P U B L IC A T IO N S O F T H E

F O U N D A T IO N F O R F IN N IS H A S S Y R IO L O G IC A L R E S E A R C H
NO. 1

S T A T E A R C H IV E S O F A S S Y R IA C U N E IF O R M T E X T S

VOLUM E VI
State Archives of Assyria Cuneiform Texts (SAACT) is a series of text editions presenting
central pieces of Mesopotamian literature both in cuneiform and in transliteration, with
complete glossaries, name indexes and sign lists generated electronically from the
transliterations. The goal of the series is to eventually make the entire library of
Assurbanipal available in this format.

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ISBN -13 978-952-10-1333-1 (Volum e 6)

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 STATE ARCHIVES OF ASSYRIA
CUNEIFORM TEXTS
VOLUM E VI

The Neo-Assyrian Myth of

ISTAR’S DESCENT AND

RESURRECTION

INTRODUCTION, CUNEIFORM TEXT, AND TRANSLITERATION

WITH A TRANSLATION, GLOSSARY, AND EXTENSIVE COMMENTARY

By
Pirjo Lapinkivi

THE N E O - A S S Y R I A N TE XT C O R P U S PROJECT
2010
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

T h is c ritic a l e d itio n o f th e “D e s c e n t o f Is ta r Jo th e N e th e rw o rld ” has b een a

b a b y w a itin g to b e b o rn fo r a lo n g p e rio d o f tim e . F irs t o f a ll, a lth o u g h it w as
o n e o f th e m o st s ig n ific a n t re lig io u s and lite ra ry te x ts o f a n c ie n t M e so p o ta -
m ia , it h a s n o t re c e iv e d p ro p e r a tte n tio n in th e m o d e rn sc h o la rly w o rld . T h e re
h a s n o t b e e n a c ritic a l e d itio n o f th e A s sy ria n v e rsio n o f th e m y th d e sp ite its
im p o rta n c e an d v a lu e . B e c a u se o f th e o b v io u s la c k fo r th e fie ld o f A ssy rio -
lo g y a n d b e c a u s e o f m y o w n in te re s t in th e fig u re o f the m u lti-fa c e te d g o d d ess
I s ta r , I d e c id e d to fill th e g ap an d a tte m p t to p ro v id e an e d itio n th a t c o u ld be
u se d b y s c h o la rs , stu d e n ts a n d a n y o n e in te re s te d in th e m y th .
S e c o n d , th e w o rk fo r th e e d itio n s ta rte d q u ite a few y e a rs ag o as a co n tin u -
a tio n o f m y d is s e rta tio n “ T h e S u m e ria n S a c re d M a rria g e in th e L ig h t o f
C o m p a ra tiv e E v id e n c e ” (p u b lis h e d as SA A S 15). I w o rk ed as a p o s t-d o c to ra l
re s e a r c h e r at th e U n iv e rsity o f H e ls in k i, in th e In stitu te fo r A sia n an d A fric a n
S tu d ie s , u n til th e sp rin g o f 2 0 0 7 w h e n ;I d e c id e d to m o v e to a n o th e r fie ld o f
w o rk a n d le ft th e e d itio n u n fin is h e d at th a t tim e . E v e r sin c e , th e e d itio n h as
b e e n on m y m in d , b u t in a la te n t s ta te , u n til now w h en the tim e to h a v e it b o rn
h a s c o m e . F o r th is fin a l step I am fo re v e r g ra te fu l to P ro f. S im o P a rp o la and
D r. R o b e rt M . W h itin g w h o h a v e p ro v id e d m e w ith all the a s sis ta n c e n ee d e d
to h a v e th e b o o k c o m p le te d a n d p u b lis h e d .
F in a n c ia lly , I am in d e b te d to the O sk a r O flu n d F o u n d a tio n , th e E lla and
G e o rg E h rn ro o th F o u n d a tio n , an d th e E m il A a lto n e n F o u n d a tio n . T h e ir
g ra n ts e n a b le d fu ll-tim e w o rk o n p re p a rin g th is e d itio n o f I s ta r ’s jo u rn e y to
th e N e th e rw o rld a n d h e r re s u rre c tio n w h ile I w as w o rk in g at th e U n iv e rsity
o f H e ls in k i.
I am g ra te fu l to th e F o u n d a tio n fo r F in n ish A s sy rio lo g ic a l R e se a rc h fo r
m a k in g th e p u b lic a tio n o f th is w o rk p o s s ib le .

V a n ta a , D e c e m b e r 2 0 0 9 P irjo L a p in k iv i
 CONTENTS

A C K N O W LED G EM EN TS.............................................................................................. v
INTRODUCTION , ix
M an u scrip ts................................................................................................................. xi
Previous Work on Istar’s D e sc e n t........................................................................ xii
A bbreviations and S y m b o ls................................................................................... xiv
B ib lio g rap h y .............................................................................................................. xvii
CUNEIFORM T E X T ........................................................................................................ 1
T R A N SL IT E R A T IO N ...................................................................................................... 9
TEXT S C O R E ..................................................................................................................... 15
M ID D LE ASSYRIAN VERSION (Transliteration and T ran slatio n )................... 23
T R A N SC R IPT IO N ....................................................................................................... 25
T R A N SL A T IO N ................................................................................................................. 29
CONTEXTUAL COMM ENTARY AND ANALYSIS 35
Gram m atical C o m m en tary ................... 95
GLOSSARY AND INDICES 101
Logogram s and Their Readings 101
Glossary ................................................................................................................... 103
Index of N a m e s ......................................................................................................... 108
SIGN L IS T ........................................................................................................................... 109
 INTRODUCTION

T h e “D e s c e n t o f Is ta r to th e N e th e rw o rld ” is c e rta in ly one o f th e b e s t k n o w n

a n d m o st w id e ly re a d M e so p o ta m ia n m y th s. It h a s co m e d o w n to us a lm o st
c o m p le te in its c la s s ic a l N e o -A ss y ria n v e rsio n , and tra n sla tio n s o f it are
a v a ila b le in n u m e ro u s a n th o lo g ie s o f M e so p o ta m ia n lite ra tu re (fo r m an y
y e a rs a lso o n th e In te rn e t). T h e m y th its e lf h as b e e n d isc u s s e d or to u c h e d
u p o n in in n u m e ra b le c o n n e c tio n s , a n d re a d in g it in c u n e ifo rm is a s e lf-e v id e n t
m u st fo r e v e ry a s p irin g A s s y rio lo g is t.
A g a in s t th is b a c k g ro u n d , it is b o th su rp risin g and d e p lo ra b le th a t no
fu ll-s c a le c ritic a l e d itio n o f th is im p o rta n t m y th h as e v e r b e e n p ro d u c e d .
A p a rt fro m P e te r J e n s e n ’s e d itio p r in c e p s fro m 190 1 , R y k le B o r g e r ’s sco re
tra n s lite ra tio n in B A L 2 (1 9 7 9 ), 9 5 -1 0 4 , is th e o n ly s c h o la rly e d itio n o f the
te x t a v a ila b le to s tu d e n ts . T h is sta te o f a ffa irs is all th e m o re d e p lo ra b le sin c e ,
d e s p ite all th e a tte n tio n th a t th e m y th h as re c e iv e d , the te x t s till p re se n ts m an y
te x tu a l a n d in te rp re tiv e p ro b le m s th a t h a v e n o t b e e n s a tis fa c to rily re so lv e d .
T h u s , fo r e x a m p le , th e u n fille d la c u n a e in B o rg e r’s tra n s lite ra tio n , p a rtic u -
la rly th o se a t th e b e g in n in g s a n d en d s o f lin e s 1 2 8 -1 3 4 , still p re s e n t a se rio u s
o b s ta c le to th e u n d e rsta n d in g o f th e e n d o f th e m y th .
M o re o v e r, a lth o u g h th e m y th h as a lso b e e n stu d ie d in d e p th fro m in te rte x -
tu a l a n d in te rc u ltu ra l p e rs p e c tiv e s , th e a v a ila b le c o m p a ra tiv e e v id e n c e (b o th
M e s o p o ta m ia n a n d n o n -M e s o p o ta m ia n ) h as n e v e r b e e n c o lle c te d in to a lin e-
b y -lin e c o m m e n ta ry th a t w o u ld fa c ilita te th e u n d e rsta n d in g o f its re lig io u s
a n d p h ilo s o p h ic a l d im e n sio n s . W ith o u t su ch a c o m m e n ta ry , th e k ey co m -
p a ra tiv e e v id e n c e w ill n e c e s s a rily re m a in b e y o n d the k e n o f th e c a su a l
s tu d e n t o f th e m y th , w h o is th u s fo rc e d to a p p ro a c h it la rg e ly fro m his o r h e r
o w n (m o re o r le ss s u b je c tiv e ) p e rs p e c tiv e o n ly .
T h e p re s e n t v o lu m e is an a tte m p t to p ro v id e a c ritic a l e d itio n th a t c a n n o t
o n ly b e p ro fita b ly u sed in te a c h in g b u t w ill also satisfy th e n eed s o f m o re
s e rio u s stu d e n ts o f th e te x t. In a d d itio n to th e c u n e ifo rm te x t, it c o n ta in s 1) a
n ew c o m p o site tra n s lite ra tio n o f th e N A v e rsio n b a se d o n all a v a ila b le
m a n u s c rip ts , 2) a sc o re h ig h lig h tin g th e d iffe re n c e s b e tw e e n the N in e v e h and
A s s u r v e rs io n s , 3) a n o rm a liz e d tra n s c r ip tio n , 4) a tra n sla tio n o f th e c o m p o -
site te x t, 5) a d e ta ile d lin e -b y -lin e c o m m e n ta ry , 6) a g ra m m a tic a l and o rth o -
g ra p h ic c o m m e n ta ry , as w e ll as 7) e x h a u s tiv e lo g o g ra m , w o rd an d nam e
in d ic e s an d 8) a sig n lis t in th e c u s to m a ry S A A C T sty le. T h e n o rm a liz e d
tra n s c rip tio n an d g ra m m a tic a l e x p la n a tio n s are a d d re sse d to th e b e g in n in g
s tu d e n ts an d n o n -A s s y rio lo g is ts w h o w ish to stu d y th e A k k a d ia n te x t firs t-
h a n d , w ith o u t re c o u rs e to a tra in e d A s s y rio lo g is t.
B e c a u s e o f th e b re v ity o f th e m y th an d th e g re a t v a rie ty o f th e in te rp re ta -
tio n s p ro p o s e d fo r it, th e s u rfa c e sto ry a n d th e v a rio u s la y e rs o f m e a n in g
u n d e rly in g it are n o t g e n e ra lly d is c u s s e d in th is in tro d u c tio n . T h e title o f the
v o lu m e w as c h o se n to d ra w a tte n tio n to th e fa c t th a t th e d e sc e n t o f the
G o d d e s s w as n o t a o n e -w a y jo u rn e y But e n d e d in an a sc e n t to h ea v e n .
 !ST A R ’S DESCENT A N D RESURRECTION

C uneiform Text a n d Sign L ist

T h e c u n e ifo rm te x t an d sig n lis t h a v e b e e n g e n e ra te d a u to m a tic a lly fro m the

c o m p o site tra n s lite ra tio n u sin g p ro g ra m s and an d fo n ts c re a te d b y the S A A
P ro je c t. S o lid b la c k c h a ra c te rs re p re s e n t te x t p re se rv e d in at le a s t o n e m an u -
sc rip t an d o u tlin e c h a ra c te rs s ta n d fo r re sto re d te x t an d c o rre sp o n d to item s
w ith in sq u a re b ra c k e ts o r an g le b ra c k e ts in th e tra n s lite ra tio n . O u tlin e ch ar-
ac te rs c o v e re d b y sh ad in g in d ic a te sig n s re sto re d in a d e stro y e d a re a o f the
ta b le t. P a rtia lly p re se rv e d c h a ra c te rs are sh o w n by a c o m b in a tio n o f so lid an d
o u tlin e w e d g e s w ith sh a d in g o v e r th e o u tlin e p o rtio n o f th e sig n . D a m a g e d
sig n s are re p re s e n te d by g rey c h a ra c te rs an d u n re sto ra b le p o rtio n s o f th e te x t
are in d ic a te d by sh ad e d areas:

Transliteration Cuneiform
uk
[uk]
u[k]
[ m]&
[u k ‫י‬
[...]

T h e sig n lis t c o n ta in s all th e s y lla b ic an d lo g o g ra p h ic sign v a lu e s o c c u rrin g

in th e c o m p o site te x t and th e ir fre q u e n c ie s . T h e sig n n u m b ers g iv e n in b o ld
fa ce are th o se o f R . B o r g e r ’s A s s y r is c h -b a b y lo n is c h e Z e ic h e n liste w ith m in o r
m o d ific a tio n s .

T ransliteration

S in ce th e N in e v e h an d A s su r v e rsio n s o f th e m y th d iffe r c o n s id e ra b ly fro m

ea ch o th e r in d e ta ils , th e c o m p o site te x t p re se n te d h e re is p rim a rily b a s e d o n
th e N in e v e h v e rsio n , w h o se o rth o g ra p h y is p re fe rre d w h ere the tw o tra d itio n s
c o n v e rg e . L in e s in th e A s su r v e rsio n o m itte d in N in e v e h h av e h o w e v e r b e e n
in c lu d e d in th e c o m p o site te x t, w h e re v e r fe a sib le . S u ch in c lu sio n s are in d i-
c a te d w ith lo w e r-c a s e le tte rs a p p e n d e d to re le v a n t lin e n u m b e rs, w h ile the
lin e n u m b e rin g its e lf fo llo w s th a t o f K 162 (m s A o f th e N in e v e h v e rs io n ).
W h e re v e r th e tw o m a n u sc rip ts o f the N in e v e h v e rsio n d iv e rg e , p re fe re n c e h a s
b e e n g iv e n to g ra m m a tic a lly a n d o rth o g ra p h ic a lly m o re “ c o rre c t” fo rm s .
A ll d iffe re n c e s b e tw e e n th e N in e v e h and A ssu r v e rsio n s (in c lu d in g m in o r
v a ria n ts) are re g is te re d in th e v a ria n t a p p a ra tu s and th e sco re.

G lo ssa ry a n d Indices

T h e lo g o g ra m lis t, g lo ss a ry an d in d ic e s , e le c tro n ic a lly g e n e ra te d , g e n e ra lly

fo llo w th e c o n v e n tio n s o f th e S A A s e rie s , alth o u g h in th e in te re s t o f b e g in -
n in g s tu d e n ts an d n o n -A s s y rio lo g is ts , it h as b e e n m ad e a b it m o re “u s e r-
frie n d ly ” (e .g ., by n o t listin g v e rb a l a d je c tiv e s u n d e r v e rb s). T h e m e a n in g s
a ssig n e d to th e w o rd s are la rg e ly o n ly th o se o c c u rrin g in th e te x t itse lf.
 Manuscripts

One-column tablets from Nineveh

A = K 162 (CT 15 45-47). NA script, 80 + 59 lines. Except for minor breaks,
com plete text o f the myth. A ssurbanipal library stamp.
B = K 7600 (+) K 7601 (+) Ki 1904-10-9,159. NA script. D uplicate of A, minor
variants only. A ssurbanipal colophon c-e (Hunger Kolophone no. 319).

B, = K 7600 (CT 15 48). Lines 106-137.

B2 = K 7601 (CT 15 48). Lines 133-138 + 2 lines of colophon.
B3 = Ki 1904-10-9, 159 (CT 34 18). Lines 32-46.

All pieces are parts o f the same tablet, although B, and B2 do not join
physically. B3joins B, according to King, CT 34 p. 7.

One-column tablets from Assur

C = VAT 9729 + VAT 11245 (+) VAT 11269. Early NA script.

C, = VAT 9729 + VAT 11245 (KAR 1). Obverse corresponds to lines 4-43,
reverse to lines 81-130 o f A, with lines 134-138a written on the left edge.
C2 = VAT 11269 (KAR 288). Fragment from the lower left corner of the
obverse corresponding to lines 68-80 of A, with line 78 written on the left edge.

It is likely that both pieces are parts o f the same tablet, although they do not
join physically.

Other sources
D = Parallel passages in The Epic o f Gilgam esh
D, = SAA Gilg. VI 97-100 // ms A 17-20
D2 = SAA Gilg. VII 185-191 // ms A 4-10
D3 = SAA Gilg. VII 117-119 //m s A 106-108

E = Parallel passages in The M yth of Nergal and Ereskigal

E, = S T T 2 8 iii 1 - 5 / / ms A 0 6 -1 0
E2 = STT 28 iii 21-22 // ms A 29-30
E3 = STT 28 r. v 11-12 // ms A 19-20

A n appen d ix to a M iddle A ssy rian poem in praise o f T ig lath -p ileser I (LK A 62)
co n tain s the first 11 lines o f an earlier M A version o f the m yth, corresponding to
lin es 1-9 o f ms A. T his text dev iates considerably from the N eo-A ssyrian version
and has no relevance to the reco n stru ctio n o f the latter, but a new transliteration
and tran slatio n o f it is p ro v id ed on p. 23‫״‬, follow ing the score tran sliteratio n o f the
N A m an u scrip ts.

xi
 !ST A R ’S DESCENT A N D RESURRECTION

Previous Work on !star’s Descent

Copies
1875 Francois Lenorm ant, Choix de textes cuneiformes inedites ou incomplement
publies (Paris), no. 30, “La descent d ’Istar aux Enfers” [K 162]
1891 T. G. Pinches, The Cuneiform Inscriptions o f Western Asia, Vol. IV, 2nd ed.
(London), PI. 31, “The descent of the goddess Istar into Hades” [K 162 set
in cuneiform type]
1902 L. W . K ing, Cuneiform Texts fro m Babylonian Tablets, &c., in the British
Museum XV (London), Pis. 45-47 [K 162] and 48 [K 7600 + K 7601]
1914 L. W. K ing, Cuneiform Texts fro m Babylonian Tablets, &c., in the British
Museum XXXIV (London), PI. 18 [Ki 1904-10-9,159]
1919 Erich Ebeling, Keilschrifttexte aus Assur religiosen Inhalts I (Leipzig), Nr.
l ,p p . 1-4 and 321 [VAT 9729 + VAT 11245]
1920 Erich Ebeling, Keilschrifttexte aus Assur religiosen Inhalts II (Leipzig), Nr.
288, p. 231 [VAT 11269]
1953 Theo Bauer, Akkadische LesestUcke (Roma), Nr. 3, pp. 50-53, “H ollenfahrt
der Istar” [K 162, lines 1-125 only]
1979 Rykle Borger, Babylonische-assyrische LesestUcke, Heft II (AnOr 54; 2nd
ed., Rom a), pp. 340-343 [reprint of CT 15 45-48]

Transliterations

1901 Peter Jensen, Assyrisch-babylonische Mythen und Epen (K eilinschriftliche

Bibliothek 6/1, Berlin), pp. 80-91, “Istars H ollenfahrt” [K 162 and K 7600
+ K 7601]
1917 Samuel Geller, “Die Rezension von ‘Istars H ollenfahrt’ aus A ssur,” OLZ
2 0 ,4 1 -4 8 ,6 6 -7 2 [VAT 9729 + VAT 11245]
1979 Rykle Borger, Babylonische-assyrische LesestUcke, Heft I (AnOr 54; 2nd
ed., Rom a), pp. 95-104, “Die H ollenfahrt der Gottin Istar” [score of all mss.]

Transcriptions

!9 7 4 W illiam R. Sladek, In a n n a ’s Descent to the Netherworld (PhD diss., Johns

Hopkins U niversity), pp. 241-250, Appendix B, “Istar’s Descent into the
N etherw orld”

Translations

1901 Peter Jensen, Assyrisch-babylonische Mythen und Epen (K eilinschriftliche

B ibliothek 6/1, Berlin), pp. 80-91, “Istars H ollenfahrt” [K 162 and K 7600
+ K 7601]
 PREVIO U S W ORK O N !S T A R ’S DESCENT

1909 A rthur Ungnad, “Die H ollenfahrt der Ischtar,” in H. Gressmann (ed.),

‫■׳‬
Altorientalische Texte und Bilder zum Alten Testament (Tubingen), 296-300
1917 Samuel Geller, “Die Rezension von ‘Istars H ollenfahrt’ aus A ssur,” OLZ
20, 41-48, 66-72 [VAT 9729 + VAT 11245]
1926 Erich Ebeling, “Die H ollenfahrt der Ischtar,” in H. Gressmann et al (eds.),
Altorientalische Texte zum Alten Testament, 2. Aufl. (B erlin und Leipzig),
206-210
1926 R obert W. Rogers, Cuneiform Parallels to the Old Testament (New York),
121-131 ‫י‬

1945 Armas Salonen, Kaksoisvirranmaa (H elsinki), 539-546 [Finnish]

1946 A lexander Heidel, The Gilgamesh Epic and Old Testament Parallels (Chi-
cago), 123-128 (“Ish tar’s D escent to the Underworld”)
1950 E. A. Speiser, “D escent of Ishtar to the U nderw orld,” in J. B. Pritchard (ed.),
Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament (Princeton),
107-109
1955 E. A. Speiser, “D escent of Ishtar to the U nderw orld,” in J. B. Pritchard (ed.),
Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament (2nd ed., Prince-
ton), 106-108
1958 E. A. Speiser, “D escent of Ishtar to the Nether W orld,” in J. B. Pritchard
(ed.), The Ancient Near East. An Anthology o f Texts and Pictures, Vol I
(Princeton), 80-85
1969 E. A. Speiser, “D escent of Ishtar to the Nether W orld,” in J. B. Pritchard
(ed), Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament with Sup-
plement, 3rd ed. (Princeton) 106-109, also available at http://www.m e-
sacc.edu/dept/dlO /asb/m esopotam ia/descent_ishtar.htm l
1970 Rene Labat, “La descente d ’lshtar aux Enfers,” in Rene Labat et al. (eds.),
Les religions du Proche-Orient asiatique (Paris), 258-265
1974 W illiam R. Sladek, In a n n a ’s Descent to the Netherworld (PhD diss., Johns
Hopkins U niversity), pp. 251-262 (in Appendix B, ‘! s ta r ’s Descent into the
N etherw orld”)
1985 Erica Reiner, Your Thwarts in Pieces, Your Mooring Rope Cut. Poetry from
Babylonia and Assyria (U niversity of M ichigan), 29-49 (“The D escent of
Istar: From myth to narrative”)
1993 Jean Bottero and Sam uel Noah Kram er, Lorsque les dieux faisaient
Vhomme. Mythologie mesopotamienne (Paris), 318-326
1994 G erfried G. W. M uller, “Ischtars H ollenfahrt,” in O. K aiser et al. (eds.),
Texte aus der Umwelt des Alten Testaments, Band 111/4: Mythen und Epen
I I ( G utersloh), 760-766
1996 Benjam in R. Foster, Before the Muses. An Anthology o f Akkadian Lit-
erature, Vol. I (2nd ed., B ethesda, M D), 402-409, “Descent of Ishtar to the
N etherw orld”
1996 Jacob K lein, “Y erideth Ishtar le-Sheol,” in Shin Shifra and J. K lein, In Those
Distant Days (Be-yomim ha-rekhuqim ha-hem). Anthology of M esopota-
mian Literature in Hebrew (Tel A viv), 368-375
2000 Stephanie D ailey, Myths fro m Mesopotamia. Creation, the Flood, Gilga-
mesh, and Others (rev. ed., O xford 2000), 154-162

xiii
 !S T A R ’S DESC EN T A N D RESURRECTION

Abbreviations and Symbols

B ib lio g ra p h ica l A bbreviation s

ABRT J. Craig, Assyrian and Babylonian Religious Texts I-II (Assyriologische

B ibliothek 13, Leipzig 1895-1897)
AEPHEH Annuaire de l ’Ecole Pratique des hautes etudes, section des sciences
historiques et philologiques
AfK A rchiv fur K eilschriftforschung (= AfO 1-2)
AfO A rchiv fiir O rientforschung
AHw W. von S oden, Akkadisches Handworterbuch (W iesbaden 1959-1981)
AMT R. Cam pbell Thom pson, Assyrian Medical Texts fro m the Originals in
the British Museum (London 1923)
AOAT A lter Orient und Altes Testam ent
ARM Archives Royales de M ari
AS Assyriological Studies (University of Chicago)
ASJ A cta Sum erologica Japonica
BAL R. Borger, Babylonisch-assyrische LesestUcke I-II (Analecta O rientalia
54, Rome 1979)
BaM Baghdader M itteilungen
BIN Babylonian Inscriptions in the Collection of J. B. Nies
BiOr Bibliotheca O rientalis
CAD The Assyrian D ictionary of the University of Chicago
CBS M useum siglum of the University M useum in Philadelphia (Catalogue
of the Babylonian Section)
CD A J. Black, A. George, and N. Postgate (eds.), A Concise Dictionary o f
Akkadian. (SANTAG 5, 2nd corrected printing, W iesbaden 2000)
CNI Carsten Niebuhr Institute o f Near Eastern Studies, University of Copen-
hagen
CRRAI Rencontre assyriologique internationale, comptes rendus
CT Cuneiform Texts from Babylonian Tablets in the British M useum
Cyl. A “The Cylinders o f G udea,” in Thorkild Jacobsen, The Harps that Once
... Sumerian Poetry in Translation (New Haven 1987), 386-444.
DI D um uzi-Inanna Love Songs
Diri Lexical series diri DIR siaku = (w)atru
ETCSL The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature (http://www-
etcsl .orient .ox .ac .uk/)
FAOS Freiburger altorientalische Studien
GAG W. von Soden, Grundriss der akkadischen Grammatik
Hh. Lexical series HAR.ra = hubullu
Hg. Lexical series HAR.gud = imru = ballu
HUCA Hebrew Union College Annual
JAOS Journal of the A m erican Oriental Society
JCS Journal o f Cuneiform Studies
JNES Journal of N ear Eastern Studies
KAJ E. Ebeling, Keilschrifttexte' aus Assur juristischen Inhalts (Leipzig
1927)

