizcd 8 E-S Auxiliary current transforrner ,
lo other units on the bus. 1-5-10-25-50-62.5-125-250-500/5
amperes.
Tests of Thermal Relays · Generally tested only al time of
installation. 9 E·S Electric timer or cycle counter,
0-1 O seconds, 1 20 volts.
Tests of Solid State Relays · Thc same basic tests are per-
formed as with electromechanical relays. Voltage or thy- 10 E-S Phase shifter, three-phase, 500
ristor outputs are chcckcd rathcr than contact closures. watts.
Tests of Communications Equipment · Ali transrnitting and 11 E-S 3 Non-inductive load resistor made
receiving levels and frequencies are checked. Normally up of eight to ten parallel resistors
checked as a system to include all interfacing equiprncnt. capa ble of handling a maximum of
100 amperes load continuous. Re·
VII. TYPICAL RELAY TEST EQUIPMENT • Relay test sistors should be capa ble of sup-
cquipment varies wilh the type of relays to be tested. Test plying continuous 0· l 00 ampere
equipment is aJso required for communication equipment. loads. A fine adjustmcnt is essen-
Equipment also varíes depending on where the majority of tia!.
tcsting is done· in the test labor at the relay location. The
basic equipment that should be available for the majority of 12 E·S Three-phase sequence indicator,
testing in the lab and/or in the field is shown in the follow- 120-240-480 volts.
22-5
13 E-S 1 (3) Auxiliary relay , 2 make, 2 break, 28 E-S-C 2 Portable test units, a minimum of
electrically operated and elec- two should be available for pilot
trically or hand reset, 48 volts, de, systerns. These are available from
and/or 125 volts de and/or 250 the relay manufacturer.
volts de each.
*Use is indicated for basic types of equipment to be tested.
14 S-C Dual trace oscillograph with ex-
terna! triggering. It may be de- E = Electromechanical relays
sirable to have a storage function.
S = Solid state relays
15 E-S-C de voltmeter, 0-3-7.5-30-75-150-
300 volts. C = Communication equiprnent
25 E-S-C Relay tool kit. Shorting and opening current and voltage transf'ormer will
provide quantities somewhat typical of power system
26 E-S-C Assorted test plugs available from faults. These can be used for checking the operation of
the relay rnanufacturer. ground and sequence type relays. These should be applied
carefully and with caution to avoid errors and false conclu-
27 S-C 2 Printed circuit board extenders for sions. As a guide, the phasor relations are given for a nurn-
each size board in the relays to be ber of combinations in Figures 22-4, 22-5, 22-6.
tested.
22-6
311l Supply- o b e a
1_
Van
Ali test conditions are for unity power factor load current
where the phase rotation is a, b, c. The normal conditions
are shown in Figure 22-4.
Figure 22-1: Test Circuits for Determining The Phase Angla Curve
of • Relay Operating on a Current and a Voltage.
+ + + +
E E
Phose Pnose
Angle Meler ilngle Me1e,
lü
VOi vo2
a)
la b)m I I1,
l
101 o
l
a be
¡ tl2 102 ¡oo, 1oo'1co Va=Ve vbc'!
"'-../" ',, Vb:ivbc
/ ~ !
ül
le
1c1 101 [C2 va, Vb2
vb,vo
101' !ro 102' 1ro • • 1 •
·oo·3 ·o e)
o b e \1 vbl ~ Va2
2) Phase "b" Current Transtormer Short-Crrcuited and Opened on
Relay Side Va' Vb= ~'to
veo =Veb Ve=ha ve, :!ve' !veo Veo: !ve= tVco
lo --------------------------
l
!01
i 1 1 1,
J
02".::::,./
lc2
100' 1bo' 1co
/'
d) H-í
~ ~ ! a be
Va:Ve =!voo
'e• lbl Jb2
le
110 \\¡' i \\io
101' ~ 1o 102: 1oo=sro --------------------------
3¡ Phase "e" Curren! Transformer Short-Circuued and Opened on
l~
Rel11y Side. vol Vo2
el
Figure 22-5: Current Phasors for Various Simulated Tests With
load Current. (The Normal Balanced Conduions are o b e
~1 ~ vb2 \2
Shown in Figure 22-4) ~=\ Va:ivoc
vb,ve =! Voc Vo1' !va• ivoc Yaz•h· !Yac
should only be used as a last resort and not as a normal test --------------------------
~l
vol Vb2
connection. "cb' veo Vo:Vb
f)
•
ve a
1
• ~1 \vb1 v:2 ( V02
a be
IX. TESTJNG VOLTAGE POLARIZED GROUND Ve:!vcb.
RELA YS WITH LOAD CURRENT Va = vt, = ! vcb Vc1:~ve =ivcb 'tz:fve =!vcb
Other simulated currcnt faults can be made following the 1. Assurning a phase to ground fault on the protected linc.
zz-s
i ~::
r
Reloy
4. lf currents are both in polarity or both in non-polarity X~
the directional unit contact will close. .___,__rY"V"\___,.__l_-----rv",r"\.___
~~·1,,0
~Av,
Va
Ve vb
~-
(In Tr,pp,ng D<rect,on l
las,ngZone
7T.arque
Zero Torque Line
Moxomum Line
Mo,umum Torque lme Iorque Llne
a) For Ground Relays Where b) Far "WATT" Type
Max,mum Torque Occurs When Ground Relays
Current Lags Voltage 60°
~q·e 00:
Bus b L,ne Bus b -ic b t.me
e e e e
Snon
[;8§·
sno«
X y X y
-
Zero Torque L, ne
MaximumTorque L1ne
Max,mum
Torqueline
a) Far 60° Ground Relays Phasors far Unity Power
Factor Load in Tripping a) Far 60º Ground Relays
Drr ection With."a" C T Open Phescrs tor Unity Power
and "a" V T Open as Shown. Factor Load in Tripping
Direcrion W,th "a" C T Open
Zero Torque Une
and "b" V T Open as Shown
Closing Zone
Zeta TorqueUne
Note:
Max,mum Torque Line Relay Torque in Opening
Direction to Indicare
b) Far "WATT" Ground Relays Corree! Connections.
Mox1mum Note:
Torque Line Relay Torque in Opening
Figure 22-9: Simulated Ground Fault Test for Voltage Polarized
Ground Relay by Opening and Shorting Phase "a" Direction to lndicate
b) Far "WATT" Ground Relays Correct Connections.
Current and Voltage Transformers.
Appendix l Used only where the voltage bases of the per unit valúes
are different, remembering that where transformer banks
are involved, the per unit impedance is the sarne referred
Formulas Commonly Used In to either winding as long as the base voltages on either
Relaying side of the bank are proportional to turns.
Definitions (kVA)base 2
(Zpu\ase 2 = (Zpu\ase 1 (k V A) (6)
base 1
(kVA)base = Base kVA (3 phase) in kilovolt amperes
OTHER FORMULAS
(k V\ase = Base kV (Une to line) in kilovolts
Converting to Zsec·
Z,n = lmpedance in Ohms
(kVAibase where the relay receives star current and star voltage, delta
•base= rx amperes (1)
curren! and delta voltage, or when specified. An example is
v3 (kV\ase
the KD-4, KD-10 type relays which use equation 8 to ob-
2 tain secondary ohms although they are connected using star
1000 (kV\ase 1000 (k V)base
Z =-- --ohms=- --- ohms=
base Y3 1base (kV A)base currents and delta voltages.
(kV)~ase
ohms (2) (8A)
(MVA\ase
Z,n Z,n (k VA)base Z,n (MVA)base where the relay receives star current and delta voltage
zpu =-- = (3)
2base 2 2
1000 (kV)base (k V)base where Re= current transformer ratio ( wye connected)
Conversely and translating per unit to percent (%Z = Rv = voltage transformer ratio
I oozpu>,
2
Converting Zpu to New Voltage Base: Z =(VA)= (V) ohms (9)
12 VA
V = voltage at which burden is specifiecl in 13</> = primary fault current for a three-phase
volts fault
1
2
= J, ,, t2
(JO)
where Re= current transformer ratio (wye connected) per unit values may be used in equation 14.
2 ZBP J</></>
V BP = R for a phase-to-phase faull (13a)
V
l</></> = primary fault current for a phase-to-phase a= abscissa = e Cos 8 Cartesian Coordinates
fault b = ordínate = e Sin 8 O measured counter-clockwise
is positive
App.1-3
The specification of point p can be made in various forms as Multiplication Law: Absolute value of the product is the
follows: product of the absolute values of the components, and the
argument is the sum of the component arguments. Thus:
Rectan- Expo-
gular Complex nential Polar Phasor (20)
(23)
Thus if e= a + jb then ~ = a - jb
Thus:
or (24)
phasor e or [e] = Ja2 + b2 (17)
Phasor Times its Conjugate:
a= 1/2 (e + e) by adding (1) and (2) (18)
i b = 112 ce - 2) subtracting (I) and (2) {19) (25)
"l'P· u - t
Electrical Power System Device 6 Starting circuit breaker is a de vice whose principal
function is to connect a rnachine to its source of
Numbers and Functions starting voltage.