xiv
 ABBR EV IA TIO N S A N D SYM BOLS

KAR E. Ebeling, Keilschrifttexte aus Assur religidsen Inhalts I-II (Leipzig

1919)
LAS S . Parpola, Letters fro m Assyrian Scholars to the Kings Esarhaddon and
Assurbanipal I, II (AOAT 5/1-2, Neukirchen-Vluyn 1970, 1983)
LKA E. Ebeling, Literarische Keilschrifttexte aus Assur (Berlin 1953)
Loeb Loeb Classical Library
M SL M aterialien zum sum erischen Lexikon/M aterials for the Sumerian Lex-
icon
N abnitu Lexical series SIG 7+A L A M = nabnitu
NABU Nouvelles A ssyriologiques Breves et Utilitaires
NHC N ag H a m a d i C o d e x (C o d ic e s)
OLZ O rientalistische Literaturzeitung
OrNS O rientalia Nova Series
OrSuec O rientalia Suecana
PBS U niversity of Pennsylvania, Publications of the Babylonian Section
(Philadelphia 1911- )
PRAK H. de G enouillac, Premieres recherches archeologiques a Kich (Paris
1924-1925)
Proto-D iri see Diri
Proto-Izi Lexical series izi = isatu
RA Revue d ’assyriologie et d ,archeologie orientale
R1A R eallexikon der A ssyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Archaologie
SAA State Archives o f A ssyria
SAA 3 A. Livingstone, Court Poetry and Literary Miscellanea. (Helsinki 1989)
SAACT State Archives o f A ssyria Cuneiform Texts
SAAS State Archives o f A ssyria Studies
SANE Sources from the A ncient N ear East (Los Angeles/M alibu 1974- )
SANTAG A rbeiten und U ntersuchungen zur K eilschriftkunde
SGL II J. J. A. van D ijk, Sumerische Gotterlieder (Heidelberg 1960)
SK H. Zim m ern, Sum erische K ultlieder aus altbabylonischer Zeit I-II (VS
2 and 10, Leipzig 1912-1913)
SMS Syro-M esopotam ian Studies
StOr Studia O rientalia
STT O. R. Gurney and J. J. F inkelstein, The Sultantepe Tablets I-II (London
1957,1964)
Syria Syria, Revue d ’A rt O riental et d ’Archeologie
TAPS Transactions of the A m erican Philosophical Society
TMH NF Texte und M aterialien der Frau Professor H ilprecht Collection of Baby-
Ionian A ntiquities im Eigentum der U niversitat Jena. Neue Folge (Leip-
zig 1937, Berlin 1961- )
UET Ur Excavations, Texts
UF U garit-Forschungen
U garitica J. N ougayrol et al. (eds.), Ugaritica V: nouveuax texts accadiens, hour-
rites et ugaritiques des archives et bibliotheques privees d ’Ugarit. Com-
mentaires des texts historiques (M ission Ras Shamra 16, Paris 1968)
VS V orderasiatische Schriftdenkm aler der K oniglichen M useen zu Berlin
WO Die W elt des O rients
WOO W iener Offene O rientalistik
WZKM W iener Zeitschrift fur die Kunde des M orgenlandes
ZA Zeitschrift fur A ssyriologie und Vorderasiatische Archaologie

xv
 !ST A R ’S DESCENT A N D RESURRECTION

O ther A bb revia tio n s a n d Sym bols

acc. a c c u sa tiv e
c com m on gender
d at. d a tiv e
en cl. e n c litic
f. fe m a le , fe m in in e
g en . g e n itiv e
im p . im p e ra tiv e
MA M id d le A ssy ria n
m. m a sc u lin e
m s(s) m a n u sc rip t(s)
NA N e o -A ss y ria n
NB N e o -B a b y lo n ia n
nom . n o m in a tiv e
obv. o b v e rse
p e rf. p e rfe c t
p i. p lu ra l
p o ss. p o s se s iv e
p re c . p re c a tiv e
p re p . p re p o sitio n
p re t. p re te rit
p re s. p re se n t
p ro n . p ro n o u n , p ro n o m in a l
p tc . p a rtic ip le
p tc l. p a rtic le
r., rev . re v e rs e
SB S ta n d a rd B a b y lo n ia n
sg. sin g u la r
st. c s tr, s ta tu s c o n s tr u c tu s , c o n s tru c t state
sta t. sta tiv e
su b j. su b ju n c tiv e , su b je c t
su ff. su ffix
v .a d j . v e rb a l a d je c tiv e
v a r. v a ria n t
v e n t. v e n tiv e
v o c. v o c a tiv e
1 ,2 ,3 firs t p e rso n , sec o n d p e rs o n , th ird p e rso n
! c o lla tio n
!! e m e n d a tio n
? u n c e rta in re a d in g
: c u n e ifo rm d iv isio n m ark s
x b ro k e n o r u n d e c ip h e re d sig n
<> su p p lie d sig n
« » sig n e rro n e o u s ly ad d e d b y sc rib e
[ ...] m in o r b re a k (o n e o r tw o m issin g w o rd s)
[ ........ ] m a jo r b re a k
+ jo in e d to

xvi
 Bibliography

The ETCSL texts used or referred to in the book:

ETCSL: A n a d a b to I n a n a f o r U r -N in u r ta ( JJr-Ninurta C)
ETCSL: A b a lb a le to I n a n a a n d D u m u z i d (D u m u z id -I n a n a C)
ETCSL: A h y m n to In a n a (I n a n a C)
ETCSL: A h y m n to In a n a (In a n a F)
ETCSL: A h y m n to In a n a as N in e g a la (I n a n a D )
ETCSL: A h y m n to In a n a f o r I s m e - D a g a n (I s m e - D a g a n K)
ETCSL: A p r a is e p o e m o f S u l g i (S u lg i B )
ETCSL: A s o n g o f In a n a a n d D u m u z i d (D u m u z id -I n a n a D 1 )
ETCSL: A s ir - g id a to N u s k a (N u s k a A )
ETCSL: A s ir - n a m u r s a g a to N in s ia n a f o r Id d in - D a g a n (I d d in - D a g a n A )
ETCSL: D u m u z i d a n d G e s tin -a n a
ETCSL: D u m u z i d ’s D r e a m
ETCSL: E n k i a n d the w o r l d o r d e r
ETCSL: E n l i l a n d N in lil
ETCSL: E n m e r k a r a n d the lo rd o f A r a tta
ETCSL: G ilg a m e s , E n k id u a n d the n e th e r w o r ld
ETCSL: I n a n a a n d B ilu lu : an u lila to In a n a
ETCSL: I n a n a a n d E b ih
ETCSL: I n a n a a n d E n k i
ETCSL: I n a n a ’s d e s c e n t to the n e th e r w o r ld
ETCSL: I s m e - D a g a n a n d E n l i l ’s c h a r io t: a tig i to E n lil (Is m e - D a g a n I)
ETCSL: L u g a lb a n d a a n d the A n z u d B ir d
ETCSL: N i n g i s z i d a ’s j o u r n e y to the n e th e r w o r ld
ETCSL: T he C u r s in g o f A g a d e
ETCSL: T h e D e a th o f U r -N a m m a ( U r -N a m m a A )
ETCSL: T h e e x a lta tio n o f In a n a (I n a n a B )
ETCSL: T h e E x p lo its o f N in u r ta
ETCSL: T h e L a m e n t f o r U nug

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xxvi
CUNEIFORM TEXT
 ! s t a r ’ s D e s c e n t and R e s u r r e c t i o n

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‫*״‬M m t ‫ן‬- »> ‫ ח‬1!‫ש‬- -b i 1‫ח‬
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1‫ח‬1 ‫^ש‬:‫ח ץ‬1?‫ ח^ש‬1 ‫ ח‬-‫ ח ח! ^ !ח־חחחהש ח‬-‫ ח * ח‬11‫ ח‬b- ii g i ‫חז ח שחחל‬

3
 ‫‪CUNEIFORM TEXT‬‬

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‫‪ b & i b y - y‬מש ‪b y‬זמש ‪>v bf‬זזזש ^שזזזש מש ‪ 1‬זזץ־‬ ‫—‪^ b i‬‬ ‫‪^ tty‬‬ ‫‪< <Buy‬‬
‫מ ‪-‬ז & ‪t‬‬ ‫^ מ‬ ‫מ► ^ ‪b y‬‬ ‫^‬ ‫—ז‬ ‫מש ‪m‬‬ ‫>‬ ‫מש זז‪>£‬‬
‫‪->Y‬״ ^‬ ‫‪01‬‬ ‫‪3- f 3‬‬ ‫> ‪YY Y‬‬ ‫* מ‪YY IF0BF‬‬
‫‪60‬‬ ‫’ ‪ y j y‬זמש מ► ‪ b & ib y y ^ y y ^ y * y y‬ז ‪0‬זמשזמש ‪* ^ y -y‬שמש מש שמש?‬
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‫‪-‬זז► ‪►-ci V‬‬ ‫► ‪W-‬־‪ti‬‬ ‫^־‪- ,‬זז‬
‫^ ^‬ ‫‪- 1YFI Y‬‬ ‫‪01‬‬ ‫‪Y 10‬‬ ‫‪ B Y I‬מ>‬ ‫‘‪Y > Y <13 IF‬‬
‫ז^► ‪ 1‬מ‬ ‫‪y‬‬ ‫‪ bf‬זמש‬ ‫־** ‪ 1‬מ ־^י‬ ‫מ ‪if‬‬ ‫‪^ ^ w‬‬ ‫שזזזש‬ ‫‪ 1‬מ ז מ‬
‫‪^ ^ >B‬ש־^‪ BFIrB‬־‪HF‬‬ ‫‪h‬‬ ‫►^‪-‬‬
‫‪ Y‬מ ^ ^ש ־ז*־׳י‬
‫ז­‬ ‫‪u‬‬
‫■►‪V-‬‬ ‫*־־►‬

‫?‬ ‫‪01 BF‬‬

‫‪-‬‬ ‫<‪r-YI HF‬‬
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‫‪t.‬‬ ‫ש<■‬ ‫!!!!זש‬
‫‪WMm‬‬

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‫‪b‬‬ ‫זזש‬
‫‪»-‬ז‬ ‫«< ‪Hp-‬‬ ‫‪tgf 1‬‬
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‫י‬ ‫^ ^ז‬ ‫! ‪a‬‬ ‫‪P‬‬ ‫ד‪ -‬ששזש^ש‬ ‫‪1‬‬
‫‪TTT‬‬
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‫‪3‬‬ ‫מ‬ ‫מ‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫מזי ז‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪m‬מ‬ ‫^‬ ‫מש‬ ‫«<‬ ‫■&*‬

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‫‪4‬‬
 IST A R ’S DESCENT A N D RESURRECTION

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3 « I «

5
 !S T A R ’S DESCENT A N D RESURRECTION

Middle Assyrian Version

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1 0 ­‫ז‬ 0 ‫ ־‬010 ►■
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T ‫זז‬ 00‫ז‬ 10 0‫^זז‬ T 0 ‫ח‬ 01 00

7
 Transliteration

1 a -n a rKUR'l.NU.Gl4.A qaq-qa-ri l[a ta-a-ri]

2 d+lNNlN DUMU.MI d30 u-zu-un-sa [is-kun]
3 is-kun-m a d u m u .m ! d30 u-zu-u[n-sa]
4 a -n a E e-te-e su-bat Hr-kal-la
5 a -n a £ 5a e-ri-bu-su la a-su-u
6 a -n a har-ra-ni sa a-lak-ta-sa la a-a.a-rat
7 a -n a £ sa e-ri-bu-su zu-um -m u-u nu-u-ra
8 a-sar SAHAR.HI.A bu-bu-us-su-nu a-kal-su-nu ti-id-du
9 nu-u-ra ul im -m a-ru ina e-tu-ti as-[bu]
10 lab-su-m a ki-ma is-su-ri su-ba t gap-pi
11 UGU GIS.IG u GIS.SAG.KUL sa-bu-uh ep-ru
11a [UGU Gl]S.DAL su-har-ra-a-tu tab-kat
12 d+1NN1N a-n a k a k u r .n u .g i 4.a ina ka-sa-di-sa
12a p i-i-sa ip-pu-u-su i-qab-bi
13 a -n a LU.i.DU8 ba-a-bi a-m a-tum iz-zak-kar
14 LlJ.l.DU8-rae-e pi-ta -a ba-ab-ka
15 pi-ta-a ba-ab-ka-m a lu-ru-ba a-na-ku
16 sum -m a la ta-pat-ta-a ba-a-bu la er-ru-ba a-na-ku
17 a-m ah-ha-as dal-tum sik-ku-ru a-sab-bir
18 a-m ah-ha-as si-ip-pu-m a u-sa-bal-kat GIS.IG.MES
18a {a}-sab-bir g is-ri-na-am -m a a-sa-[ha-at k]a-ar-ra
19 u-se-el-la-a mi-tu-ti ik-ka-lu bal-tu-ti
20 u g u bal-tu-ti i-ma-H-du m i-tu-ti

21 LU.i.DU8pa-a-su i-pu-us-m a i-qab-bi

22 iz-zak-ka-ra a-na GAL-ti Hs-tar

4 e-te -e A: ek-le-ti C; su -bat A , D: mu-sab D 5 l a A , D : l a - a C 6 har-ra-ni A: KASKAL D; ta -a-a-rat A , D E:

t i - ia - a - r a tC 7 e-ri-bu-su A: a-si-bu-su D; nu-u-ra D: nu-ra E: nu-[x A; line om itted in C 8 s a h a r . h i . a A: ep-
ru D; bu-bu-us-su-nu A: bu-bu-us-si-na-ma D: -rsP-na E; a-kal-su-nu A: a-kal-[s]i-i-na C: -si-na D: n i n d a . h i J a 1- [ ^ '-
ri]a E; ti-id-du D: -di E 9 nu-u-ru A: it nu-u-ra D; ul im-ma-ru A: la im-ma-ra(-ma) D; ina A , D: i-na C; as-[bu]
A: a s-b a C , D , E 10 lab-su-ma A: la b-sa-m a D; ki-ma C: g im A , D; is-su-ri A: -ru E: m u S e n .m e s C: m u s e n D;
$u-bat A , D E: su-ba-at C; g a p -[p i] A: a-g a p -p i C: kap-pi D: a-kap-pu E l l u g i s . s a g . k u l A: u sik-ku-ri C; sa-
bu-uh A: i-sa-bu-uh C; ep-ru A: s a h a r . m e S C 11a Thus C; om itted in A 12 d+1NN1N A: om itted in C; a-na A:
ana C; k u r . n u . g i 4.a A: k u r . n u . g i C; ina ka-sa-di-sa A: i-na ka-sa-di-i-sa C; C adds: du .D A R pi-i-sa ip-pu-u-su i-qab-bi
13 LtJ.i.DUg A: i.D U 8 C; ba-a -b i A: sa kA C; a-m a-tum A: -tam C; iz-zak-kar A: M U -nr C 14 l u . i . d u 8 A: L d u 8 C;
p i- ta - a A: p i-i-ta -a C; ba-ab-ka A: k a C 15 ba-ab-ka A: k a C; lu-ru-ba a-na-ku A: a-na-ku lu-ru-ub C 16 thus
A; [su]-um-ma la-a ta-pa-ta-a ba-a-ba -am C 17 om itted in C 18 a-mah-ha-as A: a-ma-has C: a-sab-[bir] D;
-ma om itted in C; u-sa-bal-kat A: us-ba-lak-kaJ ta'1 C; u -sab-la-kat D 18a Thus C; om itted in A 19 u-se-el-la-
a A: u-sel-lam-ma D: [e]l-lu-u-ni C; m i-tu-ti A: uS .m eS D , E: -ma C; ik-ka-lu D: ik-kal-[lu] C: k u .m e S A , E 20 u g u
A , D: el C, E; bal-tu-ti A , D , E: me-tu-te C; i-m a-’i-du A , C: u-sam -[a]-du D: u-sam -ad E; mi-tu-ti A: O s.m eS D , E:
[bal-t]u-t[i] C 21 pa-a-su A: KA-i-su C; i-pu-us-m a A: ip-pu-su C; i-qab-bi A: [M]u-a[r] C 22 iz-zak-ka-ra A:
iz-za-qa-ra C; g a l -ti A: dba-la-te C; dis-tar A: d(u).D [A R C

9
 !S T A R ’S DESCENT A N D RESURRECTION

23 i-zi-zi be-el-ti la ta-na-da-as-si

23a qer-bi-is qa-*iJ P IG l[i-pe-tP]
24 lu-ul-lik MU-ki lu-sa-an-ni a-na sar-ra-ti dE[RES.K]l.GAL
25 e-ru-um-m a LU.i.DUg iz-za k-rka -ra‫[ ו‬a-na] rd1ERES.[Kl.GA]L
26 an-ni-tu-me-e a-ha-at-ki Hs-tar Hz-zcP-a[z] i-na [kA]
27 mu-ki-il-tu sa kep-pe-e g a l.m e s / da-li-ha-at ap-si-i m a-har dfi.A A[D‫־‬la ]
28 dERES.Kl.GAL an-ni-ta i-na sa -m iJ P-[sa]
29 ki-ma ni-kis GIS.bi-ni e-ri-qu pa-nu-s[a]
30 ki-ma sa-pat ku-ni-ni is-li-m a sap-ta-s[a]
31 mi-na-a SA-ba-sa ub-la-an-ni mi-na-a kab-t[a-as-sa] us-per-da-an-ni-m a
32 an-ni-tu-m e-e a-na-ku it-ti da-nun-na-ki A.ME§ a-sat-ti
33 ki-ma n in d a.m es a -kal im ki-ma kas.m eS a-sat-t[i] a.m es dal-hu-te
34 lu-ub-ki a-na GURUS.MES sa e-zi-bu u i.h i-re-ti
35 lu-ub-ki a-na MI'.KI.SIKIL.MES sa t a u r LtJ.ha-i-ri-si-na sal-lu-pa-ni
36 it a-na LU.TUR la-ke-e lu-ub-ki sa ina la ud.mes-sm tar-du
37 a-lik LU.i.DUg p i-ta -as-si ba-ab-k[a]
38 up-pi-is-si-ma ki-m a GARZA.MES la-bi-ru-ti N
39 il-lik LU.i.DUg ip-ta-as-si KA
40 er-bi be-el-ti g u .d u 8.a.KI li-ris-ki
41 E.GAL KUR.NU.GI li-ih-du ina pa-ni-ki
42 i-en kA u-se-rib-si-m a um -ta-si it-ta-bal AGA GAL‫־‬a sa SAG.DU-5a
43 am-m e-ni LU.i.DUg ta-at-bal AGA GAL-a sa SAG.DU-!'a
44 er-bi be-el-ti sa dNlN Ki‫'^־‬m ki-a-am garza.M E S-5a
45 2-a kA u-se-rib-si-m a um -ta-si it-ta-bal in-sa-ba-te sa Pi.2.MES-5a
46 am -m e-ni LU.i.DUg ta-at-bal in-sa-ba-te sa P1.2-ia
47 er-bi be-el-ti sa dNiN Ki-tim ki-a-am GARZA.MES5‫־‬a
48 3-su kA u-se-rib-si-m a um -ta-si it-ta-bal n a 4.nunuz.m es sa G\5-sa
49 am -m e-ni LtJ.i.DUg ta-at-bal n a 4.nunuz.m es sa g u -ia
50 er-bi be-el-ti sa dNlN Kl‫’^־‬m ki-a-am GARZA.MES-5a
51 4 -u k A u-se-rib-si-m a um -ta-si it-ta-bal du-di-na-te sa g a b a -sa
52 am -m e-ni LU.i.DUg ta-at-bal du-di-na-te sa GABA-ia
53 er-bi be-el-ti sa dNiN Ki-tim ki-a-am GARZA.MES-la
54 5-su kA u-se-rib-si-m a um -ta-si it-ta-bal sib-bu NA4 t u sa MURUB4.MES‫־‬l a
55 am -m e-ni LtJ.i.DUg ta-at-bal sib-bu n a 4 t u sa MURUB4.MES-/a

23 i-zi-zi A: i-ziz-zi C; be-el-ti A: n i n C; la A: la-a C 23a T h u s C; o m i t t e d in A 24 th u s A; si-qir-ki lu-sa-na-

a [ x x ] x x [ x x ] C 25 e-ru-um-ma A: e-ru-ub C; lO o m it t e d in C; iz-zak-ka-ra A: iq-ta-bi C 2 6 an-ni-tu-me-e A:
an-nu-u C; a-ha-at-ki C: a-ha-ta-ki A; dis-tar A: d+1NN1[N] C;; H z-za'-aiz C: i-[ A 27 mu-ki-il-tu C: -kil- A; sa C:
sd A 29 ki-ma A: ki-i C: [g i]m E; ni-kis A: ni-ki-is C, E; G is.fc i-[n ]i A: bi-i-ni C: g]1S.5iNIG E; e-ri-qu C: e-ru-[qu
A: i’-ir-qu E; pa-nu-s[a] C: pa-nu -u s E 3 0 ki-ma A: ki-i C: GIM E; s a -p a t A: sap-ti E: sa-ba-at C; ku-ni-ni A: -i-ni
C; sap-ta-su A: sa-ba-tu-s[a] C 31 mi-na-a A: mi-i-na-a C; §h-ba-sd A: -sa C; ub-la-an-ni A: C a d d s -ma\
kab-t[a-as-sa A: ka-b[at-t]a-sa-m a C 32 an-ni-tu-me-e A , B; an-nu-u C 3 3 a-kal A: ek-ka-la C; im A: ti-id-da
C; a-sat-t[i] A: -ta-a C 34 a-na A: i-na u g u C; e-zi-bu A: uzJ zu^-bu C; Ml .hi-[ A: hi-re-ti C 35 a-na A , B: i-
na u g u C; mi' A , B: o m it t e d i n C; t a A: ana C; l u .ha-i-ri A: [h]a-mi-ri C 36 m C: o m i t t e d i n A; l O . t u r A , B:
ser-ri C; la-ke-e A , B: la-a-’i C; lu-ub-ki A: o m it t e d in C; la A: la-a C; u d .m e s-.sm A: vu-mi-su C 37 ba-ab -k a A:
kA C 38 up-pi-is-si-ma A , B: [up]-pi-si C; g a r z a . m e s ’ A : p a r-si-k a C; la-bi-ru-t[i] A: la-a-be-ru-u-ti C 3 9
ip-ta-as-si A: -se C; ba-ab-[su] A: kA C 4 0 be-el-ti A , B: N l]N -f/ C; g u .D U 8.a.K1 A: ku-tu-u C 41 li-ih-du ina
pa-ni-ki A: a-na pa-ni-ka [li-ih -d \u ■ ’ C 42 1-en A , B: [i]s-te-na C 43 a m -m e -n i o m it t e d in C

1
10
 TRANSLITERATIO N

56 e r - b i b e - e l - t i sa dNiN Ki-tim k i - a - a m GARZA.MES-sa

57 6-su k A u - s e - r i b - s i - m a u m - t a - s i i t - t a - b a l h a r . m e s SU. 2 -sa u GIR.2 -sa
58 a m - m e - n i l u . i . d u 8 t a - a t - b a l h a r . m e s s u . 2 - / a u G1R.2-za
59 e r - b i b e - e l - t i sa dNiN Ki-tim k i - a - a m GARZA.MES3‫־‬a
60 l - u KA u - s e - r i b - s i - m a u m - t a - s i i t - t a - b a l s u - b a t b a l- t i s a z u -u m - ri - sa
61 a m - m e - n i LU.i.DU‫ ״‬t a - a t - b a l s u - b a t b a l - t i s a z u - u m - r i - i a
62 e r - b i b e - e l - t i sa dNiN Ki-tim k i - a - a m GARZA.MES-sa
63 is-tu u l- la - n u - u m - m a H s - ta r a - n a KUR.NU.GL, u-ri -du
64 dERES.Kl.GAL i - m u r - s i - m a ina p a - n i - s a ir-}u-ub
65 d+lNNlN ul im - m a - li k e - l e - n u - u s - s a u s-b i
6 6 dERES.Ki.GAL p a - a - s a i - p u - u s - m a i- q a b - b i
67 a - n a dNAM.TAR S U K K A L - ^ a 1 a - m a - t [ u m ] iz- z a k - k a r
6 8 a - l i k dNAM.TAR [ l i - q ] a - ra P - [ s i TA m a h - r i ] - i a - m a
69 s u - s a - a s - s i 1 su -s i g [ i g . m e s l i - i s - h u - p u ?] d+1NN1N
70 g i g i g i . 2 [a-na 1G1.2]-sa
71 GIG a - h i a - [ n a a - h i ] - s a
72 GIG GIR.2 a - [ n a G iR .2 ]-3 a
73 g i g s k - b i a - [ n a SA-bi-sa]
74 g i g SAG .DU ra M n a S A G .D U -5a]
75 a - n a s a - a - s a g a b - b i - s a - m a a J n a ‫[ ו‬x x x x x x]
76 a r - k i dis - t a r b e - e l - t i [a^-[na KUR.NU.GL, u-ri-du]
77 a - n a b u r -t i GU 4 ul i- s a h - h i - i [ t ] ANSE Mf.HlJB [ul u - sa - r a ]
78 a r - d a - t u m ina ,^SILA1 ul u - s a - r a 1e p - U u ]
79 riO-til et -l[ u i-na k u m - m i - su ]
80 [i]t -til a [ r - d a - t u m i-na a - h i - s a ]
81 11 p a p . s u k k a l SUKKAL d i n g i r . m e [ s ] g a l . m e s q u - u d -d u -u d ap- pa -s u p a - n u -s u [kat-mu ?]
82 k a r -r u l a - b i s m a - l e - e n a - a [ s - s i ]
83 il-lik a n - h is i-na p a - a n d30 A D -su i- b a [ k - k i ]
84 i-n a p a - a n d^.A LUGAL il - l a - k a d i - m a - a - [ s u ]
85 H s - ta r a -n a Ki -tim u - r i d ul i- l a - a
8 6 ul-tu u l- la - n u - u m - m a di s - t a r a - n a KUR.NU.GL, u-ri -du \
87 a - n a b u r -t i GU4 ul i - s a h - h i - i t ANSE Ml'.ANSE ul u - s a - r a
8 8 a r - d a - t u m ina SILA ul u - s a - r a [e] t-lu
89 it-til et -l u i-na k u m - [ m ] i - s u
90 it-til a r - d a - t u m i- n a a - h i - s a
91 dfi.A ina e m - q i s A -b i- s u i b - t a - n i z [ i] k - r u
92 i b - n i - m a lE - s u - n a - m i r LU .a s-sin-nu

93 a l - k a lE - s u - n a - m i r i- n a k A k u r . n u . g i 4.a su-kun p a - n i - k a