5 Stopping device is a control device used primarily 16 Reserved for future application.
to shut down an equipment and hold it out of
operation. (This device may be manually or elec- 17 Shunting or discharge switch serves to open or to
trically actuated, but excludes the function of close a shunting circuit around any piece of ap-
electrical Jockout (see device function 86) on ab- parat us (excepta resistor), such as a rnachine
normal conditions.J field, a machine arrnature , a capacitor or a reactor.
App.11 -J.
Note: This excludes devices which perform such 26 Apparatus thermal device functions when the
shunting operations as may be necessary in the temperature of the shunt field or the armortisseur
process of starting a machine by devices 6 or 42, winding of a machine, or t hat of a load lirniting
or their equivalent, and also excludes device 73 or load shifting resistor or of a liq uid or other
function which serves for the switching of re- medium exceeds a predetermined value; or if the
sistors. temperature of the protected apparatus, such as a
power rectifier, or of any medium decreases be-
18 Accelerating or decelerating device is used to close low a predetermined value.
or to cause the closing of circuits which are used
to increase or to decrease the speed of a machine. 27 Undervollage relay is a device which functions on
a given value of undervoltage.
19 Starting-to-running transition contactor is a de-
vice which operares to inítiate or cause the auto- 28 Flame detector is a device that monitors the pres-
matic transfer of amachine from the starting to ence of the pilot or main flame in such apparatus
the running power connection. as a gas turbine ora steam boiler.
20 Electrically operated valve is an electrically op- 29 lsolating contactor is used expressly for discon-
erated, controlled or monitored valve in a fluid necting one circuit from another for the purposes
line. of emergency operation, maintenance, or test.
Note: Tite function of tite valve may be incli- 30 Annunciator relay is a nonautomatically reset de-
cated by the use of the suffixes. vice that gives a number of separa te visual indica-
tions upon the functioning of protective devices,
21 Distance relay is a device which functions when and which may also be arranged to perform a
the circuit admittance, impedance or reactance lockout function.
increases or decreases beyond predetermined
limits. 31 Separare excitation device connects a circuit such
as the shunt field of a synchronous converter, to
22 Equalizer circuit breaker is a breaker which a source of separare excitation during the starting
serves to control or to make and break the sequence; or one which energizes the excitation
equalizer or the current-balancing connections and ignition circuits of a power rectifier.
for amachine field, or for regulating equipment,
in a multiple-unit installation. 32 Directional power relay is one which functions on
a desired value of power flow in a given direction,
23 Temperature control device functions lo raise or or upon reverse power resulting from are back in
lower the ternperature of a machine or other ap- the anode or cathode circuits of a power rectifier.
paratus, or of any medium, when its temperature
fa lis below, or rises above, a predetermined value. 33 Position switch makes or breaks contact when the
main device or piece of apparatus, which has no
Note: An exarnple is a thermostat which swit ches device function number, reaches a given position.
on a space heater in a switchgear assembly when
the ternperature falls to a desired value as d is- 34 Master sequence device is a device such as a motor-
tinguished from a device which is used to provide operated multi-contact switch, or the equivalent,
automatic temperature regulation between close ora programming device, such as a co mputer,
limits and would be designated as 90T. that esta blishes or determines the operating se-
quence of the majar devices in an equipment dur-
24 Reserved for future application. ing start ing and stopping or during other sequential
switching operations.
25 Synchronizing or synchronísm-check device op-
erates when two ac circuits are within the de- 35 Brush-operaring, or slip-ring-short-circuiting, de-
sired limits of frequency, phase angle or voltage, vice is used for raising, loweríng, or shifting the
to permit orto cause the paralleling of these two brushes of a machine, or for short-circuiting its
circuits. slip rings, or for engaging or disengaging the con-
tacts of a mechanical rectifier.
App.11 -3
42 Running circuit breaker is a device whose princi- SI Ac time overcurrent relay is a relay with either a
pal function is to connect a rnachine to its source definite or inverse time characteristic that func-
of running or operating voltage. This function tions when the current in an ac circuit exceeds a
may also be used for a device, such as a contactar, predetermined value.
that is used in series with a circuit breaker or
other fault protecting meaos, primarily for fre- 52 Ac circuit breaker is a device that is used to close
quent opening and closing of the circuit. and interrupt an ac power circuit under normal
conditions orto interrupt this circuit under fault
43 Manual transfer or selector device transfers the or emergency conditions.
control circuits so as to modify the plan of oper-
ation of the switching equipment or of sorne of 53 Exciter or de generator relay is a relay that forces
the devices. the de machine field excitation to build up during
startíng or which functions when the rnachine
44 Unit sequence starting relay is a device which voltage has built up to a given value.
functions to start the next available unit in a
multiple-unit equipment on the failure or on the 54 Reserved for future application.
non-availability of the normally preceding unit.
SS Power factor relay is a relay that operates when
45 Atmospheric condition monitor is a device that the power factor in an ac circuit rises above or
functions u pon the occurrence of an abnormal below a predetermined value.
atmospheric condition, such as damaging fumes,
explosive mixtures, smoke, or fire. 56 Field application relay is a relay that autornatically
controls the application of the field excitation to
~l'l'·H •-t
an ac motor at sorne predetermined point in the device, or equipment, ora specified number oí
slip cycle. successive operations within a given time of each
other. lt also functions to energize a circuit
57 Short-círcuiting or grounding device is a primary periodically or for fractions of specified time in-
circuit switching device that functions to short- tervals, or that is used to perrnit intermittent ac-
circuit or to ground a circuit in response to auto- celeration or jogging of a machine at low speeds
matic or manual mea ns. for mechanical positioning.
58 Rectification failure relay is a device that func- 67 Ac directional overcurrent relay is a relay that
tions if one or more anodes of a power rectifier functions on a desired value of ac overcurrent
fail to fire, or to detect an arc-back or on failure flowing in a predetermined direction.
of a diode to conductor block properly.
68 Blocking relay is a relay that initiates a pilot sig-
59 Overvoltage relay is a relay that functions on a na! for blocking of tripping on externa! faults in
given value of overvoltage. a transrnission line or in other apparatus under
predetermined conditions, or coopera tes with
60 Voltage or Current balance relay is a relay that other devices to block tripping or to block recios·
opera tes on a given difference in voltage, or cur- ing on an out-of-step condition or on power
rent input or output of two circuits. swings.
63 Pressure switch is a switch which operates on 70 Rheostat is a variable resistance device used in an
given values or on a given rate of change of pres- electric circuit, which is electrically operated or
sure. has other electrical accessories, such as auxiliary,
position, or limit switches.
64 Ground protective relay is a relay that functions
on failure of the insulation of a machine, trans- 71 Leve! switch is a switch w hich opera tes on given
former or of other apparatus to ground, or on values, or on a given rate of change , of level.
flashover of a de machine to ground.
72 De circuit breaker is used to close and interrupt a
Note: This function is assigned only to a relay de power circuit under normal conditions orto
which detects the flow of current from the frame interrupt this circuit under fault or emergency
of a machine or enclosing case or structure of a conditions.
piece of apparatus to ground.or detects a ground
on a normally ungrounded winding or circuit. It is 73 Load-resistor contactor is used to shunt or insert
not applied to a device connected in the secondary a step of load lirniting, shif'ting , or indicating re·
circuit or secondary neutral of a current trans- sistance in a power circuit , orto switch a space
former, or in the secondary neutral of current heater in circuit , orto switch a light, or regen-
transforrner , connected in the power circuit of a erative load resistor of a power rectifier or other
norrnally grounded system. machine in and out of circuit.
65 Governor is the assembly of fluid, electrical, or 74 Alarm relay is a device other than an annunciator,
mechanical control equipment used for regulating as covered under device No. 30, which is used to
the flow of water, stearn, or other medium to the operate, or to operate in connectíon with, a
prime mover for such purposes as starting, hold- visual or audible alarm.
ing speed or load, or stopping.
75 Position changing mechanisrn is a mechanism
66 Notching or jogging device functions to allow that is used for moving a main device from one
only a specified number of operations of a given
A.pp. ll . .)
76 De overcurrent relay is a relay that functions 87 Differential protective relay is a protectrve relay
when the current in a de circuit exceeds a given that functions on a percentage or phase angle or
value. other quantitative difference of two currents or
of sorne other eleclrical quanlities.