63 is-tu A: ul-tu A 86 71 a-hi A: ta-[ C 76 dis-tar A: du .D A R C; r e s t o r a t i o n s f r o m l in e 86 77 a-na A: a-na

u g u C; bur-ti A: -te C; r e s t o r a t i o n s f r o m l i n e 87 78 ar-da-tum A: -tu C; ina A: i-na C; s i l a A: s[u-qi] C; u-sa-ra
A 88: u-sa-ra-a C 79 et-lu A: g u [ r u s C; r e s t o r a t i o n s f r o m l i n e 89 80 r e s t o r a t i o n s f r o m l in e 90 82 la-bis A:
l a b - b i s C 83 an-his ( o r dUTU) A: 11p a p . s u k k a l C; i-na pa -a n A: ana ig i C 8 4 l u g a l A: o m i t t e d in C 8 5 k i -tim
A: K i-n' C; u-rid A: u-ri-du C 91 dfi.A A: C a d d s MAN; ina A: i-na C; em -qi A: -q i C; ib-ta-ni z[i]k-ru A: a-[m a-ta ?
i b - n f C 92 1e -su-na-m ir A: l as—na -m e-er C; LiJ.as-sin-nu A: ku-lu-‘a-[a] C; d i v id i n g l in e in C o n l y 93
1E -su -n a -m ir A: [ la ] s -n a - m e - e r C; i-na A: a-na C; k u r .n u .g i 4.a A: k u r .n u .g i C

11
 !ST A R ’S DESCENT A N D RESURRECTION

94 7 k A KUR.NU.GI 4 .A l i p - p e - t u J u ‫ י‬i-na p a - n i - k a
95 dERESJa.GAL li - m u r - k a - m a i-n[a p ] a - n i - k a li- ih- du
96 ul-tu SA - b a - s a i-nu-uh-hu k a b J ta^-as-sa i p - p e - r e d - d u - u
97 tum-me-si-ma m u d i n g i r .m e S g a l .m e s

9 7 a [dMAH?] b a - a - n a - a t rNAM?1 [x]x s a .t u r

98 su -q i SAG.MES-ka a - n a KUS .ha l-zi-qi uz-na su-kun

99 e b e - e l - t i KU§ . ha l- zi - qu lid -nu-n i A.MES ina SA-bi lu-u l-ta- ti
100 dERES.Ki.GAL a n - n i - t a ina s e - m i - s a
101 tam-ha-as p e-e n -sa tas-su-ka u-ba-an-sa
1 0 2 t e - t e r - s a - a n - n i e - r i s - t u m la e - r e - s i
103 a l- k a lE - s u - n a - m i r lu - z ir - k a iz -r a GAL-a
104 n i n d a .m e s G1s.AP1N.MES uru lu a - k a l - k a
105 DUG . h a - b a - n a - a t URU lu m a - a l - t i - i t - k a
106 g i s . m i b A d lu-u m a n - z a - z u - k a
107 a s - k u p - p a - t u lu m u - s a - b u - u - k a
108 s ak -r u u s a - m u - u li m - h a -s u le -e t - k a
109 dERES.Ki.GAL p a - a - s a i - p u - u s -m a i- q a b - b i
110 a- n a dNAM.TAR SUKKAL-sa a - m a - t a i z - z a k - k a r
111 a- li k dNAM.TAR m a - h a - a s E.GAL GI.NA
112 N A 4 .1 .D IB .M E S za -H-i-na sa n a 4.pa.m e$
113 Aa-n u n- n a -k i s u - s a - a i-na GIS.GU.ZA KUG.GI s u - s i b
114 d+iNNlN A.MES TI.LA s u - l u h - s i - m a l i - q a - a s - s i ina m a h - r i - i a
115 il-lik dNAM.TAR i m - h a - a s E.GAL GI.NA
116 n a 4.i . d i b .m e § u-za -H -i- na s a n a 4.p a .m e s
117 da -n u n -n a - k i u - s e - s a - a ina GIS.GU.ZA KUG.GI u - s e - s i b
118 Hs -ta r a .m e S t i .l a i s - lu h - s i- m a il - q a - a s - s i a n a 1G1-sa

118a [m fl]‫־‬ra ?1 a - l i k - m a dNAM.TAR d[u].D[AR l i - q \ i - s i - m a

1 1 8 b [ s u m - m ] a ip - U - r i - s d la Ud -da^-[na-ka t i ] r - r a - s i ^
1 1 8 c [i]lJ q O - s i - m a n a m .t a r [a-na k A ]. m e s

119 1-en kA u - s e - s i - s i - m a u t- te - e r - s i s u - b a t b a l - t i sa z u - u m - r i - s a

94 lip-pe-tuJ u ‫ י‬A: lip-pa-tu-u C; i-na pa-ni-ka A: a-na ka-a-sa C 95 i-n[a pa-n]i-ka A: ana 1GI-ka C; li-ih-du A:
li-per-du C 96 §k-ba-sa A: S]A-bu-su C; i-nu-uh-hu A: im-mer-su C; kab-Ha^-as-sa A: ka-bat-ta-su C; ip-pe-red-
du-u A: ip-per-du C 97 tum-me-si-ma A: [tu]m-mi-su-ma C; m u A: ne-es C 98 su-qi A: [s]u-u[q]-qi C; s a o .m e S -
ka A: re-si-ka C; a-na A: ana C; k u h al-zi-qi A: h al-zi-iq-qi C; uz-na su-kun precedes ana halziqqi in C 9 9 a A:
ma-a e C; be-el-ti A: N1N-f« C; k u S .hal-zi-qu A: hal-zi-iq-qi C; lid-nu-ni A: lid-nu-ni-ma C; ina A: i-na C; lu-ul-ta-ti
A: lal-ta-ti C 100 ina A: i-na C; se-m i-sa A: sa-mi-sa C 101 tam-ha-as A: im-ha-a? C; p e-e n -sa C: UR-5d A;
tas-su-ka A: it-ta-sa-ak C 102 te-ter-sa-an-ni A: te-tar-[s]a-ni-ma a ?-n a -m e-e r C; e-ris-tu A: -a C; la A: sa la C;
e-re-si A: -se C 103 al-ka A: al-kam C; 1E-su-na-m ir A: [ 1]a$-n a-m e-er C; lu-zir-ka iz-ra GAL-a A , G ilg. VII 102;
C has instead: sim-ti la m a-se-e lu-sim-ka 104 g iS .a p in .m e s A: e-pi-(ne)-et C; lu A: lu-u C; a-kal-ka A: S u k -at-ka
C 105 d u g .h a-ba-na-at A: C om its d u g ; lu A: lu-u C 106 g iS .m i A , C: si-il-li G ilg. VII 117; man-za-zu-ka A:
ma-za-ku-ka C 107 as-kup-pa-tu A: ak-su-pa-tu C; lu A: lu-u C; mu-sa-bu-u-ka A: -ba-ka C 109 p a -a -su A , B:
k a -i-su C; i-pu-us-ma A , C: ip-pu-su C 110 thus A , B; MU-ra a-na ^ n a m . t a r suKKAL-a C 111 ma-ha-a? fi.GAL
g i . n a A , B; E.GAL-Za m a-ha-af d i . l i g i . n a C 112 n a 4.i.d ib .m e § A , B; ak-su-pa-te C; za-H-i-na A , B; zu-H-in C; sa
n a 4 .p a .m e § A , B; ia-e-re-te C 113 su-sa-a A , B; su-sa-ma C; i-na A , C: ina B 114 d+1NN1N A , B: du.DAR C; su-
luh A , B: su-ul-li-P C 115 im-ha-as 6.GAL g i . n a A , B; fi.GAL im -ta-ha-as d i . l [ i g i . n a ] C 116 NA4.I.DIB.ME§ A , B;
ak-su-pa-ti C; u-za-H-i-na A , B; u-za-in C; sa n a 4.p a .m e s A , B; ia-e-re-[te] C 117 u-se-sa-a A , B; -ma C; ina A ,
B : /- n a C 118 d+1NN1N A , B: du.DAR C; is-luh A , B: is-lu-u* C; il-qa-as-si A , B: i]l-qa-si ana iG i-s a 1 1 8 a ‫־‬c O nly
in C; cf. A 126 119 u-se-si-Si-ma A , B: -su-si-ma C; ut-te-er-Si A, B: -se C; bal-ti A , B: -te C; zu-um-ri-sa A: su-ftz
C

12
 TRANSLITERATIO N

120 2 -a kA u - s e - s i - s i - m a u t- t e - e r - s i s e - m e r s u .2-M u GIR.2-sa

121 3 -[su] k A u - s e - s i - s i - m a u t - t e - e r - s i s ib -b u NA4 t u s a MURUB4.MES-3a
122 4 -u kA u - s e - s i - s i - m a u t - t e - e r - s i d u - d i - n a - t e s a GABA-sa
123 5 -su kA u-se-si-si-ma ut-te-er-si n a 4.n u n u z .m e s sa G\5-sa
124 6-su kA u - s e - s i - s i - m a u t - t e - e r - s i in - s a - b a - t e sa rP l .2^-sd
125 7 -u kA u- se - ? i- s i- m a u t- t e - e r - s i a - g u - u r a - b a - a s a SA G .fDU l-la
126 s u m - m a n a p - t i - r i - s a la t a - a d - d i - n a k - k a m - m a a - n a s a - s a - m a ti r-r [a -s i]
127 a - n a dDUMU.Zi h a - m i r s e - e h - r u - t i - s a
128 a . m e s el-lu-ti r a - a m - m i - i k i DUG.GA p [ u s ] - s i - i s
129 t u g h u s .a lu - u b - b is - s u g i .g Id n a 4.z a .g i n li m - h a s x[x x]
130 M [ l .s] a m -h a -t e l i - n a - ’a - a k a b - t a - a [ s ] - s u
13 1 [ x x ] db e - li - li s u - k u t - t a - s a u - s a q - [ q a - a ]
132 [ n ] a 4.i g i .2. m e §-7£ m a - l a - a b ir - k [ a - a - s a ]
133 ik-kil a - h i - s a t a s - m e t a m - h a - a s db e - li - li su -k u t- ta s a z [ u - u m - r i - s a ?]
134 NA 4 .1G 1.M E S-lc3‫־‬a u n - d a l - l a - a p a - a n lit-te
135 a - h i e- du la t a - h a b - b i l - a n - n i
136 ina UD -me dDUMU.Zl el-la-an-ni GI.GID NA4.ZA.GIN HAR NA4.GUG it-ti-su el-la -[an-nP
137 it-ti-su e l - l a - a n - n i l u .e r .m e s u m 1.6r .m e s

138 BA.TJS.MES li - lu - n i m - m a q u t - r i - i n - rn a ‫ ו‬li- is- si- nu

139 kur 1a n .s Ar - d u - a m a n s u m a n k u r - a n .s A r / k i 1

120 u-se-si-si-m a A , B: k ] i.m in C; ut-te-er-si A, B: ut-tir-[se C; GiR.2-La A: GlR.M E§-5a C 121 u-se-si-si-m a A , B:
k 1 ] .m i n C 122 GABA-sa A: ].M E S -la C 123 g u - M A: .M E js -ia C 124 P1.2-sa A: .m ] e s - M C 125 .m Jes-m j C
127 se-eh-ru-[ti-sa B: -re-ti-sa C 128 p[u s-si-is B: ]-si-is C 131 kab-ta-a[s-su] B: kab-t]a-su C 134 pa-an
[x x] A: pa -a ]n lit-te C 136 h a r A: om itted in B; el-la-an-ni A , B: *e^-la-a C 137 m i.e r .m e s A: [ x x x] - t u C 138
b a .u s .m e S A , B: m[e-tu]-rtu'1 C; li-lu-nim-ma A: -ni-ma C; qut-ri-in A: qut-ri-lna2 C 139 k u r A: e . g a l B; B adds:
sa d+AG ‫[ ו » ז‬Has-me-tum uz-nu ra-pa-as-tum is-ru-ku-us]

13
 TEXT SCORE

1 A a -na rKUR’l .NU.Gl4.A qaq-qa-ri l[a ta-a-ri]

2 A d+lNNlN DUMU.MI d30 u-zu-un-sa [is-kun]
3 A is-kun-m a DUMU.MI d30 u-zu-u[n-sa]
4 A a-na E e-te-e su-ba t dir-[kal-la]
C [... dir]-kal-[la]
D a-na E ek-le-ti su-bat dir-kal-la
D a-na E ek-le-ti m u-sab dir-kal-la
5 A a -na E sa e-ri-bu-su la a-s[u-u]
C [... e]-ri-bu-su la-a a-su-u
D a -na E sa e-ri-bu-su la a-su-u
D a -na £ sa e-ri-bu-su la a-su-u
6 A a-na har-ra-ni sa a-lak-ta-sa la ta -a -a -\ra t]
C [... a-lak]J ta2-[x\ la-a ti-ia-a-[rat]
D a-na k a s k a l sa a-lak-ta-sa la ta-a-a-rat
D a-na KASKAL sa a-lak-ta-su la ta-a-a-rat
E [ ...] - r! d 1 la ta-a-a-rat
7 A a-na E sa e-ri-bu-su zu-um -m u -u nu-[u-ra]
D a-na E sa a-si-bu-su zu-um -m u-u nu-u-ra
E [... zu-u]m -mu-u nu-ra
8 A a-sar SAHAR.HI.A b u-bu-us-su-nu a-kal-su-nu ti-i[d-du ]
C [...] a-kal-[s]i-i-na ti-id-[du]
D a-sar ep-ru b u-bu-us-si-na-m a a-kal-si-na ti-id-du
D a-sar ep-ru b u-bu-us-si-na-m a a-kal-si-na ti-id-di
E [... bu-bu-us]-[sP -na N iN D A .H l.rA - [ - n ] a ti-id-di
1 1 1

9 A nu-u-ru ul im -m a-ru ina e-tu -ti as-[bu]

C [... im]-ma-ra i-na e-tu -ti as-b[a ]
D u nu-u-ra la im -m a-ra-m a ina e-tu-ti as-ba
D u nu-u-ra la im -m a-ra ina e-tu-ti as-ba
E [...] ‫ח‬e U u - t i [ d s y b a ‫י‬

1 0 A lab-su-ma GIM is-su-ri su -b a t gap-[pi]

C [...] ki-m a MUSEN.MES su -b a -a t a-gap-pi
D lab-sa-ma GIM m u s e n su -b at kap-pi
E [... is-s]u-ru s u -fbaP a-kap-pu

11 A ugu G1S.1G u g i s .s a g .k u l sa-bu-uh ep-ru

C [x] GIS.IG u sik-ku-ri i-sa-bu-uh SAHAR.MES
11a C [ u g u g i J s / d a l su -ha r-ra-a-tu tab-ka-at
1

15
 IST A R ’S DESCENT A N D RESURRECTION

12 A d+iNNlN a-na kA ina ka-sa-di-sa

KUR.NU.GL,. a
C ana kA KUR.NU.GIi-na ka-sa-di-i-sa
12a C rd U.DAR p i-i-sa ip-pu-u-su i-qab-bi
1

13 A a-na LtJ.i.DU ba-a-bi a-m a-tum iz-zak-kar

8

C a-na i.D U sa k A a-m a"-tam m u -dr

8

14 A LU.i.DUg me-e p i-ta -a ba-ab-ka

C i.D U -me-e p i-i-ta -a k A
8

15 A p i-ta -a ba-ab-ka-m a lu-ru-ba a-na-ku

C pi-ta-a KA‫־‬m a a-na-ku lu-ru-ub
16 A sum -m a la ta-pat-ta-a ba-a-bu la er-ru-ba a-na-ku
C [su]-um-ma la-a ta-pa-ta-a ba-a-ba-am
17 A a-m ah-ha-as dal-tum sik-ku-ru a-sab-bir
D a-m ah-[ha-as dal-tum sik-ku-ru a -sa b-b ir]
18 A a-m ah-ha-as si-ip-pu-m a u-sa-bal-kat GIS.IG.ME§
C a-m a-has si-ip-pa us-ba-lak-ka-{tad [GIS].1G.MES
D a-sab-[bir si-ip-pa GIS.IG.MES] u-sab-la-kat
18a C ra '-sa b -b ir gis-ri-na-am -m a a-sa-[ha-at k]a-ar-ra
19 A u-se-el-la-a m i-tu-ti k u .m e s bal-tu-ti
C [e]l-lu-u-ni U S .M E §-m a ik-kal-[lu ba]l-tu-[t]i
D u-sel-lam -m a u S. m e s ik-ka-lu bal-tu-u-ti
E u-[sel]-reP -m a O s .m e s k Lj .MES bal-tu-ti
20 A UGU bal-tu-ti i-ma-H-du m i-tu-ti
C el m e-tu-te i-ma-H-du [bal-t]u-t[i]
D UGU bal-tu-ti u-sam-[a]-du US.MES
E el bal-tu-ti u-sa m -ad US.MES
21 A LU.i.DUg p a -a -su i-pu-us-m a i-qab-bi
C L (i.[ i.D ]u KA -i-su ip-pu-su [ M ] u - a [ r ]
8

22 A iz-zak-ka-ra a-na GAL -ti Hs-tar

C iz-za-qa-ra a-na dba-la-te d(u ).D [A R ]
23 A i-zi-zi be-el-ti la ta-na-da-as-si
C i-ziz-zi n i n la-a [...] sa [a ]
23a c qer-bi-is qa -’i-H ‫ י‬IG l[i-pe-tV]
24 A lu-ul-lik MU -ki lu-sa-an-ni a-na sar-ra-ti dE[RES.K]l.GAL
C si-qir-ki lu-sa-na-a [ ...] a x [ ...]
25 A e-ru-um -m a LU.i.DUg iz-zak-[ka -ra ‫[ י‬a-na dERES.Kl.GA]L
C e-ru-ub i.D U iq-ta-bi [a-na] rdlERES.[ K I . g a l ]
8

26 A an-ni-tu-m e-e a-ha-ta-ki Hs-tar i-x[...]

C an-nu-u a-ha-at-ki rd+^ N N i[N ] [iz-za 1-a[z] i-na [ k A]
27 A [mu^-kil-tu sa kep-pe-e GAL.MES da-l[i-...]
C mu-ki-il-tu sa kep-pe-e G A L .[m es] / da-li-ha-at ap-si-i m a-har dE.A A [D - a ]
5

28 A dERES.Kl.[GA]L an-ni-H a ‫ י‬i-n[a se-mi-sa]

C dERES.Kl.GAL an-ni-ta i-na sa-mi-H\-[sa]

16
 TEXT SCORE

29 ] . . . ?A k i - m a ni-kis GiS.bi-[n]i e - r u - [ q u
]C ki-i ni-ki-is b i- i - n i e - r i - q u p a - n u - s [ a
E [ g i ] m ni-k[ i-is G]1S.SINIG i’-ir -q u p a - n u - u s

30 ]... Aki-i s a - p a t ku-ni-ni i s - l i - [ m a

]C k i - m a s a - b a - a t k u- ni- i-n i is - l i - m a s a - b a - t u - s [ a
E GIM s a p - t i ku -[ ni- n]i i [ s - l ] i - m a s a p - t a - s u
31 ]... A m i-na-a s k -b a -sa ub-la-an-ni mi-na-a kab-t[a-as-sa
C m i - i - n a - a S k - b a - s a u b - l a - a n - n i - m a / m [ i ] -i - n a
C ka-b[at-t]a-sa-ma us-per-da-an-ni-ma
32 ]...[ A a n - n i - t u - m e - e a - n a - ku it-ti
]... B [ a n - n ]i -t [ u
C a n -n u- u a - n a - k u it-ti da - n u n - n a - k i a . m e s a - s a t - t i
33 ]... A ki - m a n i n d a . m e s a - k a l im k i - m a k a s . m e s a - s a t - t [ i
]... B [x] NINDA.[MES
C k i- m a NINDA.MES e - k a - l a t i - i d - d a / k i- m a KAS.MES a - s a t - t a - a A.MES d a l - h u - t e
34 ]A lu-ub-ki a - n a g u r u S . m e s s a e-zi-bu M l .hi-[x
]...[B [ lu - u ] b - k i
C lu -u b- ki i-na u g u g u r u s . m e s s a uz-'zu^-bu h i- r e - ti
35 ]...A l u- ub -k i a- n a MLK1.S1K1L.MES s a t a UR l u .h a - i - ri - si -n [ a
]...[.B [ lu- ub ]- ki a - n a M l
C lu -u b- ki i-na u g u k i . s i k i l . m e s s a a n a rtfR 1

C [h]a-mi-ri-si-na sal-lu-pa-ni
36 ]A a - n a l u . t u r l a -k e - e lu -u b - k i s a ina la u d .m e s - ^ m t a r - [ d u
B [x] l u . t u r l a - k e - fe ‫ ] י‬. . . [
C u a - n a s e r - r i la-a-H s a ina l a - a UD -mi -su ta r - d u
37 ]A a - l i k LtJ.i.DUg p i - t a - a s - s i b a - a b - k [ a
B [a-//]& rLO.LDUg1 ]...[
C [a - l i k ‫ י‬LU.i.DUg p i - t a - a s - s i k A
38 ]A u p - p i - i s - s i - m a ki - m a GARZA.ME§ l a - b i - r u - t [ i
]...[ B u[p-pi-i]s-si-ma
C [ u p ] - p i- s i ki - m a p a r - s i - k a l a - a - b e - r u - u - t i
39 ]A il-lik LU.i.DUg i p - t a - a s - s i b a - a b - [ s u
] . . . [ B il -li k LU.i.DUg
C [ il]-lik riA [D U 8] i p - t a - a s - s e k A
40 A e r - b i b e - e l - t i g u . d u 8 . a . k i li -r is - ki
]... B er-bi be-el-t[i
C [ e r ]- b i [N l]N -!i ku-tu-u li - r i s - k i
41 A fi.GAL KUR.NU.GI li-ih-du ina pa-ni-ki
B E.GAL KUR.NU.G ] 1 . . . [
C [x x k ] u r .n u . g [ i ] a-na p a -n i-k a [li-ih-d]u
42 A 1-en k A u - s e - r i b - s i - m a u m - t a - s i i t - t a - b a l a g a G AL-a sa s a g . d u - M
B l -en k A u - s e - r i b - s i - xm a ‫ ] י‬. . . [
C [ i] s - te -n a k A ] . . . [

17
 !S T A R ’S DESCENT A N D RESURRECTION

43 /A a m -m e -n i l u . i . d u ta-at-bal a g a GAL-a Sa SAG.DU-za

8

B a m -m e-n i LU.riA [D U . . . ] 8

C [lu .i.d ]u V [...]

8

44 A er-bi be-el-ti Sa dN lN -K i-7 /m ki-a-am GARZA .m e s - Sa

B er-bi be-e[l-ti ...]
45 A 2 -a KA u-Se-rib-Si-ma um-ta-si it-ta-bal in-sa-ba-te Sa P l. .MES‫־‬s a 2

B 2 -a rKA1 [...]

46 A a m -m e -n i l u . i . d u ta-at-bal in-sa-ba-te Sa p i -ia

8 . 2

B a[m -m e-ni ...]

47 A er-bi be-el-ti Sa dNlN-Kl-?zra ki-a-am GARZA .MES-sa
48 A 3-Su k a u-Se-rib-Si-ma um-ta-si it-ta-bal n a . n u n u z . m e § Sa GtJ-Sa
4

49 A a m -m e -n i l u . i . d u ta-at-bal n a . n u n u z . m e s Sa g u -ia
8 4

50 A er-bi be-el-ti Sa dN i N - K i -tim ki-a-am garza .MES-sa

51 A 4 -u KA u-Se-rib-Si-ma um -ta-si it-ta-bal du-di-na-te Sa GABA -Sa

52 A a m -m e -n i l u . i . d u ta-at-bal du-di-na-te Sa GABA -ia
8

53 A er-bi be-el-ti Sa dN1N-K1-rim ki-a-am GARZA.MES-M

54 A 5 -Su k A u-Se-rib-Si-ma um-ta-si it-ta-bal Sib-bu NA t u Sa MUR 4

55 A a m -m e -n i L U .i.D U g ta-at-bal Sib-bu n a t u Sa MURUB .MES-!a

4 4

56 A er-bi be-el-ti Sa dN l N - K l -tim ki-a-am g a r z a .m e s - M

57 A 6 -Su k A u-Se-rib-Si-ma um-ta-si it-ta-bal HAR.MES S U -Sa u GiR. -.sa . 2 2

58 A a m -m e -n i l u . i . d u ta-at-bal h a r . m e s s u . - a u G iR .2-/a
8 2 1

59 A er-bi be-el-ti Sa dN iN -K i-ft‘ra ki-a-am GARZA.MES-sa

60 A 7 -u kA u-Se-rib-Si-ma um -ta-si it-ta-bal su-bat bal-ti Sa zu-um-ri-Sa
61 A a m -m e -n i l u . I . d u ta-at-bal su-bat bal-ti Sa zu-um-ri-ia
8

62 A er-bi be-el-ti Sa dN i N - K i -tim ki-a-am GARZA.MES-sa

63 A iS-tu ul-la-nu-um -m a HS-tar a-na KUR.NU.G1 u-ri-du 4

64 A dERES.Ki.GAL i-mur-Si-ma ina pa-ni-Sa ir-'u-ub

65 A d+lNNlN ul im -m a-lik e-le-nu-uS-Sa uS-bi
66 A dERES.Ki.GAL pa-a-Sa i-pu-uS-ma i-qab-bi
67 A a-na dN A M . t a r SUKKAL-r^a a-ma-t[a] iz-zak-kar
1

68 A a-lik dNAM.TAR [li-q]a-raS1-[Si ta mah-ri]-ia-m a

C a-l[ik ...]
69 A Su-sa-aS-Si 1 Su-Si G [ G.MES li-is-hu-pu ?] d+lNNlN
1

C s a -s a -[...]
70 A GIG IG1.2 [a-na iG l. 2 ] - s a
C GIG[...]