77 Pulse transmitter is used to generate and trans-
mit pulses overa telernetering or pilot-wire cír- 88 Auxiliar y motor or motor generaror is one used
cuit to the remole indicating or receiving device. for operatíng auxiliary equipment such as pumps,
blowers, exciters, rotating magnetic amplifiers,
78 Phase angle measuring, or out-of-step protective etc.
relay is a relay that functions al a predetermined
phase angle between two voltages or between 89 Line switch is used as a disconnecting load-
two currents or between voltage and curren t. interrupter, or isolating switch in an acorde
power circuit, when this device is electrically
79 Ac reclosing relay is a relay that controls the operated or has electrical accessories, such asan
autornatic reclosing and locking out of an ac cír- auxiliary switch, magnetic lock, etc.
cuit interrupter.
90 Regulating device functions to regula te a quantity,
80 Flow Switch is a switch which operates on or quantities, such as voltage, current, power,
given values, or on a given rate of change, of speed, frequency, temperature, and load, at a
flow. certain value or between cerlain (generally close)
limits for machines, tie lines or ot her apparat us.
81 Frequency relay is a relay that functions on a
predetermined value of frequency - either 91 Voltage directional relay is a relay that operates
under or over or on normal system frequency - when tite voltage across an open circuir breaker
or rate of change of frequency. or contactor exceeds a given value in a given di-
rection.
82 De reclosing relay is a relay t hat controls the
automatic closing and reclosing of a de circuit 92 Voltage and power directional relay is a relay that
interrupter, generally in response to load circuit permits or causes tite connection of two circuits
condilions. when the voltage difference between thcm ex-
ceeds a given value in a predetermined direction
83 Automatic selective control or transfer relay is and causes these two circuits to be disconnected
a relay that operates to select autornatically be- from each other when the power flowing be-
tween certain sources or conditions in an equip- tween them exceeds a given value in the opposite
ment, or performs a transfer operation auto- direction.
matically.
93 Field changing contactor functions to increase or
84 Operating mechanism is the complete electrical decrease in one step the value of field excitation
mechanism or servo-rnechanism, including the on a machine,
operating motor, solenoids, position switches,
etc., for a tap changer , induction regulator or 94 Tripping or trip-free relay functions to trip a cir-
any similar piece of apparatus which has no de- cuit breaker, contactor, or equiprnent , orto per-
vice function number. mit immediate tripping by other devices; orlo
prevent immediate reclosure of a circuit ínter-
85 Carrier or pílot-wire receiver relay is a relay that rupter, in case it should open automatically
is operated or restrained by a signa! used in con- even though its closing circuit is maintained
nection with carrier-current or de pilot-wire fault closed.
directional relaying. 95 Used only for specific applications on individual
96 installations where none of the assigned nurn-
97 bered functions from 1 to 94 is suitable.
Devices Performing More Than One Function CL - Auxiliary Relay, open (energized when rnain de-
lf one device performs two relatively important functions vice is in open position)
in an equipment so that it is desirable to identify both of OP - Auxiliary Relay , Open (energizecl when maín de-
these functions, this may be done by using a double func- vice is in open position)
tion number and name such as: U - "Up" position-switch relay
D - "Down" position-switch relay
50/5 1 lnstantaneous and Time Overcurrent Relay. PB - Push button
Suffix Numbers <D In the control of a circuir breaker with so-called X-Y relay
lf two or more devices with the sarne function number and control scherne, the X relay is the dcvice whose main contacts
suffix letter (if used) are present in the sarne eq uipment , are used to energize the closing coil or thc dcvicc which in sorne
they rnay be distinguished by numbered suffixes as for ex- other manncr, such as by the release of storcd energy , causes the
breaker to closc. The contacts of the Y relay provide the anti-
arnple, 52X-I 52X-2 and 52X-3, when necessary.
pump feature for the circuir breaker.
Suffix Letters
Suffix letters are used with device function numbers for Actuating Quantities
various purposes. ln order to prevent possible conflict These letters indicate the condítíon or electrical quantity
each suffix lelter should have only one meaning in an in- to which the device responds, or the meclium in which it
dividual equipment. Ali other words should use tite ab- is located, such as:
breviations as contained in ANSI Y 1.1 latest revision, or
should use sorne other distinctive abbreviation, or be A - Air, or Amperes or Alternating
written out in full each time they are used. The meaning e - Current
of each single suffix letter, or combination of letters, o - Direct or Discharge
should be clearly designated in the legend on the drawings E - Electrolyte
or publications applying to tite eq uipment. F - Frequency, or Flow or Fault
H - Explosive
Lower case (small) suffix letters are used in practicaUy ali J - Differential
instances on electrical diagrarns for the auxiliary, position, L - Level, or Liquid
and limit switches. Capital letters are generally used for ali p - Power, or Pressure
other suffix letters. PF - Power Factor
Q - Oíl
The letters should generally form part of lhe device func- S - Speed or Suction or Smoke
tion designation, are usually written directly after the de- T - Temperature
vice function number, as for example, 52CS, 71 W, or 490. V - Voltage, Volts, or Vacuum
When it is necessary to use two types of suffix letters in VAR - Reactive Power
connection with one function number, it is often desirable VB - Vibration
for clarity to separate them by a slanted line or dash, as for W Water, or Watts
example, 200/CS or 200 - CS.
Main Devíces
The suffix letters whiclt denote parts of the main device, These letters denote the locatíon of the main clevice in tite
and those which cannot or need not form part of the de- circuit, or the type of circuit in which the clevice is used
vice function designation, are generally written directly be- or the type of circuit or apparatus with which it is associ-
low the device function number on drawings, as for exarn- ated, when this is necessary , such as:
ple,
52 43 A - Alarm or Auxiliary Power
ccºrA · AN - Anode
B - Battery, or Blower, or Bus
Auxiliary Devices BK - Brake
Separate Auxiliary Devices BL - Block (Valve)
X BP - Bypass
y - Auxiliary relay(l) BT - Bus Tie
z C - Capacitor, or Condenser, Compensator, or Carrier
R - Raising relay Current or Case or Compressor
L - Lowering relay CA - Cathode
o - Opening relay or contactar CH - Check (Valve)
e - Closing relay or contactor D - Discharge (Valve)
es - Control switch E - Exciter
F - Feeder, or Field , or Filament, or Filler, or Fan
App.11 · 7
G - Generator, or Ground<z> tion, and that opens when the device assumes the
H - Heater , or Housing opposíte position
L - Line or Logic
M - Motor, or Metering aa - Contact that is open when the operating mech-
N - Network , or Neutral(Z) anism of the main device is in the non-operated
P - Pump or Phase Comparison position and that closes when the operating rnech-
R - Reactor, or Rectifier, or Room anism assumes lhe opposite position
S - Synchronizing or Secondary or Strainer or Sump
or Suction (Valve) bb - Contact that is closed when lhe operating rnech-
T - Transformer, or Thyratron anism of the main device is in the non-operated
TH - Transformer (high-voltage side) position and that opens when the operating mech-
TL - Transformer (low-voltage side) anism assumes the opposite position
TM - Telerneter
U - Unit Standard reference positions of sorne typicaJ devices are as
foUows:
(2) Suffix "N" is genera U y used in preference to "G" for dcvices
connecred in thc secondary neutral of current transforrners, or De vice Standard
in lhe secondary of a current transformer whose primary winding Reference Position
is located in the neutral of a machine or power transformer, ex-
cept in the case of transmission line relaying, where the suffix Power Circuit Breaker Main Contacts Open
"G" is more commonly used for thosc relays which operare on Disconnecting Switch Main Contacts Open
ground fauJts.
Load-break Switch Main Contacts Open
Val ve Closed Position
Main Device Parts Gate Closed Position
These Jetters denote parts of lhe main device, divided in Clutch Discngaged Position
the two following categories: Turning Cear Disengaged Position
Power Electrodes Maximum Gap Position
1. Ali parts, except auxiliary contacts, position switches, Rheostat Maximum Resistance
limit switches, and torque limit swilches. Position
Adjusting Means<I> Low or Down Position
BK - Brake
Relay~ Deenergized Position
C - Coil, or Condenser , or Capacitor
Contactor~ Deenergized Position
CC - Closing Coil
Relay (latched-in type) See 2-9.7.2 (C37.2 • 1970)
I IC - Holding Coil
Contactor (latched-in type) Main Contacts Open
M - Operating Motor
Temperature Relay(3) Lowest Temperature
MF - Fly-Ball Motor
Leve! Detector() Lowest Level
ML - Load-limit Motor
Flow Detector() Lowest Flow
MS - Speed adjusting , or Synchronizing, Motor
Speed Switch() Lowest S'."'eed
S - Solenoid
Vibra tion Detector() Minimum Vibration
SI - Seal-in
Pressure Switch() Lowest Pressure
TC - Trip Coil
Vacuum Switch() Lowest Pressure, i.e.,
V - Valve
Highest Vacuum
2. Ali auxiliary contacts and position and limit switches for
such devices and equipment as circuit breakers, contactors, Note: 1 f severa! similar auxiliary switches are present on the same
valves and rheostats and contacts of relays. These are des- device, they should be designated numerically 1, 2, 3, etc. when
necessary.