71 A GIG a-hi a-[na a-hi]-Sa

C GIG f a - [ . . . ]

18
 TEXT SCORE

72 ‫ ו‬A GIG G IR .2 a-[na G iR .2 ] - 5 a

C GIG G [1R .2 . . . ]

73 A g ig s A -bi a-[na sA -bi-sa]

74 A GIG SAG .D U ra M « a S A G .D U -5 a ]
C GIG S A G .D U [ . . . ]

75 A a-na sa-a-sa gab-bi-sa-m a a - sn a ‫[ י‬...]

76 A ar-ki Hs-tar be-el-ti ra H na k ur .N U .G 14 u-ri-du]
C ar-ki dU .D A R [ . . . ]
77 A a-na bur-ti G U 4 ul i-sah-hi-i[t A N S E M l .A N SE ul u-sa-ra]
C a-na U G U bur-te [ . . . ] / A N S E M I.H IJB [ . . . ]
78 A ar-da-tum ina r s iL A 1 [ul u-sa-ra et-lu]
C ar-da-tu i-na s[u-qi] / ul u-sa-ra-a [eP-[lu]
79 A HP-til et-l[u i-na kum-mi-su]
C [i]t-til G U [R U S . . . ]
80 A [it]-til a[r-da-tum i-na a-hi-sa]
C [i]t-til a[r-da-tu i-na a-hi-sa]
81 A *1p a p .s u k k a l SU K K A L d i n g i r .m e [ s ] g a l .m e s q u-ud-du-ud ap-pa-su
A p a -n u -su [x]
C [ ...] rap^-pa-su [...]
82 A kar-ru la-bis m a-le-e na-a[s-si]
C [x] lab-bis m a-l[e-e na-si]
83 A il-lik an-his i-na p a -a n d30 A D -511 i-ba[k-ki]
C [x]x *1p a p .s u k k a l ana i g i [ . . . ]
84 A i-na p a -a n dfi.A L U G A L il-la-ka di-ma-a-[su]
C [x x d] f i.A il-la-ka [...]
85 A Hs-tar a-na K I -tim u-rid ul i-la-a
C [ du .D A R ] a-na k i -ti u-ri-du [...]

86 A ul-tu ul-la-nu-um -m a Hs-tar a-na K U R .N U .G L , u-ri-du

87 A a-na bur-ti gu 4 ul i-sah-hi-it a n s e m i .a n s e ul u-sa-ra
88 A ar-da-tum ina SILA ul u-sa-ra [e]t-lu
89 A it-til et-lu i-na kum-[m]i-su
90 A it-til ar-da-tum i-na a-hi-sa
91 A dE .A ina em -qi sk-b i-su ib-ta-ni z[i]k-ru
C m a n i-na e m -q i S k-bi-su a-[ma-ta'! ib-nP]
[*, e J / a 1

92 A ib-ni-m a lE -su-na-m ir LI'].as-sin-nu

C [...] 1a s -n a -m e -e r ku-lu-^a^-[a]
93 A al-ka lE -su -n a-m ir i-na KA K U R .N U .G L ,.A su-kun p a-ni-ka
C [x x la ]s-n a -m e-er a-na K A K U R .N U .G I su-kun pa-[ni-ka]
94 A 7 kA K U R .N U .G L ,. a lip -p e -tu -'u 1 i-na pa-ni-ka
C [x]x lip-pa-tu-u a-na ka-a-sa

19
 !ST A R ’S DESCENT A N D RESURRECTION

95 k dERES.Ki.GAL l i - m u r - k a - m a i-n[a p ] a - n i - k a li-ih-du

C [dERES].Ki.GAL li - m u r - k a - m a a n a 1G1-A:a li - p e r -d u

96 A ul-tu s k - b a - s a i-nu-uh-hu k a b - U a ' - a s - s a i p - p e - r e d - d u - u

C [ul-tu s]A - b u - su i m - m e r - s u k a - b a t - t a - s u i p - p e r - d u ■

97 A t u m - m e - s i - m a MU DINGIR.MES GAL.MES
C \ t u ] m - m i - s u - m a n e - e s DINGIR.MES GAL.MES
97a C [ . . . ] b a - a - n a - a t [ . . . ] 1x 1 s A. t Or

98 A su -q i SAG.MES-&a a - n a KUS . h al - zi -q i u z -n a su-kun

C [s ]u -u [q ]- q i r e - s i - k a - m a uz-na su-kun a n a h a l - z i - i q - q i

99 A e b e - e l - t i KU§ .h a l- zi - q u lid- nu- ni A.MES ina s k - b i lu-u l-t a- ti

C m a - a re ‫ י‬NIN-ti h a l - z i - i q - q i l i d - n u - n i- m a A.MES i-na SA -bi la l - ta - ti

100 A dERES.Kl.GAL a n - n i - t a ina s e - m i - s a

C dERES.rKi1.GAL a n - n i - t a i-na s a - m i - s a

101 A t a m - h a - a s U R -la t a s -s u -k a u - b a - a n - s a
C im - h a - a s p e - e n - s a i t - t a - s a - a k u - b a - a n - s a

102 A t e - t e r - s a - a n - n i e - r i s - t u m la e - r e - s i
C te - t a r - [ s ] a - n i - m a <ha s - n a - m e - e r e - r i s - t a s a la e - r e - s e

103 A a l-k a 1 E - s u - n a - m i r lu- zir -ka i z - r a GAL-a

C a l- k am [ 1Y a s ^ - n a - m e - e r s im -t i la m a - s e - e lu-s im -k a
C [l]u-rs i m - k a - m a 1 s im - t i la m a - s e - e a n a s a - a - t i

104 A NINDA.MES GIS.APIN.MES URU lu a - k a l - k a

C [x ] x a n a 1e-pi-<ne->et URU lu-u SUK-a t-k a

10 5 A DUG . h a - b a - n a - a t URU lu m a - a l - t i - i t - k a
C [ h ] a - b a - n a - a t URU lu-u m a l - ti - i t- k a
106 A GIS.MI b Ad lu-u m a n - z a - z u - k a
B [ . . . ‫ ן‬lu-u ‫ ן‬. . . ]
C [G]1S .mi b a d lu-u m a - z a - z u - k a
D s i-il- li b A d lu-u m a n - z a - z u - k i
107 A a s - k u p - p a - t u lu m u - s a - b u -u - k a
B [ . . . ] lu m u - s a - [ . . . ]
C a k - s u - p a - t u lu-u m u - s a - b a - k a
108 A sa k- ru w s a - m u - u li m - h a - su l e -e t- k a
B [sak]-ru u s a - m u - u li m - h a - su le -[ e t- k a ]
D [sak]-ru u s a - m u - u li m - h a - su le -e t-k i

109 A dERES.Kl.GAL p a - a - s a i- p u - u s -m a i - q a b - b i
B [d]ERES.Ki.GAL p a - a - s a i- p u - u s - m a i- [ q a b - b i ]
C dERES.Ki.GAL KA -i-su ip -p u -s u i - q a b - b i

110 A a - n a dNAM .t a r s u k k a l - M a - m a - t a iz - z a k - k a r
B a -n a dNAM.TAR SUKKAL-5a a - m a - t a i z - z [ a k - k a r ]
C MU-ra a - n a dNAM.TAR SUKKAL-5a

111 A a- li k dNAM.TAR m a - h a - a s 6 . GAL GI.NA

B a- li k dNAM.TAR m a - h a - a s fi.GAL G[1.NA]
C a -li k dNAM.TAR E.GAL-/a m a - h a - a s d i .li GI.NA

20
 TEXT SCORE

112 A NA 4 .I.DIB.MES z a- H -i- n a s a NA 4 .[p] a . m e S

B NA 4 . 1 .DIB.MES za -H -i- n a sa n a 4 .p a . [ m e s ]
C a k - s u - p a - t e zu-H-in ia - e - r e - t e
113 A da - n u n - n a - k i s u - s a - a i-n a GIS.GU.ZA KUG.G[1] s u -s i b
B da- n u n - n a - k i s u - s a - a ina GIS.GU.ZA k u g . g i su -[sib]
C da - n u n - n a - k i s u - s a - m a i-na GIS.GU.ZA KUG.GI s u - s i b
114 A d+lNNlN A.MES t i . l a s u - l u h - s i- m a l i - q a - a s - s i [ina m a h ] - r i - i a
B d+lNNiN A.MES TI.LA s u - l u h - s i - m a l i - q a - a s - s i ina m a h - r [ i - i a ]
C dU.DAR A.MES TI.LA s u - u l - l i - P - s i - m a / [ / - . . . ]

115 A il-lik dNAM.TAR i m - h a - a s e . [ g a l ] g i . n a

B [i]l-lik dNAM.TAR i m - h a - a s E.GAL G I .[ n a ]
C il-lik dNAM.TAR fi.GAL i m - t a - h a s DI.L[1 GI.NA]
116 A NA 4 .1 .DIB.MES u-za-H -i-na s a rNA 4 1 .PA.MES
B [ n ] a 4 . i . d i b .m e § u-za-H -i-na s a n a 4 .p a .[ m e § ]
C ak-su-pa-ti u-za-in ia -e-re-[te]
117 A da - n u n -n a - k i u - s e - s a - a ina GIS.GU.ZA KUG.GI u - s e - s i b
B [da ] - [n u n ' - n a - k i u - s e - s a - a ina GIS.GU.ZA KUG.GI u - s e - [ s i b ]
C Xdla - n u n - n a - k i u - s e - s a - m a i- n a G IS .G U A za 1 [ k u g ].G 1 u -s e - si b

118 A dis - t a r A.MES TI.LA i s - l u h - s i - m a i l - q a - a s - s i

B [di ] s - t a r A.MES TI.LA is - l u h - s i - m a i l - q a - a s - [ s i ]
C rdlU.DAR A.MES TI.LA is - lu - u ^ - s i ^ m a 1 [ i \ l - q a - s i a n a IGI-sa
118a C [ m a ] - ro ? 1 a - l i k - m a dNAM.TAR d[u ].D [A R l i - q ] i - s i - m a
118b C [ s u m - m ] a i p - t i - r i - s a la H d - d a 1-[n a- k a ti ] r - r a - s i
118c C [i] l -q f -s i- m a NAM .t a r [a- na k A 7] . m e s
119 A 1-en k A u - s e - s i - s i - m a u t - t e - e r - s i s u - b a t b a l- t i s a z u - u m - r i - s a
B [1 -en] k A u - s e - s i - s i - m a u t - t e - e r - s i s u - b a t b a l - t i s a z u - [ u m - r i - s a ]
C [1 -en k ] A ru ^- se -s u -si -m a [ u t- ti r ] - s e / [TUG? b a l 1]-te'} [ 5 a ] SU -sa

120 A 2-a k A u - s e - s i - s i - m a u t - t e - e r - s i s e - m e r SU.2-5A u GlR.2-5a

B [2 -a\ k A u - s e - s i - s i - m a u t - t e - e r - s i s e - m e r SU.2 -s a u g i [ r . 2 - M ]
C [2 - a k]1.M IN! : . u t - t i r - [ s e s e - m e r s u . m e s - M u ] GlR.MES- 5 a

121 A 3- s a kA u - s e - s i - s i - m a u t - t e - e r - s i s i b - b u n a 4 t u sa m u r u b 4.m e s ‫־‬M

B [3 -sa] k A u - s e - s i - s i - m a u t - t e - e r - s i s ib - b u NA 4 TU s a MU[RUB 4 .MES- 5 a ]
C [3 - s a K1].MIN : [ u t- ti r - s e s i b - b u NA 4 TU s a MUR]UB 4 .MES-^a

122 A 4 -u kA u - s e - s i - s i - m a u t - t e - e r - s i d u - d i - n a - t e sa GABA -sa

B [ 4 ] - ‫ו »ז‬ kA u-se-si-si-ma ut-te-er-si du-di-na-te sa g [ a b a -M ]
C [ ].M E S -5a

123 A 5 -su k A u - s e - s i - s i - m a u t - t e - e r - s i n a 4 . n u n u z . m e s s a G X5-sa

B [5 ]-su k A u - s e - s i - s i - m a u t - t e - e r - s i n a 4 . n u n u z . m e s s a G [ti-sa]
C [ M E ] s 5 ‫־‬a

124 A 6 -su kA u - s e - s i - s i - m a u t - t e - e r - s i i n - s a - b a - t e sa 5 ‫ <י‬1 .2 ‫ | ־ ו‬a]

B [6 ]-su k A u - s e - s i - s i - m a u t - t e - e r - s i in - s a - b a - t e s a P [l.2 -M ]
C

21
 IST A R ’S DESCENT A N D RESURRECTION

125 A 7 -u KA u-se-si-si-m a ut-te-er-si a-gu-u ra -b a-Ta sa ‫ י‬s[AG.DU-5a]

B [7 ]-u kA u -se-si-si-m a ut-te-er-si a-gu-u ra-ba-a sa s a g .[ d u -M ]
C [ .m ] e s -sa

126 A sum -m a nap-ti-ri-sa la ta-ad-di-nak-kam -m a a-na sa-sa-^ma^ [tir-ra-si]

B [sum-m]a nap-ti-ri-sa la ta-ad-di-nak-kam -m a a-na sa-sa-m a tir-r[a-si]
C [ ]-ma
127 A a-na dDUMU.Zi ha-m ir se-eh-[ru-ti-sa]
B [a-n]a dDUMU.Zi ha-m ir se-eh-ru-[ti-sa]
C [ ]-re-ti-sa
128 A A.MES el-lu-ti ra-am -m i-ik i-DtJG.[GA ...]
B [ a .m e S] el-lu-ti ra-am -m i-ik i- d u g .g a p[us-si-is]
r ‫ ך‬v• •v
C [ J-.SI-IS'
129 A TUG HUS .A lu-ub-bis-su GI.GID NA4.Z[A.GiN . . . ]
B [t u g h u ] s .a lu-ub-bis-su g i .g i d n a 4.z a .g i n lim-has x[x]
C [ ]x-ti I [...]-i-su
130 A M[i.sam]-rha~'-[te l]i-na->a-a [kab-ta-as-su]
B [ m i .s]am-ha-te li-na-’a-a kab-ta-a[s-su]
C [ kab-t]a-su
131 A [a] dbe-li-li su-kut-ta-[...]
B [‫ ]; ג‬dbe-li-li su-kut-ta-sa u-saq-[qa-a\
132 A [N]A4.lGi.2.MES-7e m a-la-a b[ir-ka-a-sa]
B [NA4.iGi.2.ME]s-te ma-la-a bir-k[a-a-sa]

133 A ik-kil a-hi-sa tas-m e tam-ha-as dbe-li-li su-kut-ta sa s [ u ?-.?a?]

B i[k-kil a-h]i-sa tas-me tam -ha-as dbe-li-li su-kut-ta sa s [ u ?-.?a?]
134 A n a 4.IG1 .MES‫ ־‬te sa un-dal-la-a p a -a n [x]
B N[A4.iGl.2.MES7‫־‬e sa] un-dal-la-a p [a -a n ]
C [ ........pa-a]n lit-te
135 A a-hi e-du la ta-hab-bil-an-[ni]
B a-hi [e-du] la ta-hab-bil-[an-ni]
C [ -a]n-ni
136 A ina u d -me dDUMU.z1 el-la-an-ni g i .g id n a 4.z a .g in ha r n a 4.g u g it-ti-su el-laJ an-nP
B ina UD-me m [DUMU.Zi el-la-a]n-ni GI.GID NA4.ZA.G1N ( h a r ) n a 4.GUG i[t-ti-su el-la-an-ni]
C [ . . . n ] a 4.g u g / [ . . . ] fe^-la-a

137 A it-ti-su el-la-an-ni LtJ.ER.MES u MI.ER.MES

B it-ti-[su el-la-an]J nP fLU.fiR.MES1 [ . . . ]
C [ ........]-tu

138 A B A . US.MES li-lu-nim -m a qut-ri-in li-is-si-nu

B b a .u s .m e [S ...]
C m ie - tu y U u 1 [l]i-lu-ni-ma q u t-tri-n a ‫[ *־‬lis-si-nu]

139 A KUR 1AN.SA R-DU-A MAN SIJ MAN KUR-AN.SA r /K I 1

B E.GAL 1A tN.sA R-DtJ-A ...]

140 B sa dAG ‫[ ו » ז‬dtas-m e-tum uz-nu ra-pa-ds-tum is-ru-ku-us ...]

 MIDDLE ASSYRIAN VERSION

1 a-na DINGIR-turn be-el-ti k[aq]-q 1-ri GAL-tu[m]

2 a-na di5 a-si-bat qer-bi ir-kal-li
3 a s-ri-gi-in-gal be-el-ti kaq-qi'-ri GAL-turn
4 a-na d15 a-si-bat qer-bi ir-kal-li
5 £ ir-kal-li sa a-li-ku-tu-su la ta-a-a-r[u]
6 as-ru nu-ru la sa -km UN.MES-1‫־‬,?^
7 as-ru mi-tu-su sah-hu-pu ina ep-ri
8 <be>-et ek-le-tu MUL ul u-sa-a
9 d u m u . m I d30 u-zu-un-sa ip-te-m a

10 ip-te-m a u-za-an-sa u-sa-a s-km

11 sa a-li-ku-u-tu-sa la ta-a-ru-u

Translation

1 To the goddess, the lady o f the great land,

2 to Istar who dw ells in the m idst o f Irkallu,
3 A sri-gingal, the lady o f the great land,
4 to Istar who dw ells in the m idst o f Irkallu,
5 the house o f Irkallu, from w hence its travellers do not return,
6 the place (where) light is not given to its people,
7 the place w hose dead are covered with dust,
8 the house o f darkness (w here) no star comes out,
9 the daughter o f Sin put her m ind to,
10 put her m ind to (and) paid attention,
11 that her travellers do not return.

23
 TRANSCRIPTION

1 ana kurnuge qaqqari la tari

2 I star m ar at Sin uzunsa iskun
3 iskunm a m arat Sin uzunsa
4 ana b id ete su b a t Irkalla
5 ana b id sa eribusu la asu
6 ana harrani sa alaktasa la tajarat
7 ana b id sa eribusu zum m u nura
8 asar epru bubussunu akalsunu tiddu
9 nura ul immaru ina etuti asbu
10 labsuma kim a issuri su ba t gappi
11 el dalti u sikkuri sabuh epru
11a el talli suharratu tabkat
12 ana bab kurnuge ina kasadisa
12a p isu ipusu iqabbi
13 ana a ti babi am atu izzakkar
14 atum e pita babka
15 p ita babkam a luruba anaku
16 sum m a la tapatta babu la erruba anaku
17 am ahhas daltu sikkuru asabbir
18 am ahhas sippum m a usabalkat dalati
18a asabbir gisrinnam m a a sa h h a t karra
19 usella m itu d ikkalu b a ltu d
20 el baltiid im a’Hdu m itu d
21 atu p a su ipusm a iqabbi
22 izzakkara ana r a b id Istar
23 iziz be Id la tanaddassi
24 lullik zikirki lusanni ana sa rrati E reskiga l
25 erum m a atu izzakkara ana E reskig a l
26 annitum e ahatki Ista r izzaz ina babi
27 mukiltu sa keppe rabuti d a lih a t A p s i m ahar E a abisa
28 E reskigal annita ina sam isa
29 kim a nikis bini eriqu p an usa
30 kim a sapat kuninni islima saptasa
31 mind libbasa ublanni m ind ka bta ssa usperdannim a
32 annitum e anaku itd A n u n n a k i m e a sa td
33 kim a akli akkal d d d u kim a sika ri a s a td me

25
 !ST A R ’S DESCENT A N D RESURRECTION

34 lubki ana etluti sa ezibu hireti

35 lubki ana ardati sa ultu sun hdHrisina sallupani
36 u ana serri lake lubki sa ina la umisu tardu
37 alik atu p ita ssi babka
38 uppissima kim a p a r s i labiruti
39 illik atu iptassi baba
40 erbi belti Kutu liriski
41 ekal kurnuge lihdu ina p a n iki
42 isten babu u seribsim a um tassi ittabal aga raba sa qaqqadisa
43 ammini atu tatbal aga raba sa qaqqadija
44 erbi belti sa B e le t erseti kiam p a rsisa
45 sana babu u seribsim a umtassi ittabal insabate sa uznisa
46 ammini atu tatbal insabate sa uznija
47 erbi b elti sa B e le t erseti kiam p a rsisa
48 salsu babu u seribsim a umtassi ittabal erim m ati sa kisadisa
49 amm ini atu tatbal erim m ati sa kisadija
50 erbi b elti sa B e le t erseti kiam p a rsisa
51 rebu babu useribsim a umtassi ittabal dudinate sa irtisa
52 amm ini atu tatbal dudinate sa irtija
53 erbi b elti sa B e le t erseti kiam p a rsisa
54 hamsu babu u serib sim a umtassi ittabal sibbu aban aladi qablisa
55 ammini atu tatbal sibbu aban aladi sa qablija
56 erbi belti sa B e le t erseti kiam p a rsisa
57 sessu babu useribsim a umtassi ittabal sem er qatija u sepija
58 ammini atu tatbal sem er qatija u sepija
59 erbi b elti sa B e le t erseti kiam p a rsisa
60 sebu babu u seribsim a umtassi ittabal sub a t balti sa zum risa
61 am mini atu tatbal su b a t balti sa zum rija
62 erbi belti sa B e le t erseti kiam p a rsisa
63 istu ullanum m a Ista r ana kurnuge uridu
64 Ereskigal im ursim a ina p a n isa irub
65 Istar ul imm alik elenu ssa usbi
66 Ereskigal p a sa ipusm a iqabbi
67 ana N a m ta r sukkallisa am atu izzakkar
68 alik N am tar liqassi ultu p a n ija m a
69 susassi susi m u rsi lishupu Istar
70 murus ini ana inisa
71 murus ahi ana ah isa
72 murus sepi ana sep isa
73 murus libbi a n a d ib b isa
74 murus qaqqadi ana qaqqadisa
75 ana sasa gabbisam a ana [...]
76 arki Istar b elti ana kurnuge uridu
77 ana biirti alpu ul isa h h it imeru atana ul us dr a

26
 TRANSCRIPTION

78 ardatu ina suqi ul usara etlu

79 ittil etlu ina kum m lsu
80 ittil ardatu ina ahisa
81 Papsukkal sukkal ilani rabuti q u d d u d appasu
82 karru labis male nasi
83 illik anhis ina p a n Sin abisu ibakki
84 ina p a n Ea sarri illaka dim asu
85 Istar ana erseti urid ul ila
86 ultu ullanum m a Ista r ana kurnuge uridu
87 ana burti alpu ul isa hh it imeru atana ul usara
88 ardatu ina suqi ul usara etlu
89 ittil etlu ina kum m lsu
90 ittil ardatu ina ahisa
91 E a ina emqi libbisu ibtani zikru
92 ibnim a A su su -n a m ir assinnu

93 alka A su su -n a m ir ina bab kurnuge sukun p a n ika

94 sebet babi kurnuge lippetu ina p a n ik a
95 E reskigal lim urkam a ina p a n ik a lihdu
96 ultu libbasa iniihu kabtassa ippereddu
97 tum m esim a nis ilani rabuti
98 suqqi resika ana halziqqi uzna sukun
99 e belti halziqqu lidnuni me ina libbi lultatti
100 E reskigal annita ina semisa
101 tamhas p e n s a tassuka ubansa
102 tetersanni eristu la eresi
103 alka A su su -n a m ir luzzirka izra raba
104 akli ep in n et ali lu akalka
105 habannat ali lu m altitka
106 silli duri lu m anzazuka
107 askuppatu lu m usabuka
108 sakru u sam u lim hasu letka
109 E reskigal p a sa ipusm a iqabbi
110 ana N a m ta r sukkallisa a m ata izzakkar
111 alik N a m ta r m ahas ekalla kina
112 askuppati zaHna sa ijerete
113 A nu nn a ki susa ina ku ssi hurasi susib
114 Istar me balati su luhsim a liqassi ina m ahrija
115 illik N a m ta r imhas ekalla kina
116 askuppati u za ^in a sa ijerete
117 A nu nn a ki usesa ina ku ssi h u ra si usesib
118 Istar me balati isluhsim a ilqassi ana p a n isa s

119 isten babu usesisim a uttersi su b a t balti sa zum risa

27
 !ST A R ’S DESCENT A N D RESURRECTION

120 sana babu usesisim a utter si sem er qatisa u sepisa

121 salsu babu usesisim a utter si sibbu aban aladi sa qablisa
122 rebu babu usesisim a uttersi dudinate sa irtisa
123 hamsu babu usesisim a uttersi erim m ati sa
124 sessu babu usesisim a uttersi insabate sa uznisa
125 sebu babu usesisim a uttersi agu raba sa qaqqadisa
126 summa n ap tirisa la taddinakkam m a ana sasam a terrassi
127 ana Dumuzi h a m ir sehrutisa
128 me elluti ram m ik sam na taba pu ssis
129 subata hussa lubbissu m a lil uq ni
130 samhate Una”a kabtassu
131 [...] Belili sukuttasa usaqqa
132 indte mala birkasa
133 ikkil ahisa tasme tam has Belili sukutta sa zum risa
134 inatesa undalla p a n litte
135 ahi edu la tahabbilanni
136 ina ume D um uzi ellanni m alil uqni sem er sam ti
137 ittisu ellanni b akka ’u u bakkaiatu
138 m i tutu lilunim m a qutrinna lissinu

139 ekal Assur-bani-apli sar kissati sar m a t Assur

28
 TRANSLATION1

1 To the N etherw orld, the Land o f N o R eturn,

2 Istar, the daughter o f Sin, set her m ind.
3 Indeed, the daughter o f Sin set her m ind
4 to the dark house, the dw elling o f Irkalla,
5 to the house w hich none leaves w ho enters,
6 to the road w here traffic is one-w ay,
7 to the house, w hose dwellers thirst for light,
8 w here dust is their food, clay their bread.
9 They see no light, they dwell in darkness,
10 clothed like birds in garm ents o f feather.
11 O ver the door and the bolt dust has settled,
11a over the door beam a deathly silence has sunk.
12 W hen Istar arrived at the gate o f the N etherw orld,
12a she opened her m outh and said,
13 uttered a word to the gatekeeper:
14 “H ey, gatekeeper, open your gate!
15 O pen your gate for m e that I may enter!
16 If you d o n ’t open the gate for m e (and) I cannot enter,
17 I will smash the door and break the bolt,
18 I will smash the doorjam b and overturn the doors,
18a I will break the balance and tear o ff the knob!
19 I will raise up the dead to devour the living,
20 the dead shall o u tnum ber the livin g!”
21 The gatekeeper opened his m outh and spoke,
22 uttering to the great Istar:
23 “Hold it, m y lady, do not knock it down!
23a W ait inside, the door w ill be opened.
24 I will go and tell your name to the queen E resk igal.”
25 The gatekeeper w ent in and uttered to Ereskigal:
26 “ H ey, here is yo ur sister Istar, she stands at the g a te ,
27 the holder o f the great w hipping top s, the one who roils the A psu in front o f Ea,
her fa th e r] ”

1 D am aged or destroyed w ords are not sp ec ifica lly m arked in the translation, excep t for the com p letely destroyed
parts, w hich are marked with [ ...]; su ggested and conjectural restorations are marked with italics.