ignated as follows:
(i) These may be speed, voltage, current, load, or similar adjusting
a - Contact that is open when the main device is in de vices cornprising rheostat s, springs, levers, or other componcnts
the standard reference position, commonly re- for t he purpose.
ferred to as the non-operated or deenergized posi- (2) These electrically operated devices are of the non-Iatched-in
tion, and that closes when the device assumes the type , whose contact position is dependen! only upon the degree of
opposite position energizatíon of the opcrating or restraining or holding coil or coils
which may or may not be suitable for continuous energization.
b - Contact that is closed when the main d evice is in The deenergized position of the device is that with all coils deen-
the standard reference position, cornmonly re- ergized ,
ferred to as the non-operated or deenergízed posi- ® The energizing influences for these devices are considered to be,
respectively , rising temperature, rising level, iocreasing flow, rising
speed, increasing vibration, and increasing pressure.
App. 11 - 8
The simple designation "a" or "b " is used in all cases where Representation of Device Contacts on Electrical Diagrarns
there is no need to adjust the contacts to change position On electrical diagrarns the "b" contacts of ali devices, in-
at any particular point in the travel of the main device or cluding those of relays and those with suffix letters or
where the part of the travel where the contacts change po- percentage figures, should be shown as closed contacts,
sition is of no significance in the control or operating and ali "a" contacts should be shown as open contacts.
scherne. Hence the "a" and "b" designations usually are
sufficient for circuit breaker auxiliary switches. For those devices that have no de-energized or nonoperated
position, such as manually-operated transfer or control
Other Switches switches (including those of the spring-return type) or auxií-
These Jetters cover ali other distinguishing features or iary position indicating contacts on the housings or enclo-
characteristics or conditions, which serve to describe the sures of a removable circuit breaker unit, the preferred
use of the device or its contacts in the equipment such as: method of representing these contacts is asan "a" switch.
Each contact sho uld, however, be identified on the ele-
A -
Accelerating, or Autornatic mentary diagramas to when it closes.
8 -
Blocking, or Back-up
C -
Close, or Cold In the case of latched-in or hand-reset locking-out relays,
D -
Decelerating, Detonate, or Down, or Disengaged which operate from protective devices to perform the shut-
E - Emergency or Engaged
down of an equipment and to hold it out of service, the
F - Failure , or Forward
contacts should preferably be shown in the normal non-
H - Hot, or High
locking-out position. In general, any devices, such as
H R - Hand Reset
electrically-operated Iatched-in relays, which have no de-
HS - High Speed
energized or non-operated position, and have not been
L - Left, or Local, or Low , or Lower, or Leading
M - Manual
specif'ically covered in the above paragraphs should have
their contacts shown in the position most suitable for the
OFF - Off
ON -On ready understanding of the operation of the devices in the
P - Polarizing equipment, and sufficient description should be present,
as necessary, on the elementary diagrarn to indicate the
R - Right, or Raise, or Reclosing, or Receiving, or
contact operation.
Remete, or Reverse
S - Sending, or Swing
T - Test, or Trip, or Trailing
TDC - Time-delay Closing
TDO - Time-delay Opening
U -Up
8-1
Abbreviations Used in the Bibliography IEEE Standard for Relay and Relay Systems Associated
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AJEE - American lnstitute of Electr ical Engineers (up C37.90-l 97 I.
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IEEE - lnstitute of Electrical & Electronic Engineers 1956
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P A & S - Power Apparatus & Systems John Wiley & Sons, lnc., New York
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ll -lmplementation, S. H. Horowitz, A. Politis, and A. F.
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Carr ier 011 Powcr Cables l'art 111 - Equipment Dcvclopmcnt and Design Vol. 91,
1972, pp. 587-591.