29
 !ST A R ’S DESCENT A N D RESURRECTION

28 W hen Ereskigal heard this,

29 her face turned pale as a cut-off tam arisk,
30 her lips turned black as the rim o f the bowl.
31 “W hat has prom pted her heart (to com e) to me? W hy is her m ind so pleased with
me?
32 Look, here I drink water with the A nunnaki,
33 I eat clay for bread, I drink m uddy w ater for beer.
34 Should I weep for the young m en who have left their wives?
35 Should I weep for the young w om en w ho have been pulled out from their lo v e rs ’
laps?
36 Should I weep for the baby, the infant who was sent away before his tim e?
37 Go, gatekeeper, open your gate to her!
38 Treat her according to the ancient rites!”
39 The gatekeeper w ent and opened the gate for her.
40 “Enter, my Lady, let C utha rejoice over you!
41 Let the palace o f the N etherw orld be glad at your presence!”
42 He made her enter through the first gate, he loosed and rem oved the great tiara of
her head.
43 “W hy, gatekeeper, did you take away the great tiara o f m y h ead ?”
44 “Enter, my Lady. Thus are the rites o f the M istress of the N etherw orld.”
45 He made her enter through the second gate, he loosed and rem oved the earrings o f ^
her ears.
46 “W hy, gatekeeper, did you take away the earrings of my ears?”
47 “Enter, my Lady. Thus are the rites of the M istress of the N etherw orld.”
48 He made her enter through the third gate, he loosed and rem oved the egg-shaped
beads o f her neck.
49 “W hy, gatekeeper, did you take away the egg-shaped beads o f my neck?”
50 “Enter, my Lady. Thus are the rites o f the M istress of the N etherw orld.”
51 He made her enter through the fourth gate, he loosed and rem oved the dress-pins
of her breast.
52 “W hy, gatekeeper, did you take away the dress-pins o f my b reast?”
53 “Enter, my Lady. Thus are the rites of the M istress of the N etherw orld.”
54 He m ade her enter through the fifth gate, he loosed and rem oved the girdle of
birth-stones o f her waist.
55 “W hy, gatekeeper, did you take away the girdle o f birth-stones o f m y w aist?”
56 “Enter, my Lady. Thus are the rites o f the M istress of the N etherw orld.”
57 He made her enter through the sixth gate, he loosed and rem oved the bangles of
her wrists and ankles.
58 “W hy, gatekeeper, did you take away the bangles of my wrists and ankles?”
59 “Enter, my Lady. Thus are the rites o f the M istress of the N etherw o rld .”
60 He made her enter through the seventh gate, he loosed and rem oved the garm ent
of dignity o f her body.
61 “W hy, gatekeeper, did you take away the garm ent of dignity o f my b o d y ?”
62 “Enter, my Lady. Thus are the rites o f the M istress of the N etherw orld.”
63 As soon as !star had descended to the N etherw orld,

30
 TR A N SLA TIO N

64 E reskigal saw her and trem bled in front of her.

65 Istar did not reason but sat on top o f her.
66 Ereskigal opened h er m outh and said,
67 she uttered to N am tar, her minister:
68 “G o, N am tar, take her fr o m m y p r e s e n c e !
69 R elease sixty diseases against her, to overwhelm Istar:
70 disease o f the eyes against h er eyes,
71 disease o f the arm s against h er arm s,
72 disease o f the feet against her feet,
73 disease o f the heart against her heart,
74 disease o f the head against her head,
75 let them loose against h er body, against all o f h er!”
76 A fter Istar, the lady, d escend ed to the N etherw orld,
77 the bull w o uld not m o u n t the cow , the don key w ould not im p reg n a te the she-
d o n k ey ,
78 the young m an w ould not im pregnate the girl in the street,
79 the young man slept in his private room ,
80 the young w om an slept by herself.
81 Papsukkal, the m inister o f the great gods, his nose dow ncast, his face gloom y,
82 dressed in a m ourning g arm ent, his hair unkem pt,
83 w earily, went before Sin, his father, w eeping,
84 his tears flow ing in front o f Ea, the king:
85 “Istar has descended to the N etherw orld, (but) has not ascended.
86 The m om ent she descended to the Land o f No Return,
87 the bull w ould not m o u n t the co w , the d o nk ey w ould not im p reg n a te the she-
donkey,
88 the young m an w ould not im pregnate the girl in the street,
89 the young m an has slept in his private room ,
90 the young w om an has slept by herself.”
91 Ea, in the wisdom o f his heart, created the w ord,
92 created A susu-nam ir, the “m an -w om an ,” the assinnu.
93 “G o, A susu-nam ir, bend your m ind towards the gate o f the N etherw orld,
94 let the seven gates o f the N etherw orld be opened before you.
95 let Ereskigal see you and rejoice at you.
96 A fter she has relaxed, (and) her m ood has lightened,
97 have her swear by the great gods;
97a [...] creatress [...] w om b;
98 raise your head and pay attention to the waterskin:
99 ‘N o, no, my L ady, let them give m e the w aterskin, that I m ay drink water from it
100 W hen Ereskigal heard this,
101 she smote her thigh, she bit h er finger.
102 “ You have m ade a req uest that should not be requested!
103 C om e, A susu-nam ir, I w ill curse you with a great curse,
103a I w ill decree you a fate never to be forgotten.

31
 !ST A R ’S DESC EN T A N D RESURRECTION

104 May bread o f the c ity ’s ploughs be your food,

105 may the city drains be your drinking vessel,
106 may the shade o f the city wall be your resting place,
107 may the thresholds be your seat,
108 may the drunk and the thirsty slap your cheek!”
109 Ereskigal opened her mouth and said,
110 uttered a word to N am tar, her minister:
111 “Go, N am tar, knock at the “Steady P alace”
(■va r. Go, N am tar, knock at the palace, the “ Solitary and F irm ”),
112 decorate the thresholds with cow rie-shells,
113 bring out the Anunnaki and seat them on golden thrones,
114 sprinkle Istar with the water o f life and bring her into m y presen ce!”
115 N am tar w ent and knocked at the “ Steady P alace”
(var. N am tar w ent and knocked at the palace, the “Solitary and Firm ),
116 he decorated the thresholds with cow rie-shells,
117 he brought out the Anunnaki and seated them on golden thrones,
118 he sprinkled Istar with the w ater o f life and brought her into her (i.e., E reslq g al’s)
presence.

118a [She said:] “G o, N am tar, and take Istar away:

118b if she does not pay you her ran so m , bring her back!"
118c Nam tar took her to the gates.
119 He made her go out through the first gate and returned to her the garm ent o f dig-
nity o f her body,
120 he m ade her go out through the second gate and returned to her the bangle(s) of
her wrists and ankles,
121 he m ade her go out through the third gate and returned to her the girdle o f birth-
stones o f her w aist,
122 he m ade her go out through the fourth gate and returned to her the dress-pins o f
her breast,
123 he m ade her go out through the fifth gate and returned to her the egg-shaped beads
o f her neck,
124 he m ade her go out through the sixth gate and returned to her the earrings o f her
ea rs,
125 he m ade her go out through the seventh gate and returned to her the great tiara o f
her head.
126 “If she does not give you a substitute for herself, bring her back!
127 Bathe T am m u z, the lover o f her youth,
128 in pure w ater, anoint him w ith sw eet oil,
129 dress him in a red garm ent, let him play the lapis lazuli pipe [...]!
129a [...]
130 Let prostitutes amuse his m ind.”
131 Belili lifted up her je w e lry ,
132 her lap was filled with eyestones.
133 W hen she heard the wailing o f her brother, Belili smote the jew elry o f her body,

32
 TRA NSLA TIO N

134 the eyestones w hich covered the front o f the cow.

135 “Do not rob m e o f my only brother!
136 W hen Tam m uz rises (to m e), the lapis lazuli pipe and the carnelian ring will rise
with him (to m e ) ,
137 the male and fem ale m ourners will rise with him!
138 M ay the dead rise and smell the incense!”

139 The palace o f A ssurbanipal, king o f the w orld, king o f Assyria.

33
 CONTEXTUAL COMMENTARY AND ANALYSIS

Line 1: T h e S u m e ria n c o m p o u n d n a m e o f the N e th e r w o rld , or

K U R . N U . G I 4.A
in sh o rt fo rm K U R . N U . G I 4, lite ra lly the “L a n d o f N o R e t u r n ,” is fre q u e n tly
a tte s te d in le x ic a l lis ts , b u t ra re in S u m e ria n p r b ilin g u a l lite ra ry w o rk s. T h e
A k k a d ia n sc rib e s c o u ld u se th e lo a n w o rd k u r n u g u fo r K U R . N U . G I 4( . A ) , or
tra n s la te th e c o m p o u n d as e r s e t ( K U R ) la td ri ( N U G I 4. A ) . T h e w o rd er se tu ,
th e m o s t c o m m o n A k k a d ia n w o rd fo r e a rth ( e a r t h ’s s u rfa c e ), w as also the
m o s t c o m m o n n a m e fo r th e N e th e rw o rld .
A s W . H o r o w itz p o in ts o u t, th e re a d in g o f the first line o f this m y th as ua n a
e r s e t la tdri q a q q a r i la tarV ’ w o u ld b e ta u to lo g ic a l, w h ic h su g g e sts th a t the
S u m e ria n c o m p o u n d w as e ith e r m e a n t to b e left u n tra n s la te d o r re a d w ith the
lo a n w o rd . In o th e r w o r d s , th e e n d in g o f the lin e, q a q q a r i la td ri, is p ro b a b ly
an e x p la n a to r y a d d itio n to th e S u m e ria n c o m p o u n d n a m e o f th e N e th e r w o r ld .1
T h e S u m e ria n v e rs io n o f the m y th , I n a n n a ’s D e s c e n t to the N e th e r w o r ld ,
starts w ith I n a n n a s e ttin g h e r m in d fro m “ g re a t h e a v e n ” (an g al-ta ) to the
“ g r e a t b e l o w ” (ki g a l- s e ) , i.e ., to th e N e th e rw o rld . T h e te rm “L a n d o f N o
R e t u r n ” o c c u rs la te r in the te x t in the S u m e ria n v e rsio n , w h e re the g a te k e e p e r
o f the N e th e r w o rld ask s I n a n n a th e re a s o n w h y she has c o m e th ere (11
8 2 - 8 4 ) :2
tukumbi za‫־‬e dinanna ki dutu e-a-as
a-na-am ba-du‫־‬un kur nu-gi4-se
har-ra-an lu du‫־‬bi nu-gi4-gi4-de sa-zu a-gin7 tum-mu-un
“If you are Inanna going to the east,
why have you travelled to the Land of No Return?
How did you set your heart on the road whose traveller never returns?”
T h e d e s c rip tio n o f th e N e th e r w o r ld as “ a ro a d w h o se tra v e lle r n ev er
re tu rn s , is fo u n d in the A k k a d ia n v e rs io n in line 6: a n a h a r ra n i [var.
K A S K A L ] sa a la k ta s a la ta ja ra t.

Line 2: T h e g o d d e s s I n a n n a /I s ta r h ad se v e ra l fath ers: A n , E n lil, E n k i/E a , and

N a n n a /S in . F o r in s ta n c e , A n as I n a n n a ’s f a th e r o ccu rs in D u m u z i- In a n n a love
so n g D I R , A 11: “I a m th e q u e e n , th e s e e d , e n g e n d e re d by A n ,”3 w h ereas
E n k i an d E n lil an d S in are I n a n n a ’s f a th e rs in the S u m e ria n D e s c e n t : E n lil 11.
4 3 , 185, 191; E n k i 11. 6 0 , 2 1 2 , 2 1 8 .4 I n a n n a is the e ld e s t d a u g h te r o f E n lil in
I s m e - D a g a n I 9 2 .5 M o s t o f te n , h o w e v e r , I n a n n a /I s ta r ’s fa m ily c o n s is te d o f
th e m o o n g o d N a n n a /S in as h e r f a th e r, N in g a l as h e r m o th e r, an d the sun god
U tu /S a m a s as h e r b ro th e r.

‫ג‬ H orow itz 1998, 2 7 2 -2 7 8 .

2 ETCSL: In a n a ’s d es ce n t to the n eth er w orld.
3 S efati 1998, 236.
4 ETCSL: In a n a ’s d es ce n t to the n ether w orld.
‫'״‬ a, nt Erl lll l ,S ch a rio t: a li8 i to Enlil (Ism e-D agan /); for Ism e-D agan I see also
M . C iv il, JAOS 88 (1 9 6 8 ) 3-14; J. K lein , A SJ 11 (1 9 8 9 ) 3 6 -5 4 .

35
 !ST A R ’S DESCENT A N D RESURRECTION

T h e p ra c tic e o f w ritin g d iv in e n a m e s w ith n u m bers e m e rg e d in the M id d le

A s sy ria n p e r io d .6 T h e n a m e o f th e m o o n g o d , S in, c o u ld b e w ritten w ith the
n u m b e r th irty , w h ic h w as th e n u m b e r o f d ays in th e lu n a r m o n th . In the
M id d le A s s y ria n v e rsio n o f th e b e g in n in g o f th e D e s c e n t, th e n a m e o f Ista r
is w ritte n w ith th e n u m b e r f if te e n (11. 2, 4). T h e n u m b e r f if te e n in d ic a te d h e r
c o n n e c tio n w ith th e m oon: sin ce she w as th e d a u g h te r o f th e m o o n , the fu ll
m o o n w ith its p e r fe c t sh in in g d isc s y m b o liz e d Istar, a n d th e fifte e n th day o f
the m o n th w as th e id eal d ay o f th e fu ll m o o n .7
L i n e 4: I r k a lla is an A k k a d ia n lite ra ry terra fo r the N e th e r w o rld , w h ic h
o ccu rs b o th w ith an d w ith o u t th e d iv in e d e te rm in a tiv e d ig ir (m a rk e d w ith
su p e rs c rip t d) in fro n t o f it. W . H o r o w itz has s u g g e ste d th a t the w o rd m ay
d eriv e f ro m a S u m e ria n te rm fo r th e N e th e rw o rld , u r u g a l/e rig a l (lit. “ G re a t
C ity ” ), b u t no b ilin g u a l or le x ic a l e q u iv a le n c e b e tw e e n th e s e te rm s is k n o w n .
D . K a tz , h o w e v e r , th in k s th a t u ru g a l (AB *GAL) w as at f irs t a e u p h e m is m fo r
“ g r a v e ,” as is s u g g e s te d by its c o n s is te n t tra n sla tio n in b ilin g u a l te x ts. T h e
m e a n in g “N e th e r w o r ld ” w as th e r e f o r e a la te r d e v e lo p m e n t, c o in c id in g w ith
the p r o m o tio n o f N e r g a l ’s ro le in th e p a n th e o n fro m the s e c o n d m ille n n iu m
o n w a rd , a n d w ith the fa c t th a t th e w o rd w as a c o m p o n e n t o f N e r g a l ’s n a m e
in E m e s a l, dum un-urugal(A B*G A L).9 A c c o rd in g to K a tz , b e f o re N e r g a l ’s
p o s itio n c h a n g e d to th e h e a d o f th e N e th e r w o rld , th ere w o u ld h a v e not b e e n
any re a so n to w rite his n a m e as the “ L o r d o f the N e th e r w o r ld .” In s te a d , the
m e a n in g “ L o r d o f th e G r a v e ” w o u ld h a v e b e e n m o re b e fittin g to h is c h a ra c te r
as a w a r-g o d a n d an u n d e r w o rld d e i t y . 10
In le x ic a l lists, irka lla is e q u a te d w ith the S u m e ria n w o rd s h ilib /h a lib ,
g a n z e r, k i r 5, a n d la m h u , all o f w h ic h m e a n the N e th e r w o r ld .11 T h e w o rd

6 Parpola 1993, 182 and n. 88. N ote that this practice coin cid ed with the appearance o f the A ssyrian
Tree Parpola has argued that, lik e its later eq u ivalen t, the S efirotic Tree o f Jew ish m y sticism , the A ssyrian
Tree w as both an im age o f God and an im age o f the perfect human b ein g, i.e ., the k ing, and show ed a path
for the salvation o f a human soul. In the doctrine o f the Tree, the m ystical numbers played an im portant
role as m anifestations and powers o f the in fin ite, transcendent God (see the com m ents for lin es 2 7 , 4 2 -6 2
and 119-125).
7 Parpola 1997a, X C -X C I, n. 111.
8 H orow itz 1998, 2 8 8 , 293. In le x ica l lists and b ilin gual texts, urugal is translated by Akkadian names
for the N etherw orld, arallu (Nabnitu X X V 74 = M SL 16 226) and ersetu (Proto-Izi 387 = M SL 13 3 0 ),
but also w ith q a b r u , m eaning “grave” (see C A D Q , s.v. q a b r u , 17-18, le x ., c f. Katz 2 0 0 3 , 3 3 8 -3 3 9 ).
9 The term urugal/erigal occurs in the nam e o f the god N ergal, e .g ., in the Em esal god list Em esal 1 106
(M SL 4 9) dum un.iurugall = dn e.eri‫ ״‬.gal = su , or elsew h ere, N ergal is ca lled the “E nlil o f urugal (PB S

172101 Katz 2 0 0 3 , 3 3 8 -3 4 0 , esp ecially n. 4 , and 4 0 4 -4 2 0 . A ccording to K atz, N aram -Sin o f Akkad (ca.
2 25 4 -2 2 1 8 ) prom oted N ergal’s p osition , esp e cia lly his w arlike character. E ven though N ergal s esteem
gradually spread to the Sem itic areas in the north, the southern part o f M esopotam ia, the Sum erian
heartland, w as not affected until the Ur III p eriod, w hen the cult o f N ergal is attested. Even during this
period, N ergal is m ore a w ar-god, and his con n ection w ith the Netherw orld is m erely im plied . In the D ea th
o f Ur-Nammu, N ergal is the first god to receiv e g ifts from the dead k in g, and he is called E nlil of the
N etherw orld.” S till at this point, E reskigal is the so le ruler o f the N etherw orld, and N ergal s epithet as
“E nlil o f the N etherw orld” is more lik ely a reference to his capacity to bring about death as a w ar-god.
The fact that the Ur III ruler S ulgi prom oted N ergal w as probably influenced by N aram -Sin, w hose ex p lo its
may have inspired S u lg i’s ow n intentions. A lthou gh during this tim e N ergal w as already w orshiped in
Cutha it seem s that his w orshipers w ere S em itic p eo p le, w hereas the Sum erians still regarded M eslam tea
as the m ain god o f Cutha, despite the efforts to m erge the tw o (apparently they w ere tw o different gods
and not m erely tw o aspects o f one god) into one and the sam e god. In the fo llo w in g O ld Babylonian period,
N ergal becam e the m ain god o f Cutha, and his status as the god o f war and death is w ell estab lish ed . E ven
later, the M iddle B abylonian myth o f N erg a l a n d E reskigal explained how N ergal becam e the ruler o f the
N etherw orld (for the D eath o f Ur-Nam mu, see ETCSL: The D eath o f Ur-Nam ma [U r-N am m a AJ, 1. 9U;
C astellino 1 957, 18, 23:6; for N erg al a n d E resk ig a l, see the com m ent for lin es 14-24)
u H orow itz 1998, 288. For the m eaning o f the Sum erian w ords, see ib id ., 2 8 7 -2 9 0 ; ct. C A D l-J , s.v.
irkalla, 177.

36
 CO M M ENTARY A N D A N A L Y SIS

irk a lla also o c c u rs in lite ra ry w o rk s and the late m y stic a l te x t O 1 7 5 :7 .12

I r k a lla o c c u rs w ith th e d iv in e d e te r m in a tiv e in the texts D e s c e n t 4 , N e r g a l
a n d E r e s k i g a l (S T T 28 ii 7 ‫ ׳‬, v 8 ‫ ׳‬, vi 4 7 ), G ilg a m e s E p ic V II iv 33, an d O
1 75 :7, w h e re a s th e w o rd is w ritte n w ith o u t the d e te r m in a tiv e in E rra I 135,
IV 123, in L u d lu l II 4 7 , 13 and in th e M id d le A s sy ria n v e rsio n o f the D e s c e n t ,
L K A 62 r. ii, 13-14. T h e u se o f the d iv in e d e te rm in a tiv e b e f o r e irk a lla , such
as s u b a t H rka lla (D e s c e n t 4 ), su g g e sts th a t the w o rd in th e se c ases m e a n s
b o th a d eity a n d a p la c e . In fa c t, in an O ld B a b y lo n ia n g o d list, Irk a lla is
e q u a te d w ith A lla tu , w h o , in tu rn , is a lso e q u a te d w ith E r e s k i g a l .14
Line 10: T h e fa c t th a t the in h a b ita n ts o f th e N e th e rw o rld are said to be clad
in f e a th e r g a rm e n ts is p e rh a p s d u e to the b e lie f th a t a fter d e a th , a p e r s o n ’s
so u l tu rn e d in to a s p irit o r a g h o s t, w h o s e n a tu re w as w in d -lik e , as w ell as
b ird - lik e . T h e M e s o p o ta m ia n s b e lie v e d in th e b o d y (p a g r u ) a n d the so ul, the
la tte r b e in g r e fe r r e d to by tw o w o rd s: G ID IM = e te m m u , m e a n in g “ sp irit o f
th e d e a d ,” “ g h o s t;” an d A N . Z A G . G A R ( . R A ) / L I L = z a q iq u tz iq iq u , m e a n in g
“ s o u l,” “ g h o s t,” “ p h a n t o m .” L iv in g b e in g s (h u m a n s an d a n im a ls) also h a d ZI
( n a p is tu ) “ life , v ig o r, b r e a th ,” w h ic h w as a s s o c ia te d w ith the th ro a t o r n eck .
A s b re a th and c o m in g f ro m o n e ’s th ro a t, Z I w as u n d e rs to o d as m o v in g air,
i.e ., w in d -lik e . Z I (n a p is tu ) w as the a n im a tin g life fo rc e , w h ic h co u ld be
s h o rte n e d o r p r o lo n g e d . F o r in s ta n c e , in D I D , col. ii 59, I n a n n a g ran ts “ long
life (zi-sii-u d -g al) u n d e r h im (= th e k in g ) in th e p a la c e .” 15
A t o n e ’s d e a th , w h e n th e s o u l/s p irit r e le a s e d its e lf fro m th e b o d y , bo th
e t e m m u an d z a q iq u lz iq iq u d e s c e n d e d to th e N e th e rw o rld , b u t w h e n the b o d y
c e a s e d to e x is t, so did th e e te m m u , le a v in g o n ly the za q iq u . T h o s e souls th at
w e re d e n ie d a c c e s s to th e N e th e r w o rld fo r w h a te v e r r e a s o n , su ch as im p ro p e r
b u ria l o r v io le n t an d p r e m a tu re d e a th , ro a m e d as h a rm fu l g h o s ts . T h o s e sou ls
w h o h a d a tta in e d p e a c e w ere o c c a s io n a lly a llo w e d to v isit th e ir fa m ilie s , to
o f fe r h e lp o r g iv e in s tru c tio n s to th e ir still liv in g re la tiv e s. A s it w as on ly the
e t e m m u th a t w as a b le to h a v e in flu e n c e o n th e affa irs o f th e liv in g re la tiv e s,
sp e c ia l ca re w a s ta k e n to p r e s e r v e the re m a in s o f th e fa m ilia l d e a d . 16
A c c o r d in g to th e C A D (Z , s.v. z a q iq u lz iq iq u , 58), the S u m e ria n e q u iv a le n t
o f z a q iq u lz iq iq u w a s 111, w h ic h r e fe r r e d to a “ p h a n to m ,” “ g h o s t,” “h a u n tin g
s p ir it” as in lu-111-la//17w o r in ki-sikil-111-la////ftn. T h e u su al tra n sla tio n for
th e w o rd 111, h o w e v e r , is “ w in d ,” and 111 is e q u a te d w ith the w o rd sd ru (w in d)
in le x ic a l lists. A s the le x ic a l lists e q u a te w in d (sd ru ) and g h o s t (za q iq u ),
th e ir a s s o c ia tio n w ith e a c h o th e r c a n n o t be u n f o u n d e d .17 M o re o v e r , za q iq u
d e riv e s fro m th e s a m e r o o t as th e v e rb z a q u , “ to b lo w ,” a n d th e n o u n ziq u
“b r e e z e .” 18 ’
A c c o r d in g to J. S c u r lo c k , z a q iq u is a s e x le s s , w in d -lik e e m a n a tio n , pro b-
ab ly a b ird -lik e p h a n to m , a b le to fly a b o u t th ro u g h sm all a p e rtu re s , an d as
su c h , b e c a m e a s s o c ia te d w ith d r e a m in g , as it w as ab le to le a v e th e slee p in g

12 L ivingston e 1986, 190.

13 Lambert 1996, 4 0 .
14 W eidner 1 9 24-25, 73:23-25; U garitica V 2 1 8 :1 1 6 -1 8 ; see also H orow itz 1998, 2 8 8 -2 8 9 .
13 S efati 1998, 3 0 3 , 305; ETCSL: A Song o f Inana a n d D u m u zid (Dumuzid-Inana D l ) , 1 59
16 S ee Scurlock 1995, 1892.
17 C A D Z, s.v. za q iq u , 58: li-il li' l = sdru, sili[tu], za-q[f-qu], lilu Idu II 236ff; [li-il] [u l ] = Zi-q 1'-a\u]
sa-a-ri Ea IV 7f.
1g S ee O ppenheim 1956, 2 3 3 -2 3 4 .

37
 IS T A R ’S DESCENT A N D RESURRECTION

b o d y .19 T h e w in d -lik e a p p e a ra n c e o f the soul is also a tte ste d in th e G ilg a m e s

E p ic X II 8 3 -8 4 , w h ere E n k id u is ab le to a s c e n d fro m th e N e th e r w o rld th ro u g h
a h o le in th e g ro u n d : “ ( G ilg a m e s ) o p e n e d a h o le in th e N e th e r w o rld , the
u tu kku (g h o st) o f E n k id u c a m e f o rth f ro m the u n d e r w o rld as a za q iq u .2°‫ ״‬T h e
s o u l’s b ird - lik e a p p e a ra n c e is r e fe r r e d to in T a b le t V II 1 8 3 -1 8 4 , w h e re
E n k id u v isits the N e th e r w o rld in a d re a m . P rio r to h is d e s c e n t, he is c h a n g e d
into a d o v e , a n d h is h a n d s are c h a n g e d in to w in g s .21
It h as re c e n tly b een a rg u e d th a t In a n n a /Is ta r w as a p a ra g o n fo r the h u m a n
soul, th e e q u iv a le n t o f S o p h ia o f G n o sis an d the S h e k h in a h o f J e w is h m y sti-
cism . In th e se la te r tra d itio n s , th e so u l is a n d ro g y n o u s , a v irg in , a m o th e r, a
b e a u tifu l m a id e n , an d a p r o s titu te , w ith w h o m th e m y stic id e n tifie d w h e n
s triv in g fo r a u n io n w ith G od . A ll th e se a s p e c ts o f the soul can b e a p p lie d to
In a n n a /Is ta r, an d it has b e e n a rg u e d th a t this k in d o f u n io n is d e s c rib e d in
so m e o f the S u m e ria n s a c re d m a rria g e tex ts 22 F u r th e r , lik e S o p h ia in the
E x e g e s is on the S o u l (N H C II ,6) 23 the sin fu l I n a n n a /Is ta r falls f ro m h e r
h e a v e n ly h o m e into th e m a te r ia l w o rld (th e N e th e rw o rld ) an d dies in the
D e s c e n t , b u t lik e h er G n o s tic p a ra lle l, she is th en p u rifie d and re d e e m e d b y
the b r id e g ro o m D u m u z i. T h e r e f o r e , th e firs t h a lf o f the sto ry can be seen as
p re se n tin g th e s o u l’s h e a v e n ly o rig in a n d th e d e f ile m e n t o f th e so u l in the
m a te ria l w o rld (= the N e th e r w o rld ) , and the latter h a lf p re se n ts h e r jo u r n e y
b a c k to h e r h e a v e n ly h o m e . D u e to th is tw o -w a y trip - th e fall an d a s c e n t b a c k
to h e a v e n - In a n n a is p r e s e n te d in te rm s o f a v irg in an d a p ro s titu te , a g a in
like h e r later p a ra lle l S o p h ia .24
T h e su g g e stio n th a t I n a n n a /I s ta r can stan d for th e h u m a n soul is also
c o r ro b o r a te d in th e ic o n o g r a p h y , w h e re she is u s u a lly p o r tr a y e d w ith w in g s ,
w h ic h c o u ld r e fe r to the s o u l ’s b ird -lik e e m a n a tio n . F u rth e r, she is o c c a s io n -
ally e q u a te d w ith a b ird , n a m e ly th e o w l, k ilili/k ililu . A lte r n a tiv e ly , it can also
be a rg u e d th a t th e w in g s s y m b o liz e h e r a s p e c t as the p la n e t V e n u s , the
m o rn in g a n d th e e v e n in g star. H o w e v e r , the b ird -lik e a p p e a ra n c e o f the
g o d d e s s is m o s t s tro n g ly s u g g e s te d b y th e p la q u e n o w n a m e d th e “ Q u e e n o f
the N ig h t,” p r e v io u s ly k n o w n as the B u rn e y R e lie f. T h e Q u e e n o f th e N ig h t
has b e e n d a te d to th e r e ig n o f th e k in g H a m m u ra p i (o r H a m m u ra b i) o f the
F irs t D y n a s ty o f B a b y lo n , ca. 1795 BCE. T h e p la q u e sh o w s a n u d e , w in g e d ,
b ird - f o o te d w o m a n w e a rin g a h o r n e d c a p , h o ld in g a ro d an d a rin g in e a c h
h a n d , and s ta n d in g on tw o lio n s w ith an o w l on e a c h s id e .25 S h e has b e e n
th o u g h t to b e th e p h a n to m L ilitu , d u e to the f a c t th a t the d e a d o f the
N e th e r w o rld are sa id to be “b ird - lik e , w e a rin g a fe a th e r g a r m e n t.”26 S e v e ra l
fa c ts, h o w e v e r , im p ly th a t th e w o m a n o f the p la q u e is a g o d d e s s , n o t a
d e m o n e s s , and th a t she is n o n e o th e r th a n In a n n a /Is ta r.27 F o r in s ta n c e , the

19 Scurlock 1995, 1892.

20 S ee Parpola 1997b, 116; for translation, see G eorge 1 9 9 9 ,1 9 4 (11. 86-87)
21 Parpola 1997b , 9 7 , 11. 183-184: [x x x a]-na su-um -[m e ] ia-si ut-tir-ra-an-ni // [ sak-na-m a kap]-p1
g i m m u S e n i-di-ia .
22 S ee L apinkivi 2004.
23 R obinson 1988, 190-198.
24 Parpola 1997a, X X X If. ‫^ י ״יי‬
25 M ost recently C ollon 2005; see also Frankfort 1 9 3 7 -3 9 , 128-135; Frankfort 1996, 111, fig . 119;
Lloyd 1984, 170, fig . 118. ‫ ^ י י‬.‫ז‬
26 / sta r ’ s D e sc e n t to the N etherw orld 10: “cloth ed lik e birds in garments o f feather ; G ilg a m es E p ic
VII 61: “ ...w h er e they are clad lik e birds in coats o f feathers . . . ” (translation after G eorge 1999).
2‫ ל‬Jacobsen (1987b , 1-11) also reaches the con clusion that the w om an o f the plaque is none other than
Inanna/Istar.

38
 C O M M ENTARY A N D A N A LY SIS

w o m a n is w e a rin g a d iv in e h o r n e d c a p , an d she is s ta n d in g on lio n s, w h ic h

w e re c o m m o n a ttrib u te s o f In a n n a /Is ta r. In a d d itio n , the m e a s u rin g rod and
th e m e a s u rin g lin e ( d e p ic te d in a w ay th a t it lo o k s like a rin g ) u s e d o rig in a lly
f o r s u rv e y in g la n d , b e c a m e s y m b o ls o f d iv in e j u s tic e .28 In th e S u m e ria n
D e s c e n t, th e d iv in e p o w e r s ( m e ’s) ta k e n a w a y fro m the g o d d e s s at th e sixth
g a te o f the N e th e r w o r ld are, in fa c t, th e lapis lazu li m e a s u rin g ro d and
m e a s u rin g line. M o r e o v e r , sin ce th e o w ls o f th e p la q u e are id e n tifie d as
k il l l u - b ird s 29 th en th e w o m a n p o s in g to g e th e r with th e m is m o st likely K ilili
h e r s e lf , w h o , a c c o rd in g to the first m ille n n iu m in c an tatio n tex ts th e B e sc h w d r-
u n g s r itu a le an I s ta r u n d D u m u z i, is e q u a te d w ith Ista r (r a b itu I s ta r ) .3°
R e c e n tly , D. C o llo n h as c lo s e ly s tu d ie d the Q u e e n o f th e N ig h t, n ow
a c q u ir e d b y th e B ritis h M u s e u m . A c c o r d in g to h e r, th e Q u een is d e fin ite ly a
g o d d e s s , and C o llo n te n ta tiv e ly su g g ests th a t the p la q u e w o u ld b e s t re p re s e n t
E r e s k ig a l, the Q u e e n o f th e N e th e r w o rld , o r p e r h a p s , In a n n a /Is ta r. A c c o rd in g
to C o llo n , the p r o b le m o f a d e fin ite id e n tific a tio n lies in th e fa c t th at the
ic o n o g r a p h ic s y m b o ls o f a c e rta in d e ity do n o t n e c e s s a rily c o rro b o ra te the
s y m b o lis m fo u n d in te x tu a l s o u r c e s . In th e c a s e o f In a n n a /Is ta r, C o llo n claim s
th a t, a lth o u g h b y th e O ld B a b y lo n ia n p e rio d lio n s w ere w e ll e s ta b lis h e d
a ttrib u te s o f the g o d d e s s in ic o n o g r a p h y , in tex ts th ey are n o t a s s o c ia te d w ith
h e r by th is p e r io d .31 T h is is n o t e n tire ly tru e , sin ce in S u m e ria n texts In a n n a
h a s th e e p ith e t th e “ lio n o f h e a v e n ” (p irig a n -n a ), a n d in A k k a d ia n so u rces
she is r e fe r r e d to as th e “ lio n e s s ” ( la b b q tu ).32 In the case o f E r e s k ig a l, w e do
n o t h a v e a n y d e f in ite ic o n o g r a p h ic re p re s e n ta tio n o f h er e ls e w h e re . T h e re-
f o re , C o llo n d o e s n o t id e n tify the Q u e e n w ith c e rta in ty , b u t she p o in ts o u t
th a t, in the N e o - A s s y ria n te x t k n o w n as th e U n d e r w o r ld Vision o f an A s s y r ia n
P r i n c e ,33 th e u n d e r w o r ld b e in g s are d e s c rib e d as m o n s tr o u s , h a v in g , for
in s ta n c e , b i r d ’s fe e t an d w in g s , w h ic h w o u ld a s s o c ia te the Q u e e n o f the N ig h t
w ith th e N e th e r w o r ld . T h is te x t, h o w e v e r , is u n iq u e a n d ra th e r late sin ce the
p rin c e is g e n e ra lly th o u g h t to h a v e b e e n A s s u r b a n ip a l, w h o re ig n e d 6 6 8 -6 2 7
BCE. B la c k a n d G r e e n h a v e r e m in d e d us th a t th e b ird talo n s an d w in g s w ere
also s h a re d by b e n e f ic e n t an d m a g ic a lly p ro te c tiv e b e i n g s .34
C o llo n f u rth e r c la im s th a t, as th e s u p re m e m istre ss o f th e u n d e rw o rld ,
E r e s k ig a l w o u ld h a v e b e e n e n title d to h o ld th e ro d and th e rin g , th e sa c re d
o b je c ts o f d iv in ity . In a d d itio n , in b o th th e G ilg a m e s E p ic X II 2 8-30 an d
4 7 - 4 9 an d in th e S u m e ria n G ilg a m e s , E n k id u a n d the N e th e r w o r ld 199 -20 4,
E n k id u , w h e n d e s c e n d in g to th e N e th e r w o rld to re trie v e t h e p u k k u and m e k k u ,

28 Frankfort 1996, 1 0 4 ,1 1 2 ; B lack and Green 1992, 156: “rod and ring.” A ccording to Frankfort (ibid.,
112), th ese sym bols m ay in dicate “the lim ited span o f m an’s life or his judgm ent at death.” On the Stele
o f U r-Nam mu, Nanna is sh ow n handing the sam e ob jects to the k ing, w ho appears on the stele in the role
o f a builder, carrying a pick and other b uilding to o ls (Frankfort 1996, 10 2 -1 0 4 , fig . 110). A ccording to
Jacob sen, Nanna is show n holding a b attle-axe in his hand, yet he g iv es the king the m easuring line and
m easuring rod. This act on ly indicates that Nanna entrusts the king with works o f p eace (i.e ., building)
rather than war. Therefore the m easuring lin e and rod are sym b ols o f p eace. Inanna is show n holding them
b ecau se, as the god dess o f war, she also controls the ab sen ce o f war, i.e ., peace (Jacobsen 1987a, 4).
29 C ollon 2 0 0 5 , 36 has id en tified the birds as Barn O w ls.
30 Farber 1 9 7 7 ,6 4 -6 5 ,1 3 34.
31 C ollon 2 0 0 5 ,4 5 .
32 For pirig an-na, see W atanabe 2 0 0 2 , 91; c f. H eim pel 1 968, 3 1 5 -3 1 6 , 36:55-56; ETCSL: An a d a b to
Inana f o r U r-Ninurta (U r-N in urta C) 3; ETCSL: A hymn to Inana a s N in eg ala (Inana D ) 2; for labbatu
see W atanabe 2 0 0 2 , 103; C A D L , s.v. la b b a tu , 23.
33 L ivin gston e 1989, 6 8 -7 6 .
34 B lack and Green 1992, 4 3 -4 4 .

39
 !S T A R ’S DESCENT A N D RESURRECTION

d e s c rib e s the Q u e e n o f the N e th e r w o rld as n a k e d (see the c o m m e n t fo r lin es

9 5-97 a): “h e r p u re s h o u ld ers are n o t c o v e re d w ith a g a rm e n t, an d no lin en is
s p read o v e r h e r p u re b r e a s t.” T h e n a k e d Q u e e n c o u ld thus p e rh a p s be an
im a g e o f th e n a k e d E r e s k ig a l.35 H o w e v e r , as m e n tio n e d e a rlie r, the w in g s a n d
the b ird -lik e a p p e a ra n c e fit w ell w ith In a n n a /Is ta r, an d the lite ra ry d e s c rip tio n
o f the n u d e E re s k ig a l a c tu a lly o n ly says th a t h e r u p p e r to rso was n a k e d , w h ic h
also ac c o rd s w ith the w ay I n a n n a /I s ta r is o fte n d e p ic te d .36 F u rth e r, as C o llo n
n o te s, lions are w ell k n o w n a ttrib u te s o f In a n n a /Is ta r, b u t n o t o f E re s k ig a l.
T h e c o n n e c tio n o f the Q u e e n w ith th e tw o lio n s is f u rth e r d e m o n s tr a te d b y
the “d e w c la w s ” on h e r calv es: C o llo n s u g g e sts th e se fle sh y e x c re s c e n c e s are,
in fa c t, c a rp a l p a d s o f a lio n , w h ic h thus are re la te d to th e lio n s she is s ta n d in g
on. 77
T h e b o tto m o f the p la q u e is in c is e d w ith the p a tte rn th at is u se d to d en o te
m o u n ta in s a n d h ills, w h ic h c o u ld p o in t to K U R , th at is, to th e N e th e rw o rld .
T h . J a c o b s e n , o n th e o th e r h a n d , has c o n n e c te d the m o u n ta in s w ith I n a n n a ,
w h o s e o rig in a l h o m e w as o n th e m o u n ta in to p s ( K U R ) , as m e n tio n e d , fo r
in s ta n c e , in E n m e r k a r a n d the L o r d o f A r a tta 2 2 9 -2 3 1 : “T h e g reat q u e e n o f
h e a v e n , w h o rid es u p o n the a w e s o m e m e, d w e llin g on th e p eak s o f th e b r ig h t
m o u n ta in s , a d o rn in g the d ais o f the b rig h t m o u n t a i n s . .. ” (nin g al a n -n a m e
h u s -a u 5-a // h u r-s a g k u r s u b a -k a d u r g ar-ra // b a ra g k u r s u b a -k a s e -e r-k a -a n
d u g 4‫־‬g a ) .38 It is n o t im p o s s ib le to th in k th a t the m o u n ta in p a tte rn c o u ld h a v e
b e e n u s e d as a r e fe re n c e to b o th places,, the m o u n ta in s and th e N e th e r w o rld .
T h e o v e ra ll fe e lin g o n e gets f ro m lo o k in g at the Q u e e n is th a t, e v e n th o u g h
she m ig h t b e a re p re s e n ta tio n o f In a n n a /Is ta r, she is in this case c o n n e c te d
w ith th e N e th e r w o rld . T h is is s u g g e s te d b y th e m o u n ta in p a tte rn , as w e ll as
by th e tw o o w ls , w h ic h in any c a s e are n o c tu rn a l c re a tu re s and thus a s s o c ia te d
w ith d e a th .39 E v e n th e w in g s are d e p ic te d d r o o p e d , an d n o t in th e u p r ig h t
p o s itio n . T h e c h th o n ic c o n n e c tio n s can b e f u rth e r p o s tu la te d b y th e re m n a n ts
o f th e c o lo rin g o f the p la q u e , w h ic h re v e a l th a t it h ad a d ark b a c k g r o u n d , fro m
w h ic h a g o d d e s s w ith a re d b o d y w o u ld h a v e m ad e a strik in g e m e rs io n . T h e
Q u e e n g iv es th e im p re s s io n th a t the lo w e r p a rt o f h e r b o d y is c o n n e c te d w ith
the N e th e r w o rld , w h e re a s h e r u p p e r p a rt is d iv in e. T h is tw o -la y e re d re p re s e n -
tatio n fits w e ll w ith Ista r, w h o s e u p p e r, d iv in e p art o f the b o d y is u s e d as a
re fe re n c e to life , w h e re a s th e lo w e r p art o f the b o d y is u se d as a r e fe r e n c e to
d e a th , b o th o f w h ic h are f o u n d a m o n g h e r a s p e c ts. A s a g o d d ess o f lo v e , she
is life , an d as a g o d d e s s o f w a r, she is d e a th . T h e tw o r e c lin in g lio n s are
p ro b a b ly an a d d itio n a l “ n a m e - ta g ,” u se d as a r e fe re n c e to In a n n a /Is ta r, as
J a c o b s e n has alre a d y s u g g e s te d .40
E q u a lly , th e “ d e m o n ic ” a n d d iv in e fe a tu re s fin d th e ir e x p la n a tio n in the
“ s o u l” a s p e c t o f th e g o d d ess: th e soul in b o th its sin fu l an d p u rifie d states.
T h e w in g s , on o n e h a n d , r e fe r to K ilili, an o w l ( k ililu /k ilili), b u t, on th e o th e r

35 C ollon 2 0 0 5 , 44.
36 B lack and Green 1992, 109.
3‫ל‬ C ollon 2 0 0 5 , 3 1 -3 3 , and 43.
38 Jacobsen 1987a, 3; ETCSL: Enmerkar a n d the lord o f A ratta.
39 For the ow l as an om inous bird, see C A D K , s.v. kilili, 3 5 7 , where the om inous features are m entioned
in Hh. and H g. in the lex ica l section; cf. also: summa MU§ENG7(/i ina q u id musi ina tarb a s a m e li lu ina
muhhi isi lu ina muhhi [ ...] “if an ow l [hoots?] in the dead o f the night in a man s yard either in a tree or
in a [ .. .] ” (CT 4 0 , 43:39; see C A D K , ib id .).
40 Jacobsen 1987a, 7.

40
 CO M M ENTARY A N D A N A LY SIS

h a n d , th ey m ay im p ly that the fig u re is a r e p re s e n ta tio n o f a so u l in its

b ird - lik e a p p e a ra n c e . T h is k in d o f w in g e d soul o ccu rs in the E ta n a E p i c 41 as
s u g g e s te d b y S. P a r p o la . A c c o rd in g to h im , the story d e s c rib e s th e s o u l ’s
jo u r n e y to s p iritu a l p e rfe c tio n : E t a n a ’s a s c e n s io n to h eav en o n th e e a g l e ’s
b a c k to fetch th e “p la n t o f b i r t h ” is a m e ta p h o r f o r the a sc e n sio n o f a h u m a n
so u l. In o th e r w o r d s , th e e a g le r e p re s e n ts the p u rifie d , p e r fe c t state o f the
so u l, w h ic h is a b le to c a rry its e lf to h e a v e n .42
L i n e s 1-1 0 : T h e u s u a l u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e afterlife in M e s o p o ta m ia is
la rg e ly b a s e d on p a s s a g e s in su ch m y th s as th e D e s c e n t, o r th e G ilg a m e s E pic,
T a b le t V II, an d its S u m e ria n p r e d e c e s s o r G ilg a m e s , E n k id u a n d the N e th e r-
w o r ld 43 w h ic h p o r tr a y the N e th e r w o rld as a g lo o m y p la c e , w h e re th e d e a d
in h a b ita n ts e a t c la y a n d are d re ss e d in f e a th e r g a rm e n ts .44 S u c h an im a g e is
also f o u n d in U r -N a m m a A 83 , w h e re the fo o d o f the N e th e rw o rld is said to
b e b itte r an d its w a te r b r a c k is h .45 In N i n g i s z i d a ’s B o a t-R id e to H a d e s , the
g o d N in g is z id a d e s c rib e s his d e s tin a tio n to his sister w ith th e fo llo w in g
w o r d s :46
The river of the Nether World carries no water,
no water is drunk from it.
The fields of the Nether World carry no grain,
no flour is milled from it.
The sheep of the Nether World carry no wool,
no cloth is woven from it.
Me, whom my mother dug like a canal,
my waters she will never open up,
like a tamarisk I shall never grow thick the trunk
up toward water, and she will never sit down in my shade,
like a date palm she will never tell me
how desirable are the dates I bear.
Me the constable beats with a stick,
you would scream at it,
on me, on my hands he has put manacles,
you would scream at it,
on me, on my neck he has put a neck stock,
you would scream at it.
In T a b le t V II o f th e G ilg a m e s E p i c , E n k id u , ap p a re n tly in a tra n c e , visio n s
a trip to th e N e th e r w o r ld :47
[He bound] my arms like the wings of a bird,
to lead me captive to the house of darkness, seat of Irkalla:
to the house which no one who enters ever leaves,
on the path that allows no journey back,

41 The Etana E pic describ es how Etana, an h eirless k in g, ascends to heaven on an eagle in order to
bring back the “plant o f birth,” w hich w ould provide him w ith an heir. For the Etana E p ic , se e, e .g ., D allev
2 0 0 0 , 189-202; K innier W ilson 1985; and N ovotn y 2 0 0 1 .
42 Parpola 1993, 195-199.
43 ETCSL: G ilg am es, Enkidu a n d the nether w o r ld ; G eorge 1 999, 175-194.
44 For the Gilgam eS E p i c , see G eorge 1999; for IS tar’s D e sc e n t, see R einer 1985.
43 ETCSL: The D ea th o f U r-Nam m a ( Ur-Nam ma A)\ C astellin o 1 9 5 7 ,1 . 2:41.
« Jacobsen and A lster 2 0 0 0 , 320-3 2 3 ,1 1 . 31-39; see a lso ETCSL: N in g is z id a ’s jo u rn e y to the nether
w o rld .
47 Translation after G eorge 1 9 9 9 ,6 1 .

41
 !S T A R ’S DESCENT A N D RESURRECTION

to the house whose residents are deprived of light,

where soil is their sustenance and clay their food,
where they are clad like birds in coats of feathers,
and see no light, but dwell in darkness.
On door [and bolt the dust lay thick,]
on the House [of Dust was poured a deathly quiet.]
O n th e o th e r h a n d , the N e th e r w o rld is also d e p ic te d as a so rt o f im ita tio n
o f life on ea rth , w h e re th e in h a b ita n ts eat b re a d an d d rin k cle a r w a te r .48 T h e
d a rk n e ss o f th e N e th e r w o rld is te m p o ra ry sin c e the sun g o d p a s s e d th ro u g h
th e se re g io n s o n his d aily jo u r n e y 49 In f a c C t h e N e th e r w o rld has th e sam e
so cia l s tru c tu re as th e r e a lm o f th e liv in g o n e a r th .50
In o r d e r to re in fo rc e th e id e a o f th e g lo o m y d e s tin y o f h u m a n s , th ere are
p a s sa g e s su ch as the o n e in S u lg i B 2 8 1 -2 8 2 , w h e re S u lg i, a ru le r o f th e U r
III p e rio d (ca. 2 0 9 4 - 2 0 4 7 ), a s k s :51
a-na ab-tuku ur5‫־‬re lb-hul
a-ba nam-til an-na ba-e-ed
Whatever is acquired is destined to be lost.
What mortal has ever reached the heavens?
It seem s th a t an afterlife s p e n t in th e N e th e r w o rld w as n o t the o n ly o p tio n
in M e s o p o ta m ia . In s te a d , th e re is e v id e n c e th a t, fo r s o m e , the a fte rlife m e a n t
an a s c e n t to h e a v e n ; d eath w as o n ly te m p o ra ry , an d d e a th c o u ld b e o v e rc o m e
b y s p iritu a l p e rfe c tio n . A lth o u g h S ulgi w as ra th e r a p e s s im is t in his s ta te m e n t
a b o v e , it w as his o w n d e s tin y to a scen d to h e a v e n a fte r d eath . It is tru e th a t
h e w as a g o d , d igir, and n o t an o r d in a ry h u m a n b ein g . H o w e v e r, as a k in g , he
w as se ttin g an e x a m p le n o t o n ly f o r his s u c c e s s o rs , b u t to the p e o p le as w ell.
T h e N e o - S u m e ria n k in g s w e re v ie w e d as “ g o in g u p /to w a rd h e a v e n ” a fte r
th ey d ie d . T h is b e lie f alre a d y e x is te d in the tim e o f S ulg i sin ce an e c o n o m ic
te x t d a te d to h is last re g n a l y e a r m a k e s the re m a rk “ w h e n th e d iv in e S u lg i
a s c e n d e d to h e a v e n ,” dS u l-g i a n -n a b a - a - e ‫ ״‬-d a -a .52 C. W ilc k e a rg u e d th a t th is
p ro v e s th e b e lie f th a t, at the te r m in a tio n o f his e a rth ly e x iste n c e , S u lg i j o i n e d
the ran k s o f th e d e n iz e n s o f h e a v e n .53 P. S te in k e lle r v ie w s S u lg i’s a s c e n s io n
to h e a v e n as p la u s ib le d u e to his d iv in ity , a lth o u g h this m u s t h a v e b e e n
c o n tra d ic to ry to th e b e lie f th a t S u lg i w as at the sam e tim e seen as m o rta l sin c e
he w as “ a ffo rd e d all th e h o n o rs and tra p p in g s o f a d e a d r u le r.”54 S till, as
S te in k e lle r p o in ts o u t, th e sam e tra d itio n w as ap p lie d to a n o th e r ru le r, n a m e ly
I s b i- E r ra o f Isin (ca. 2 0 1 7 - 1 9 8 5 ). A ta b le t fo u n d at Isin (B IN 10 190) d a te d
b y S te in k e lle r to I s b i- E r r a ’s last re g n a l y e a r, states: “ (for) the g re a t la m e n ta -
tio n , w h e n the k in g a s c e n d e d to h e a v e n ,” [e]r ( [ A ] . I G I ) g u -la u d lu g al a n -se
b a - a -d a .55

48 Scurlock 1995, 1887.

49 H eim pel 1986, 127-151.
50 S e e , e .g ., Scurlock 1995, 1883-1893.
51 ETCSL: A p r a is e po em o f Sulgi (Sulgi B).
52 W atson 1986, 333:5.
53 W ilck e 1988, 245-255.
54 S teink eller 1992, 3.
55 Published by van der M ieroop 1987, 190. Steinkeller (ibid.) notes the verbal form ba-a-da is either
a phonetic realization o f b a-a -e‫ ״‬-da or m ore lik ely , a d efectiv e sp elling.