1. Loss Mcasurcrnents Made on Undcrground-Cable,
Ovcrhead-Conductor 132-k V. Tra nsm ission Lineal Carrier
Frcqucncies, 11. A. Cornelius and B. Wadc Storcr, AIEL:. PILOT WIRE PROTECTION (Chapter 14)
Trans .. Vol. 68, Part 11, 1949, pp. 587-601.
Pilo! Wire Pro tection Circuits, E. L. l lurder, M. /\. Bostwick ,
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Powcr Cables, B. J. Spurlin aud J. V. Moynihan, AIEE
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Cable and Overhcud Circuit , J. D. Moynihan and E. G.
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C57 .13-1968( new revisión schcdulcd for 1976 }.
l. 1:-.ight.:cn Months Expcr icncc with lnsulalcd Static-Wirc
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I'apcr 3 1 CP66- J 04, 1 966. tion with Particular Rcf'crence to Offset I'runxicnt Currcnts,
E. C. Wc11t1. W. K. So nnemun , Ali:.!:: Trausacrions. Vol. 59,
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Rclayi11g lnvcstigut ion , J. Reichmun. IFEI·. Trans. Power
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cralor. lrEE Powcr Systcm R..:laying Commillcc. IEl·.E
3. Primary u nd Sccondary Fault Protcct ion 011 a 138 k V Transa..:tionson PA & S, Vol. 91, 1972. pp. 24-.18.
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168.
J. Expcri111cnlal Evaluation uf I'owcr-Linc Carricr Propa-
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phase Lincs, .M.C. Perz .. IEF.F Trans, Power Apparatus and Gleason, AJEE Transac;tion, Vol. 70, 1951, l'arl 1, pp. 1 OJ-
Syxtcms, Vol. 83, 1964. pp. 679-686. 1 1 l.
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H·.'.>
Generator Negative-Sequence Currents for Line-to-Line Heating of lnduction Motors on Unbalanced Voltages, B. N.
Faults, R. F. Lawrence and Ferguson, AJEE Transactions, Gafford, W. C. Duesterhoeft, Jr. and C. C. Mosher, 111,
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Vol. 72, Part III, 1953, pp. 282-286.
Reclosing Transients in lnduction Motors with Terminal
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Part lllA, 1954, pp. 765-777. lll, pp. 1206-1213.
Protection of Large Steam Turbine Generators During Ab- Effect of Unbalanced Voltage on the Operation of Poly-
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Relay Protection of Motors in Steam Power Stations with
Mínimum Excitation Limit for Magnetic Amplifier Regular- 4-kV Grounded Neutral Systerns, W. F. Neff, S. H. Horo-
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Protective Relaying for Pumped Storage Hydro Units, Selecting A.C. Overcurrent Protective Device Settings for
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PA & S. Vol. 94, 1975, pp. 899-907. Part u, 1952, pp. 203-21 l.
Generator Protection with a New Static Negative Sequence More About Setting Industrial Relays, F. P. Brightman,
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How to Select Overcurrent Relay Characteristics, D. V.
A Study of Loss-of-Excitation Relaying and Stability of a
Fawcett, IEEE Trans. on Applications and lndustry, Vol.
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Loss of Excitation Protection for Modero Synchronous Protection of 3-Phase Motors Against Single Phase Opera-
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lEEE Power System Relaying Committee, IEEE Transac- SETTING & APPLICATION BY COMPUTERS
tion on PA & S, Vol. 94, 1975, pp. 1464-1472, 1481-1483. (Chapter 12)
The lnfluence of Generator Loss of Excitation on Bulk Digital Computer Protective Devíce Coordination Program
Power System Reliability, H. G. Danon, J. L. Koepfinger, 1 · General Program Description, R. E. Albrecht, M. J. Nisia,
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B-7
TESTING ANO ANALYSIS (Chapter 22) Report on Transformer Magnetizing Current and lts Ef-
fect on Relaying and Air Switch Operation, AIEE Commit-
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75, Part 111, 1956, pp. 254-260.
Magnetizing lnrush Phenomena in Transformer Bank , W. K.
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Society, 1 EEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Sys-
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mann, AIEE Transactions, Vol. 68, Part 11, 1949, pp,
1249-54. A Transformer Differential Relay with Second-Harmonic
Restraint, W. E. Glassburn, R. L. Sharp, AIEE Trans., Vol.
77, Part 111, 1958, pp. 913-918.
TRANSFORMER PROTECTION (Chapter 8)