42
 COM M ENTARY A N D A N A L Y SIS

Line 12: W h ile th e A k k a d ia n D e s c e n t s ta te s on ly th at Istar a rriv e s at th e “ gate

o f the N e th e r w o r l d ,” in the S u m e ria n v e rs io n I n a n n a arriv es at the “ p a la c e o f
G a n z e r ( G a n z ir ) ,” w h ic h w as at th e e n tr a n c e o f th e N e th e rw o rld . L in e s 73 -76
o f the S u m e ria n v e r s io n :56
dinanna e-gal ganzer-se um-ma-te
§1§ig kur-ra-ka su hul ba-an-us
abula kur-ra-ka gu hul ba-an-de
e gal-u 1-du8 e gal-u
When Inanna arrived at the palace Ganzer,
she pushed aggressively on the door of the underworld.
She shouted aggressively at the gate of the underworld:
“Open up, doorman, open up.”
F u r th e r in the te x t, E r e s k ig a l in stru c ts th e g a te k e e p e r to fo llo w h e r o rders
w h e n le ttin g I n a n n a in sid e h e r re a lm , an d the g a te k e e p e r o b e y s (11. 123-128):
ne-ti 1-dug gal kur-ra-[ke4]
inim nin-a-na-se sag kese2 ba-si‫[־‬in-ak]
abula kur-ra 7-bi glSsi-gar-bi [bf-ib-us]
e-gal ganzer dili-bi [gl4g-bi su ba-an-us]
kug dinanna-ra gu mu-na-de-[e]
ga-nu dinanna kur9-um-[ma-ni]
Neti,57 the chief doorman of the underworld,
paid attention to the instructions of his mistress.
He bolted the seven gates of the underworld.
Then he opened each of the doors of the palace Ganzer separately.
He said to holy Inanna: “Come on, Inanna, and enter.”
In a d d itio n , la te r in th e te x t (11. 3 0 6 -3 0 7 ):
After Inanna had ascended from the underworld,
Ninsubur threw herself at her feet at the door of the Ganzer (ka ganzer-[ra-ka]).
In o th e r w o rd s , the p la c e c a lle d “p a la c e o f G a n z e r ” is at the e n tra n c e o f the
N e th e r w o r ld , an d it c o m p r is e s d o o rs an d g ates th ro u g h w hich o n e can p r o c e e d
to the se a t o f E r e s k ig a l. In f a c t, a c c o r d in g to th e le x ic a l lists, the te rm G a n z e r
c an m e a n b o th th e e n tr a n c e to the N e th e r w o rld as w ell as the N e th e r w o rld as
a w h o le .58
A n o th e r S u m e ria n lite ra ry te x t th a t m e n tio n s G a n z e r is G ilg a m e s, E n k id u
a n d the N e t h e r w o r l d , w h e re G ilg a m e s is d e p ic te d as sitting “ at th e g a te o f
G a n z e r , in f ro n t o f th e N e th e r w o r ld ” a fte r he h as lo st his “h o o p a n d s tic k ”
(S u m . e lla g and e k id m a , A k k . p u k k u a n d m e k k u ,) 59 to th e N e th e rw o rld

56 ETCSL: Inana ’s d e s c e n t to the nether w orld.

57 For the reading o f the nam e o f the gatekeeper, see the com m ent for line 13.
58 S ee Sladek 1974, 5 9-63; H orow itz 1 998, 2 6 9 -2 7 0 , 2 8 7 -2 8 8 . E .g ., in the le x ica l list Diri II 150
ga.an.zer ( i g i .k u r .z a ) is equated with b a b ( k A) er -se -ti, “g ate o f the N etherw orld,” and w ith words denoting
the N etherw orld as a w h ole (e .g ., danninu, irkalla, kukku).
59 For the different interpretations o f these o b jects, see C A D M /2, s.v . mekku, 7; A H w 878; Groneberg
1987, 121-123; D raffkorn K ilm er 1982, 1 2 9 -1 3 0 . Draffkorn K ilm er understands that “the ball and the
stick ” are used as a pun for G ilg a m e s’s erotic relationship w ith Enkidu. In the beginning o f the E pic (Tablet
I), G ilgam es sees tw o dream s o f portraying the appearance o f Enkidu. In the dream he sees a ki$ru (“b all,”
understood as a m eteorite in this con text), w hich fa lls from the sk y, as w e ll as a hassinnu (“axe”), both o f
w hich G ilgam es m akes lo v e to. The words are apparently used as puns for a kezru (“m ale with curled
hair”) and for an assinnu (translated by Draffkorn K ilm er as “prostitute”). T herefore, the “b a ll” and the
“axe” seen in the tw o dream s refer to Enkidu, w h o , in other w ords, is an assinnu and a kezru. W hen

43
 IS T A R ’S DESCENT A N D RESURRECTION

th ro u g h a c rack in th e g r o u n d .60 T h e G ilg a m e s story p laces the gate G a n z e r

in G i l g a m e s ’s city o f U ru k , on the frin g e b e tw e e n th e w orld s o f liv in g a n d
the d e a d . D . K a tz w o n d e rs w h e th e r there m ig h t h a v e b e e n a real g ate c a lle d
G a n z e r in U ru k , w h ich w o u ld h a v e b een u s e d fo r fu n e ra l p ro c e ss io n s. W ith -
out any a rc h a e o lo g ic a l e v id e n c e , h o w e v e r, G a n z e r rem ain s as a f ic tio n a l
p a s s a g e w a y to the N e th e r w o r ld .61
A c c o r d in g to K a tz , th e N e th e r w o rld w as situ a te d at the very en d o f th e
r e a lm o f th e d e a d , at th e lo w e s t lev el o f th e s u b te rra n e a n p a rt o f th e c o s m o s ,
w h e re a s the g ate G a n z e r w as on the b o rd e r o f the tw o w o rld s, fa c in g th e m
b o th . T h e d ista n c e b e tw e e n th e g a te G a n z e r a n d th e N e th e rw o rld is, in fa c t,
s u g g e s te d b y the tw o sto ries th e m se lv e s: in the D e s c e n t In a n n a p ro c e e d s fro m
G a n z e r to th e se a t o f E re s k ig a l (= N e th e rw o rld ) th ro u g h the s ev en g a te s , a n d
in th e G ilg a m e s story th e h e ro c a n n o t re a c h h is tw o fallen o b je c ts w ith his
h a n d , sin ce th e y h a v e fa lle n all th e w ay f ro m G a n z e r to the b o tto m o f th e
N e th e rw o rld . K a tz also ad d s th a t the “p a la c e G a n z e r ” and the g a te o f the
N e th e r w o rld , w h e re I n a n n a f irs t arriv es in th e D e s c e n t, m u st be u n d e r s to o d
e ith e r as a n a m e fo r th e e n tr a n c e to the N e th e rw o rld o r d e s c rib in g th e p la c e
o f E r e s k i g a l ’s th ro n e , i.e ., th e N e th e rw o rld . A c c o r d in g ly , the G ilg a m e s sto ry
b o th d is tin g u is h e s and e q u a te s th e g ate G a n z e r an d th e N e th e r w o rld , sin c e it
first d e p ic ts G ilg a m e s at G a n z e r w e e p in g fo r th e o b je c ts falle n to th e N e th e r-
w o rld , b u t th e n the ellag m u s t b e r e trie v e d fro m th e N e th e r w o rld , w h e re a s
th e e k id m a m u st b e r e trie v e d f r o m G a n z e r .62
T h e “p a la c e G a n z e r ” is p o s s ib ly also th e su b je c t o f a p ra y e r fo r a safe
e n tr a n c e to the N e th e r w o rld . T h e te x t is in te re s tin g , as is the le n tic u la r s h ap e
o f th e tab let. It is p ro b a b le th a t th e ta b le t d ates f ro m the tim e o f G u d e a , the
r u le r o f the city o f L a g a s (ca. 2 1 0 0 BCE), an d b e c a u s e o f the a p p e a r a n c e o f
the g o d d e s s N a n s e in the te x t, its p ro v e n ie n c e has b e e n th o u g h t to b e the
L a g a s a r e a .63 T h e te x t ru n s as f o llo w s :64
May the palace
provide clear water to me in the forest where gur-birds live.
Inside, where a great oven is lighted,
may it sprinkle clear water for me.
May its door, which is a courier, stand open when I finish my journey.
May its bolt, which is a messenger,
turn around for me.
May its crossbar be the Lama at my favorable side
that shines brightly on my right shoulder.
May its gate be proud because of me.
May Inanna be my vanguard.
May my god be my helper,
may he go behind me.

G ilgam es in Tablet XII lo ses the ball {pukku) and stick (mekku) (used for playing a stick gam e) to the
underworld, he also lo ses his friend, w ho descen ds to the N etherw orld to retrieve the fa llen objects and
con sequ en tly, d ies. This friend, Enkidu, is thus the human counterpart for a kisru and a pukku as w e ll as
for a hassinnu and a mekku (note that the shape o f the stick and the axe are sim ilar).
60 ETCSL: G ilg a m e s , Enkidu a n d the n ether w orld, 1. 166.
61 Katz 2 0 0 3 ,4 5 -4 6 .
62 Katz 2 0 0 3 , 2 9 -3 2 , 4 5 -4 6 , 8 5 -9 1 , and passim .
63 V eld h uis 2 0 0 3 , C uneiform D igital Library B ulletin 2003:6; c f. W .W . H allo, “B ack to the B ig H ouse:
C olloq uial Sum erian, C ontinued,” OrNS 5 4 (1 9 8 5 ) 56-64.
64 Translation after V eld h u is, ibid.

44
 COM M ENTARY A N D A N A LY SIS

M ay my gatekeeper bow down,

so that I might raise my neck on high!
In the shrine of Enki, Asari in his Abzu,
will not be able to loose (this spell),
since Nanse is at my side.
P r e v io u s ly , W . W . H a llo has s u g g e s te d th a t the “p a la c e ” m e n tio n e d in the
firs t lin e is to be u n d e r s to o d lite ra lly as a “ big h o u s e ” (the S u m e ria n te rm is
e g a l), a n d this is a p r a y e r f o r s o m e o n e ’s re le a s e fro m a “ big h o u s e ,” w h ic h ,
in H a l l o ’s o p in io n , c o u ld h a v e b e e n a c o llo q u ia l w o rd fo r a p ris o n . R e c e n tly ,
N . V e ld h u is has c o m e to th e c o n c lu s io n th a t th e “p a la c e ” re fe rs to the “ p ala c e
G a n z e r ,” a n d th at th e s u p p lic a n t h e re w is h e s fo r a safe e n tra n c e to the re a lm
o f the d e a d . V e ld h u is ad d s th at the “p a la c e G a n z e r ,” i.e., the en try to the
N e th e r w o r ld , is c lo s e ly a s s o c ia te d w ith d o o rs and g ates, as is th e p ra y e r.
T h e p e c u lia r ity o f th e p ra y e r is th e r e m a r k o f the “ g reat o v e n w h ic h is
lig h te d ” in sid e th e N e th e r w o rld . In fa c t, th e w o rd G a n z e r is in le x ic a l lists a
s y n o n y m fo r a “ f la m e ,” g a - a n - z e (2)-e r = n a b lu m (M S L 13, 36 A 1 2 a n d B l ;
M S L 16, 20 2 4 ‫) ׳‬. In c o n te x t the w o rd a p p e a rs in the E x p lo its o f N i n u r t a 596:
"34m a s - d a "34d u b - b a -a n g a - a n -z e -e r b a r 7-a, “ m a s d a sto ne, d u b b a n ston e,
b la z in g f ir e s ” ; N u s k a A D 7: k a la m d u 6-u l- d u 6-ul-e e rim 2-e izi s u m -m u h u l ?
g a - a n ‫־‬z e ‫־‬er m a 5‫־‬m a 5 “ c o v e rin g th e L a n d , th ro w in g fire at the e n e m y , burn -
i n g ” ; L a m e n t f o r U ru k E19: e m e -b i g a - a n - z e ‫־‬e r -r a - a m u -d u b s eg -g e26 k a la m -
m a d a r -r e - d a m “ its to n g u e shall b e an i n fe rn o , ra in in g e m b e rs, th a t su n d ers
th e L a n d .” 65 T h e tw o w o rd s , fla m e and th e e n tra n c e to the N e th e r w o rld , are
u s u a lly k e p t a p art in s p e llin g , sin c e th e w o rd fo r fla m e is sp e lle d NE.Sl.A(gan-
z e r 2; le x ic a l o n ly ), o r g a - a n - z e (2)-e r, w h e re a s the e n tra n c e to the N e th e r w o rld
is w r itte n IGI.KUR.ZA(ganzer) o r IGI.KUR(ganzer3). T h e only e x c e p tio n m ay
b e I n a n n a a n d E n k i I 116 e g a - a n -z e -e r b a - d u m u -s e b a - a n -s a 4 “ sh e n a m e d it
w ith th e n a m e th e ‘H o u s e G a n z e r Is R e b u i l t , ” ’ b u t h e re the w o rd o c c u rs in an
u n c le a r c o n te x t.66
V e ld h u is n o te s th a t b o th w o rd s , “f la m e ” a n d the “ (e n tra n c e o f th e ) N e th e r-
w o r ld ” , c o u ld d e riv e f ro m th e s a m e o r ig in , r e fle c tin g the id e a th a t th e d e a d
h a d to c ro ss a fire w h e n e n te r in g th e N e th e r w o rld . A c c o rd in g to h im , the
r e fe r e n c e to the g re a t o v e n th a t is lig h te d o n ly d e s c rib e s the d iffic u lt jo u rn e y
o f a c c e s s in g the N e th e r w o rld . T h e r e f o r e , h e in sists th at it has n o th in g to do
w ith th e la te r d e s c rip tio n s o f a fie ry h ell o r in fe rn o .67 I f th e s e tw o w o rd s
d e riv e f ro m the s a m e o r ig in , in th a t ca se it w o u ld b e p e c u lia r th a t th e w ord
g a n z e r also has th e m e a n in g “ d a r k n e s s ,” g iv e n th e A k k a d ia n e q u iv a le n ts
k u k k u , e k le tu o r etiitu in le x ic a l lis ts .68 T h is m e a n in g , h o w e v e r , w o u ld be
n a tu ra l i f o n e c o n s id e rs th e v ie w o f th e N e th e r w o rld as a g lo o m y p la c e , as it
is o fte n p r e s e n te d in lite ra ry te x ts. D e s p ite the o p p o site c o n n o ta tio n s , and
d e s p ite th e fa c t th a t th e a b o v e m e n tio n e d te x t is the only k n o w n e x p lic it

65 ETCSL: T he Exploits o f Ninurtcr, ETCSL: A sir -g id a to Nuska (Nuska A)\ ETCSL: The L am ent f o r
Unug.
66 ETCSL: Inana a n d Enki.
67 V eld h uis 2 0 0 3 , 3.
68 G eorge (1 9 8 6 , 136) thinks that the hom ophonic ganzer(2), i z i . d i r i , m eaning “fla m e ,” is probably
unrelated to the ganzer m eaning the N etherw orld. The word ganzer has also the m eaning o f “darkness,”
for w hich the A kkadian w ords w ere kukku (g a‫־‬an‫־‬z6‫־‬er1G1.KUR.ZA = ku-uk-k[u-u]\ Proto-D iri 11 Id , see CAD
K , s.v. kukku, 4 9 8 ), ekletu or etiitu (ga-an-zerTA-gunu = e-tu-tum: M SL XIV, 364, Ea IV 225; c f. written
ga‫־‬an-s1sxAxGl6 = e-tu -tu m , ek-le-tum: III 138).

45
 IS T A R ’S DESCENT A N D RESURRECTION

r e fe re n c e to a h o t and b u rn in g re a lm o f the d e a d , it c o u ld be p o s sib le th a t

th ere c o e x is te d an im a g e o f a fie ry N e th e rw o rld in a n c ie n t M e s o p o ta m ia , o r
in S u m e r in p a rtic u la r.
F o r th e e ty m o lo g y o f g a n z e r , A . R. G e o rg e h a s s u g g e ste d th a t the w o rd is
a P ro to - E u p h r a tic n a m e s im ila r to K e n g ir, Z im b ir , an d T in tir.69 A c c o rd in g to
K a tz , this w o u ld ex p la in w h y th e te rm g a n z e r w as w ritte n w ith m e a n in g fu l
S u m e ria n w ritin g , w h e re th e lo g o g ra p h ic v alu e IG I .K U R e x p la in e d th e re a l
m e a n in g o f the te rm , i.e., “ f ro n t o f the N e th e r w o rld /m o u n ta in .”70
Line 13: T h e g a te k e e p e r o f th e N e th e r w o rld is c a lle d B id u or B itu (db 1-ti in
I n a n n a ’s D e s c e n t and dM -d u g[duh] in K A R 142 iv 12-15, S p T U I 3 iii 13‫׳‬-iv
4 ', S T T 28 iii 4 T - 4 7 ') , w h ic h d e riv e s fro m the A k k a d ia n im p e ra tiv e f o rm p it e
“ o p e n ! ” (cf. p e t u ) 71 T h e n a m e w a s p re v io u sly re a d as N eti (dn e-ti). In te re s -
tin g ly , th e A k k a d ia n D e s c e n t d o e s n o t give th e g a te k e e p e r any sp e c ia l id en -
tity .72 In the late v e rs io n o f the m y th o f N e r g a l a n d E r e s k ig a l (se e the
c o m m e n t for lin es 1 4 -2 4), w h e r e the n u m b e r o f the u n d e rw o rld g ates is s ev en
as in th e D e s c e n t, the g a te k e e p e r s are n a m e d . T h e g a te k e e p e r o f th e f irs t g ate
is c a lle d db 1- d u 8( d u h ).73
L a te r, in th e firs t m ille n n iu m A s sy ria n te x t U n d e r w o r ld V ision o f a n
A s s y r ia n P r in c e (rev . 7 ), w h e re th e p eo p le o f th e N e th e rw o rld are d e s c rib e d
as te rrify in g d e m o n ic b e in g s , th e g a te k e e p e r is said to h a v e a l i o n ’s h e a d ,
h u m a n h a n d s , a n d b i r d ’s f e e t.74
Lines 14-24: W h e n Is ta r a rriv e s at th e g ates o f the N e th e rw o rld , she sh o u ts
at the g a te k e e p e r to let h e r in , or o th e rw ise she w o u ld a g g re ss iv e ly b r e a k the
d o o r a n d “ra ise up th e d e a d to d e v o u r the liv in g .” T h e g a te k e e p e r d o e s n o t
ask th e re a so n fo r I s t a r ’s v is it, b u t tries to c a lm h e r d o w n . T h e d ead w h o “ w ill
d e v o u r the liv in g ” re fe r to th o s e u n fo rtu n a te d e a d so u ls w h o h a d d ie d v io le n t
a n d u n h a p p y d e a th s , o r th o se w h o h a d b e e n d e n ie d p ro p er b u ria l o r the
fu n e ra ry cu lt. B e c a u s e o f th e ir fa te , the so u ls o f th e dead w ere a n g ry a n d
v e n g e f u l, an d as a c o n s e q u e n c e , they m ig h t h a v e b e e n able to “ d e v o u r th e
l iv in g .” T h e s e e v il g h o s ts are d e s c rib e d as p u r s u in g , se iz in g , b in d in g , p h y s i-
ca lly a b u s in g th e ir v ic tim s , o r h a ra s s in g th e v ic tim s in th eir d re a m s . G h o s ts
d id n o t alw ay s attack th e v ic tim s o n th e ir o w n in itia tiv e , as so rc e re rs so m e -
tim es u s e d the g h o s ts as p a rt o f th e ir b la c k m a g ic . F o rtu n a te ly , th ro u g h
a p p ro p ria te c o u n te r m a g ic th e ev il g h o sts a n d th e ir actio n s c o u ld be a v e r te d
(see a lso the c o m m e n t fo r lin es 3 1 - 3 6 ).75

69 G eorge 1986, 136; c f. Landsberger 1974, 9. For the etym ology o f the w ord, som e prefer the
su ggestion that the word is a Sum erian fin ite verbal form , ga-an-ze-er /ga-I-n-ze.r/, m eaning “L et-M e-
R em ove,” e .g ., in C A D G, s.v. ga n zir, 4 3 . Katz (2 0 0 3 , 86) notes that the verbal root /ze.r/ (m eaning “to
tear out, to rem ove, to break” [Thom sen 1987a, 322]) has no con n ection with death, and none o f the
Akkadian renderings o f ganzir relates to this Sum erian verb.
70 Katz 2 0 0 3 , 86-87.
71 For the reading B id u /B itu /B iti (cf. dbf-du8[duh]) o f the gatek eeper’s nam e, previously read N eti
(dn e - ti) ,s e e D eller 1991, no. 18; and G eorge 1991a, no. 19.
72 S ee Sladek 1974, 191-192 for the Sum erian reading o f ni-du8/ 1-dug = “doorm an/gatekeeper” and
dne-ti as a phonetic variant o f ni-d u 8 (c f. from the variant w riting o f dne-du8 in CT 16 13; von Soden 1 936,
1-31, r. 47; L ivingston e 1989, 32:r. 7 ). If the reading o f the word “doorm an/gatekeeper” is 1-du8 (c f.
Falkenstein 1959, 67, n. 101), then the Akkadian word atu is a Sum erian loanword (Sladek 1 9 7 4 ,1 9 1 ; see
C A D A /2 , s.v. atu A , 518).
73 The name is read as N edu by D ailey 2 0 0 0 ,1 7 0 ; as w ell as by Hunger 1976, 17, K ol. I ll 13'; and Pituh
by Foster 1996, 422.
74 L ivingston e 1989, 72. The prince Kummfi o f the text is p o ssib ly A ssurbanipal, then crow n-prince
and later king o f A ssyria (ib id ., X X V III).
73 Scurlock 1995, 1889-1891.

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T h e M id d le B a b y lo n ia n m y th o f N e r g a l a n d E r e s k i g a l, w h ic h e x p la in s how
N e r g a l, also k n o w n as E r r a , b e c a m e th e lo rd o f the N e th e r w o rld , u s e s m an y
o f th e sam e im a g e s as lite ra ry p a ra lle ls w ith the D e s c e n t ? 6 A c c o r d in g to the
m y th , th e g o d s h o ld a b a n q u e t in h e a v e n , to w h ic h E re s k ig a l, th e g o d d e s s o f
th e N e th e r w o r ld , is n o t e n title d to c o m e . I n s te a d , she is a llo w e d to sen d her
m in is te r N a m ta r to th e f e a s t, and b rin g to h e r w h a te v e r fo o d A n u , h e r fa th er,
o ffe rs f ro m the b a n q u e t tab le. S in c e N e r g a l b e h a v e s d isre s p e c tfu lly to w ard s
N a m ta r an d thus in su lts E r e s k ig a l, h e is to d e s c e n d to the u n d e r w o rld as
p u n is h m e n t. H e fa lls f o r E r e s k ig a l, and m a k e s lov e to her fo r six d a y s , b u t at
th e d a w n o f the s e v e n th d a y , N e rg a l e s c a p e s , a lth o u g h he p ro m is e s to retu rn .
W h e n E r e s k ig a l u n d e r s ta n d s h e r lo v e r has fle d , she b e c o m e s m is e ra b le . She
b e g s N a m ta r to g o to A n u , E llil (= E n lil) a n d E a , and ask th e m to se n d E rra
b a c k . I f th e y do n o t o b e y , she s a y s :77
According to the rites o f Erkalla and the great Earth,
I shall raise up the dead, and they will eat the living.
I shall make the dead outnumber the living!
In o th e r w o rd s , she th re a te n s to a c t th e sam e w ay as Ista r w h e n the latter
tries to g et in to th e N e th e r w o rld . T h e m y th o f N e r g a l a n d E r e s k ig a l e n d s w ell,
sin c e N e r g a l fin a lly re -e n te r s th e N e th e r w o rld a n d b e c o m e s th e h u s b a n d of
E r e s k ig a l.
In th e S u m e ria n v e r s io n o f th e D e s c e n t, I n a n n a claim s sh e v isits the
N e th e r w o rld d u e to the d e a th a n d f u n e ra l o f G u g a la n n a , the (first) h u s b a n d
o f E r e s k ig a l.78 G u d /G u 4- g a l-a n -n a m e a n s th e “ G re a t Bull o f H e a v e n ,” b u t in
th e g o d - lis t A N =■ A n u m his n a m e is w ritte n G u -g a l-a n -n a , the “ C a n a l-in s p e c -
to r o f H e a v e n /A n .”79 T h e id e n tity o f G u g a la n n a is u nclear: he m ay h a v e b e e n
N e r g a l, th e lo rd o f th e N e th e r w o r ld , w h o is o n ly k n o w n h ere by a n o th e r nam e.
A lte r n a tiv e ly , he m a y h a v e b e e n the g o d A lla , w h o s e w ife w o u ld h a v e b e e n
A lla tu , w h ic h w a s a n o th e r n a m e fo r E r e s k ig a l. A lla, like T a m m u z (= D u m u -
z i), b e lo n g e d to the g ro u p o f d y in g g o d s , w h ic h m ig h t e x p la in w h y in the
D e s c e n t th e h u s b a n d o f E re s k ig a l h as d i e d .80
D . W o lk s te in n o tes th a t, a s tro n o m ic a lly in te rp r e te d , the d e a th an d fu n e ra l
o f the “ G r e a t B u ll o f H e a v e n ” m e a n s th a t fo r six w eek s the c o n s te lla tio n
T a u ru s (mulg u d /g u 4-a n -n a ) is b e lo w th e h o r iz o n in S u m e r and th u s “d e a d .”
T h is e a rly j o u r n e y b e g in s in th e m id d le o f J a n u a ry , and the c o n s te lla tio n
r e - e m e r g e s in M a r c h , w h ic h a lso m ark s th e b e g in n in g o f the y e a r a n d agri-
c u ltu ra l c y c le . T h is is also the tim e w h e n D u m u z i, the h u s b a n d o f In a n n a /
Is ta r, a lso k n o w n by th e e p ith e t the “W ild B u ll ” (am ), a s c e n d e d f ro m the

76 The myth o f N e r g a l a n d E resk ig a l (se e , e .g ., Foster 1996, 4 1 0 -4 2 8 ; D ailey 2 0 0 0 , 163-181; R einer

1985, 5 0 -6 0 ) exp lain s how N ergal b ecam e the lord o f the N etherw orld. The earliest, rather co n cise copy
o f the text (ca. 90 lin es) com es from T ell el-A m arna in E gypt, and is dated to the M iddle Babylonian
period, 15th or 14th centuries BCE. T w o m uch lon ger version s (ca. 350 lin es) are known from Sultantepe
o f the seventh century and from Uruk in the Late B abylonian period.
77 T ranslation after D a ile y 2 0 0 0 , 173.
78 N ergal as E resk igal’s husband appears for the first tim e in Old Babylonian religious tex ts, e .g ., PBS
1/2 112 6 2 -6 2 , w here the pair is called E nlil and N in lil o f the N etherw orld resp ectively.
79 In the m uch rew orked god -list a n = Anum, o f Old B abylonian origin, dgu-gal-an-na appears as the
husband o f E reskigal, w ho is equated w ith the god dess A llatu (CT 25 4:27 + 5:28 and CT 25 8:8-9; for an
overview o f the list a n = Anum see Lam bert 1969a, 4 7 5 ). In the U nd erw orld Vision o f an A ssyrian Prince
(1. 30), A llatu is hailed as fo llow s: “O A lla tu , A llatu, lady o f the [w ide under]world, [queen o f the
nether]w orld, g iv [er o f ...] tom bs o f [ . . . ] . . . ! ” (L ivin gston e 1 9 8 9 ,7 0 ).
80 Lambert 1 9 8 0 ,6 2 -6 4 .

47
 !ST A R ’S DESCENT A N D RESURRECTION

N e th e r w o r ld .81 In this c a s e , th e n , the G re a t B u ll o f H e a v e n w o u ld be id e n ti-

fied w ith the h u s b a n d o f In a n n a /Is ta r, ra th e r th an w ith the h u s b a n d o f h e r
s is te r, E re s k ig a l.
A n o th e r B u ll, n a m e ly th e “ B u ll o f H e a v e n ,” G u d /G u 4- a n - n a ,i s k n o w n fro m
a d iffe re n t S u m e ria n m y th , n a m e ly G ilg a m e s a n d the B u ll o f H e a v e n , w h e re
I n a n n a , a fter b e in g re je c te d by G ilg a m e s, re le a s e s the B u ll o f H e a v e n to
w re a k h a v o c in the city o f U r u k and u ltim a te ly , to kill its k in g , G ilg a m e s .
H o w e v e r , G ilg a m e s , w ith th e h e lp o f his frie n d E n k id u , su cceed s in k illin g
the b e a s t. A slig htly d iff e r e n t v e rsio n o f th e sto ry is also fo u n d in T a b le t V I
o f th e G ilg a m e s E p i c P In this v e rsio n , th e *“ B u ll o f H e a v e n ” c a n also be
u n d e r s to o d as th e c o n s te lla tio n T a u ru s , s in c e , a c c o rd in g to th e te x t, the
h e a v e n ly b u ll “ w o u ld h a v e no fo o d , at th e h o riz o n is its fo o d ,” it “ g ra z e s
w h e re th e sun r is e s .” 83 A n o th e r re fe re n c e to th e sam e ra m p a g in g “ B u ll o f
H e a v e n ” o ccu rs in th e C u r sin g o f A g a d e , w h e re E n l i l ’s fro w n h ad slain the
city o f K is “like the B u ll o f H e a v e n .” 84
It m u s t be f u rth e r n o te d , h o w e v e r , th at th e tw o b u lls, the “ G re a t B u l l o f
H e a v e n ” an d the “B u ll o f H e a v e n ,” m ay h a v e in d e e d s h ared the sam e id e n tity .
W h e n d isc u s s in g G i l g a m e s ’s re fu s a l to m a rry Is ta r in the G ilg a m e s E p ic , T.
A b u s c h su g g ests th a t th e k in g o f U ru k re fu s e s the g o d d ess b e c a u s e he w a n ts
to d e c lin e b e c o m in g the h u s b a n d o f a c h th o n ic g o d d e s s , w h ic h w as o n e o f the
m a n y a s p e c ts o f Istar. A fte r G ilg a m e s ’s r e fu s a l, I s ta r tak es the B u ll as his
r e p la c e m e n t, an d u ses th e b e a s t in try in g to d e s tro y G ilg a m e s. B y re le a s in g
the B u ll o f H e a v e n , Is ta r /In a n n a , th ro u g h h e r c o n n e c tio n w ith the N e th e r-
w o rld as a d eath g o d d e s s , lets lo o se h e r s is te r ’s h u s b a n d , G u g a la n n a , w h o in
this w a y gets k ille d .85 I n te re s tin g ly , in this c a s e , th e n , we are at th e p o in t
w h e re the S u m e ria n D e s c e n t b eg in s: I n a n n a d e s c e n d s to the N e th e r w o rld in
o rd e r to p ay h er re sp e c ts fo r th e d e a th o f h e r b r o th e r- in -la w , fo r a d e a th she
h e r s e l f has cau sed .
F u r th e r m o r e , the c o n n e c tio n o f the c o n s te lla tio n T a u ru s w ith th e B u ll o f
H e a v e n , and th e ir id e n tific a tio n w ith the h u s b a n d o f E re s k ig a l o n o n e h a n d
a n d w ith D u m u z i on the o th e r, can be e x p la in e d by th e id e n tific a tio n o f Ista r
a n d E re s k ig a l w ith o n e a n o th e r. E re s k ig a l h e r s e lf can be seen d e riv in g f ro m
In a n n a /Is ta r, since the q u e e n o f the N e th e rw o rld m ay b e seen as a h y p o s ta s is
o f th e q u e e n o f h e a v e n , th e sin fu l soul vs. th e p u rifie d s o u l.86 In fa c t, the
M id d le A s sy ria n v e rs io n o f th e first e lev en lin es o f the D e s c e n t id e n tifie s
E r e s k ig a l as “ Istar ( is ta r u ) w h o d w ells in th e m id s t o f I rk a lla ” 87 (se e the
c o m m e n t fo r lin es 9 1 -9 2 ).
A n o th e r in te rp re ta tio n o f th e B u ll o f H e a v e n in the G ilg a m e s E p ic h a s b e e n
s u g g e s te d by S. P a rp o la , w h o has a rg u ed th a t th e E p ic d e s c rib e s th e jo u r n e y

81 W olkstein 1 9 8 3 ,1 5 7 ; cf. Hartner 1 9 6 5 ,1 -1 6 + p is. The d escen t and ascent o f Dum uzi are traditionally
connected w ith the seasonal cycle: the death o f D um uzi, w ho w as the “pow er o f grain and herds,” w as
mourned in the sum m er, at the tim e w hen the harvest was cut down; his return (and m arriage to Inanna)
w as celebrated around the N ew Y ear, in the spring, w hich w as the tim e when the bountiful harvest
m anifested his return (see Jacobsen 1976, 62; Cohen 1993, 4 7 6 -4 8 1 ).
82 For the Sum erian m yth, se e , e .g ., G eorge 1999, 166-175 (“B ilgam esh and the Bull o f H eaven: The
Hero in B attle”); for the G ilgam es E p ic, Tablet V I, ibid., 4 7 - 54.
88 G eorge 1999, 168.
84 ETCSL: The Cursing o f A g a d e , 1. 2; C ooper 1983, 5 0 -5 1 .
85 A busch 1986, 161.
86 S ee Parpola 1997a, L X X X V III, n. 91; p. X C II, n. 119.
87 The term istaru is used as the proper name o f Istar but also as ageneric term for “g o d d ess.”

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o f a h u m a n so u l f r o m its fa lle n state to p e rfe c tio n . E n k id u , th e frie n d o f

G ilg a m e s , is a p a ra lle l to the a s s in n u o f the D e s c e n t , w ho w as s e n t to b rin g
Is ta r to life and to c o m f o rt the rag in g E r e s k ig a l (= the fa lle n , s in fu l soul).
P a r p o la has s u g g e s te d th a t the ta s k o f th e a s sin n u w as to act as a “ h e lp e r ” o f
th e n o v ic e s o f I s t a r ’s c u lt, c o m fo rtin g a n d g iv in g the p ro m is e o f s a lv a tio n ,
a n d in tro d u c in g th e m to th e d o c trin e o f th e a s c e n t o f the so u l, c o m p a r a b le to
th e s a lv a tio n id e o lo g y o f the G n o sis or o f J e w ish m y stic is m . In th e G ilg a m e s
E p ic I 2 5 0 a n d 2 7 0 , it is E n k i d u ’s task to a c t as the “h e lp e r /s a v io r o f the
f r ie n d ” (m u s e z ib ib r i) .88 E n k id u , lite ra lly “ C re a te d b y E n k i,” w as th ro u g h his
n a m e g iv e n th e id e n tic a l o rig in as A s u s u - n a m ir, th e a s sin n u , w h o w as c re a te d
b y E a . C o m p a r a b le to th e c a s tra te a s s in n u , th e E p ic refers to E n k id u as the
“ m u le ,” w h ic h re fe rs to his e m a s c u la te d state. A s E n k id u fig h ts a g a in s t the
B u ll o f H e a v e n , he cu ts o f f th e “rig h t h a n d ” ( i m i t t u , also “ s h o u ld e r ” ) o f the
B u ll a n d th ro w s it at I s t a r ’s fa c e (T a b le t V I). T h e “ rig h t h a n d ” is a m e ta p h o r
fo r p e n is , as in M t 5 :3 0 . In o th e r w o rd s, th e B u ll o f H eav en in the G ilg a m e s
E p ic r e fe r s to E n k id u h im s e lf , i.e., to h is p e n is 89 (see also th e c o m m e n t for
lin es 9 1 -9 2 ). F u r th e r m o r e , the E p ic c o m p a r e s E n k id u to a h a s s in n u (ax e),
w h ic h is u s e d as a p u n fo r th e w o rd a s sin n u (see th e c o m m e n t fo r lin e 12).
L i n e s 2 5 - 2 6 : E r e s k ig a l, lite ra lly the “ Q u e e n o f th e N e th e r w o rld ,” is In an -
n a / I s t a r ’s e ld e r s is te r, e .g ., in th e S u m e ria n D e s c e n t 86: n in 9-g a l-m u k u g -g a
dg a - s a - a n - k i- g a l- la - k e 4. S. P a rp o la has s u g g e s te d th a t E re s k ig a l is, in fa c t, the
sin fu l a s p e c t o f Ista r (= th e falle n soul) (see th e c o m m e n t fo r lin es 9 1 - 9 2 ).90
In the M id d le A s s y r ia n f r a g m e n t o f th e D e s c e n t E re s k ig a l is d e s c rib e d as
“I s ta r ( i s ta r u ) w h o d w e lls in th e m id s t o f I rk a lla .” I n a n n a /I s ta r ’s tw o -s id e d
n a tu re is a lso p r e s e n t in th e p la q u e o f th e Q u e e n o f the N igh t: th e u p p e r p art
b e in g c e le s tia l/p u r e an d th e lo w e r p a r t d e m o n ic /im p u re (see th e c o m m e n t fo r
lin e 10).
L i n e 2 7 : I s ta r is h e r e d e s c rib e d as the “h o ld e r o f the g reat k e p p u , and th e o ne
w h o stirs up the A p s u in E a ’s p r e s e n c e .” A c c o rd in g to the le x ic a l s e rie s , the
S u m e ria n w o rd fo r k e p p u is e s e m e n (w ritte n K I . E . N E . D I ) , w h ic h is tra n sla te d
as a “p la y in g g r o u n d ,” o r a “ (p la ce of) d a n c in g .” K I . E . N E .D I is a lso e q u a te d
w ith the A k k a d ia n w o r d m e l u l t u , “p la y , g a m e .” 91 T h e w o rd k e p p u , in tu rn , is
u s u a lly tra n s la te d as a “ sk ip p in g r o p e .” W h e n a s so c ia te d w ith th e g o d d e s s
I n a n n a /I s ta r , the w o rd “ g a m e ,” o r “d a n c e ” is u s e d as a re fe re n c e to h e r w a rrio r
a s p e c t, a n d as a c o n s e q u e n c e , th e w o rd k e p p u , a “ sk ip p in g r o p e ,” h as also
b e e n c o n n e c te d w ith h e r w a rlik e c h a r a c te r . E .g ., I s ta r sa m e lu lta s a tu q u n tu
“I s ta r w h o s e p la y is f ig h ti n g ” ;92 dIn a n n a ti-s u h s15la K I . E . N E .D I dI n a n n a
g i n x(GIM) u - m i- n i-f b - s a r dI s ta r a n a n ti ii tu q u m ta k im a k e p p e s u ta k p im a
“m a k e , O Is ta r, th e b a ttle a n d the fig h t tw is t a ro u n d like a sk ip p in g r o p e .”93
T h e S u m e ria n m y th E n m e r k a r a n d the L o r d o f A r a tta 289 states: “ (In an n a)
w h o , as the h e r o in e o f th e b a ttle g ro u n d , m a k e s the tro o p s d a n c e th e d a n c e o f

88 Parpola 1997a, X C II-X C III, n. 119; Parpola 1997b.

89 S ee Parpola 1997a, XCII-III n. 119 and X C V I-V II, n. 140.
90 Parpola 1997a, X X X II, and X C II, n. 119
91 E .g ., e-se-m e-in k i .e . n e .d i = kip-pu-u, me-lul-tu in the lex ica l series Diri (diri d ir siaku = [w]atru)
IV 272f; e-se -m e-in k i .e .n e .d i ^ in a n n a = m in = (= kip-pu-u), me-lul-tu sa Istar ibid.; C A D K , s.v . keppu,
312; C A D M /2, s.v . m e lu ltu , 15-16; see a lso Landsberger 1 960, 121-124; and Rom er 1965, 163-164.
92 M ich el 1 9 5 2 ,4 5 6 i 7.
93 Langdon 1915, 7 4 :3 f.

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 IS T A R ’S DESCENT A N D RESURRECTION

I n a n n a (din a n n a u r-s a g m e s a h a r-ra -k e 4 sag e s e m e n din a n n a d i- d a m ) ,”94 an d

L u g a l-e (= the E x p lo its o f N in u r ta ) 135-137 says: “B u t L o rd , do n o t v e n tu re
a g a in to a b attle as te rrib le as th at. D o n o t lift y o u r arm to th e s m itin g o f
w e a p o n s , to the fe stiv a l o f th e y o u n g m e n , to I n a n n a ’s d an ce (e s e m e n din an -
n a -k e 4) ! ”95
R e c e n tly , h o w e v e r , S. D a ile y has a rg u e d th a t th e o ld in te rp re ta tio n fo r
k e p p u as a s k ip p in g ro p e w as b a s e d on a m is in te r p re ta tio n o f a g ly p tic scen e.
In s te a d , k e p p u m ay b e a “ w h ip (p in g ) to p ,” i.e ., a sp in n in g top la sh e d into
fa ste r g y ra tio n s w ith a c o rd , su ch as is s h o w n in a c tio n on a m u ra l s c u lp tu re
o f th e ea rly first m ille n n iu m at C a r c h e m is h “.96 T h e m is in te rp re ta tio n c a m e
fro m seals w h e re th e n a k e d g o d d e s s ho ld s o u t h e r arm s an d a r o p e -lik e th re a d
g o es d o w n f ro m h e r h a n d s . T h e th re a d lo o k s lik e a sk ip p in g ro p e , b u t it is, in
fa c t, the b o r d e r o f h e r d ia p h a n o u s ro b e. She is d e p ic te d lifting up b o th frin g e s
o f h e r ro b e , th u s u n v e ilin g h e r n u d ity .97
T h e w o rd k e p p u u s u a lly o c c u rs w ith the v erb s u ta k p u (cf. kep u S t), “to
m a k e b e n d , to m a k e w h irl a r o u n d ,”98 w h ic h a p p ro p ria te ly d e s c rib e s m o tio n
th a t a “ w h ip p in g to p ” w o u ld m a k e . T h is k in d o f w h irlin g o b ject is r e m in is c e n t
o f a sp ecial iy n x - w h eel o f the g o d d e s s H e k a te , w h o se sim ilarity to In a n n a /
I s ta r is u n q u e s tio n a b le 99 H e k a te , th e G r e e k c h th o n ic g o d d e s s, w as a d o p te d
as the P la to n ic C o s m ic S o u l by th e C h a ld e a n th e u rg ic a l sy stem , fo r w h ic h the
C h a ld e a n O ra cles s e rv e d as s a c re d l i te r a tu r e .100 T h e m ain g o al o f C h a ld e a n
th e u rg y w as the u n ific a tio n (a n a g o g e ) o f m a n ’s soul w ith the d iv in e , i.e ., the
tra n s c e n d e n t s u p re m e G o d , w h ile the b o d y w as still alive. R e p e a te d p ra c tic e
w as in te n d e d to g ain w is d o m an d p u rify th e soul for its e v e n tu a l r e le a s e fro m
fa te w h e n the th e u r g is t ’s b o d y d i e d . 101 W h e n th e th e u rg is t d e s ire d to sen d his
soul u p w a rd s in a u n ifie d sta te , h e h ad to tu rn his soul to w a rd s th e n o etic
r e a lm b y c o n tro llin g o r e v e n d e n y in g the b o d y ’s n eed s in o rd e r to r e d e e m his
so ul. H e also h ad to p e r f o r m ritu a listic acts such as u sin g the iy n x - w h e e l 102
to in v o k e H e k a te an d th e n o e tic d e m o n s k n o w n as “ iy n g e s ” (sg. iy n x ), o v e r
w h o m she h a d c o n tro l. T h e iy n g e s , sto red in H e k a te , w ere c o n c e iv e d by the
s u p re m e G o d to act as m e d ia to rs b e tw e e n th e w o rld s o f g o d s an d m e n ,

94 ETCSL: Enmerkar a n d the L o rd o f Aratta.

95 ETCSL: The Exploits o f Ninurta.
96 D ailey 2 000, 130, n. 80; also through personal com m unication with S. D a iley , for w hich I am
grateful; c f. Hogarth 1914, Plate B 7 1:10.
97 E xam ples o f the seals o f the naked god dess unveiling h erself can be found in C ollon 1987, sea ls 7 7 6
(B russels O. 501; Speleers 1917, 203) and 777 (Pierpoint Morgan Library, N ew York; Porada 1 948, N o.
9 6 7 ). On seal 778 (B oston 9 3 .3 5 3 ) the nature o f Istar’s diaphanous robe is depicted more clearly. S eals
77 6 and 778 are dated to the period o f 2 0 0 0 -1 5 0 0 B C E , seal 777 to the period o f 2 0 0 0 -1 0 0 0 B C E . A ll three
o f these seals com e from the area o f Syria and P alestine. C ollon also com m ents on the m isinterpretation
o f the robe, ib id ., 170.
93 C D A , s.v. kepu, 155.
99 Hekate shared many traits w ith Inanna/Istar, as she w as the virgin g od d ess, the m other o f the w orld ,
the co sm ic sou l, the goddess o f the m oon, associated with lim in al p laces, the m ediator b etw een m en and
god s, and fin ally, she w as associated w ith both the upper and the low er w orlds, sin ce as a h eaven ly god dess
she w as H ekate, the m istress o f good dem ons (“iynges”), and as an earthly goddess (P h ysis) she w as the
m istress o f the bad dem ons, the “d o g s,” w hich is com parable to the d ivision betw een Inanna/Istar and
E reskigal (see Lapinkivi 1994, 176-180; cf. Parpola 1997a, n. 105; cf. lie s Johnston 1990).
100 lie s Johnston 1990, 2, 49.
101 lie s Johnston 1990, 89.
102 The Tynx-wheel was a m agical d ev ice turned rapidly by the theurgist in order to produce a w hirling
m ovem ent and a w histling sound. A string or thong w as passed first through one and then through the other
o f the tw o h oles pierced in the m iddle o f a four-spdked disk (the disk cou ld also have serrated ed g es).
Then the string w as tied in a w ay that it form ed a loop . The theurgist either increased or relaxed the ten sion
o f the tw o sides o f the loop , and caused the disk to spin (lie s Johnston 1990, 9 3 -9 5 ).

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 CO M M ENTARY A N D A N A L Y SIS

d e liv e r in g in fo r m a tio n an d g u id a n c e to th e u rg is ts w ith the a s c e n sio n o f th eir

s o u ls .103 T h e iy n x - w h e e l a ttra c te d H e k a te and the d em o n s by its w h irlin g
m o v e m e n t a n d its w h irrin g s o u n d , thus im ita tin g the m o v e m e n t and th e so u n d
o f th e iy n g e s t h e m s e l v e s .104
It is in te re s tin g th a t in th e O ld B a b y lo n ia n A g u s a ja -h y m n , also k n o w n as
E a a n d S a ltu , I s t a r ’s m o v e m e n t is d e s c rib e d as w h irlin g : “ she w h irls aro u n d
g o d s a n d k in g s in h e r m a n lin e s s ” (Hi u s a r r i ig a s z ik r u tu s s a ) . T h e p e o p le w ere
a d v is e d to “ s o o th e ” th e g o d d e s s a n n u a lly b y im ita tin g h e r w ith a “ w h irlin g
d a n c e (gustu; cf. g a s u , ”to w h ir l, to d a n c e ”) in th e streets.” T h e w h irlin g
d a n c e is , in th is c o n te x t, a s s o c ia te d w ith I s t a r ’s w arlik e a s p e c t as A g u s a ja ,
an a s p e c t w h ic h sh e te rrib ly m isu s e d and th e r e fo r e , had to be c a lm e d d o w n
by c re a tin g a m o n s tr o u s c a r ic a tu re o f h e r , n a m e ly S a ltu , “ S trif e .” 105 It is
e v id e n t th a t E a ’s c r e a tio n , S a ltu , is th e fe m a le e q u iv a le n t o f E n k id u o f the
G ilg a m e s E p ic , w h e re G ilg a m e s m is b e h a v e s in a sim ilar fa sh io n as I s ta r in
th e A g u s a ja - h y m n . T h e r e f o r e , b o th o f th e m n eed an eq u al c o u n te r p a rt to guid e
th e m to the rig h t p a th . It h a s b e e n a rg u e d by S. P a rp o la th at E n k i d u ’s role
to w a rd s G ilg a m e s is th e e q u iv a le n t o f th e a s sin n u o f the D e s c e n t (see the
c o m m e n t fo r lin es 14-24 an d 9 1 -9 2 ). B y c o m p a r is o n , th en , the “ S tr if e ” o f the
A g u s a ja - h y m n is th e e q u iv a le n t o f th e a s sin n u o r E n k id u . R e m a r k a b ly , as
S a ltu o f th e h y m n , I n a n n a ’s tw o r e s c u e r s in the S u m erian D e s c e n t, the
k u r g a rr a (= a s s in n u ) an d th e g a la tu rra , are c re a te d fro m the d irt u n d e r E a ’s
fin g e rn a ils (see th e c o m m e n t fo r li n e s j9 1 - 9 2 ).106
T h e la s t p a rt o f lin e 27 re a d s “ (Ista r) w h o ro ils the A p su in f ro n t o f E a , her
f a t h e r .” A lth o u g h I n a n n a ’s a s p e c t o f s tirrin g up the w aters o f A p su in fro n t
o f E a is n o t m e n tio n e d e l s e w h e r e , 107 th e im a g e c o u ld partly be u se d h e r e to
e m p h a s iz e th e an x ie ty o f the g o d d e s s (b u t see b e l o w ) . T h e re is a sim ila r im a g e
in a h y m n to M a rd u k , w h e re M a r d u k ’s ro a r “ro ils th e A p s u ” (S T C I 2 0 5 :9 ),
a n d in a b ilin g u a l p a ra lle l, M a r d u k ’s w o rd “ ro ils a s u rr a k k u (= A p s u ) ” (4 R 26
no . 4 : 5 1 - 5 2 ) . 108
A p s u , th e re a lm o f th e g o d o f w is d o m , E n k i/E a , w as the co sm ic s w e e t-w a te r
o c e a n a n d a s u b te r r a n e a n s o u rc e o f fre sh w a te r a n d hence l i f e . 109A lth o u g h
A p su is n o t e x p lic itly d e s c rib e d as a p la c e w h e re d ead p eo p le liv e d , it is
o c c a s io n a lly a s s o c ia te d w ith th e N e th e r w o rld , and it w as seen as a place
in h a b ite d by th e m a le v o le n t s p ir its .110 A c c o r d in g to the B a b y lo n ia n E p ic o f
C r e a tio n (E n u m a e lis ) w h e n E a k ille d A p s u (p e rs o n ific a tio n o f th e fre s h
s u b te r r a n e a n w a te rs ), th e f irs t c re a tu re and the lo v e r o f T ia m a t (p e rs o n ific a -
tio n o f th e s a lt w a te r s ) , he s e t up his h o m e on A p s u ’s b o d y , w h o se n a m e w as

103 Ib id., 8 9 , 110.

104 Ibid., 102, 104, 108.
105 F oster 1977, 79-84; G roneberg 1981, 108:11 1-2.
106 F oster 1977, 80; G roneberg 1 981, 110:V 2 3 -2 8 .
107 R einer 1985, 37.
108 STC (= K in g, The Seven T able ts o f C reation ) I 2 0 5 :9 a-na u-ta-az-zu-mi-su id -dal-la-hu a p -su -u
“the A psu is roiled by his (M arduk’s) roaring;” 4R 26 no. 4 :5 1 -5 2 e.n e.em dasal.lu .h i a.sur.bi ab.lu.lu //
a -m at dm arduk a-sur'-ra-ak-ku i-dal-la-a h “the word o f Marduk roils asurrakku‫׳‬,” see H orow itz 1998,
3 1 0 -3 1 1 .
1°9 C A D A /2 , s.v. apsu , 194-197. For a com prehensive o v erv iew o f A psu, see H orow itz 1 998, 3 0 6 -3 1 7 ,
3 3 4 -3 4 7 .
11° E .g ., in the incantation series Utukku Lemnutu, T ablet 12, E nki/E a’s “abode is the place o f the
N etherw orld (ki.tus.an.na ki.ganzer.am // m u-sab-su a -sar er -se -tim -m a )” (G eller 1980, 28:8-9; see also
H orow itz 1998, 342).

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 IST A R ’S DESCENT A N D RESURRECTION

in this w ay tra n s fe rre d to E a ’s d w e llin g p la c e . E a ’s te m p le at E rid u w as

k n o w n as E - A b z u , th e “ A b z u T e m p le .” 111
T h e S u m e ria n te rm fo r A p s u w as A b z u , w h ic h can be e x p la in e d as a
c o m p o u n d o f ab, an “ o c e a n ,” a n d zu , “ w is d o m ” (zu = n e m e q u = “ w is d o m ” ),
w h ic h th e n re su lts in th e “ o c e a n o f w is d o m .” 112 A p s u ’s e p ith e t in S u r p u II
1 4 9 113 is the “ h o m e o f w is d o m ” ( b it n e m e q i ) , w h e re a s E a , the g o d o f w is d o m ,
is called th e “ G re a t L ig h t o f A p s u .” 114 I s t a r ’s e p ith e t in the D e s c e n t , th e “o n e
w h o ro ils the A p s u ,” i.e., th e o n e w h o stirs th e “ o c e a n o f w is d o m ,” calls to
m in d th e im a g e o f the “ C h u rn in g o f th e M ilk O c e a n ” (S a m u d r a m a n th a n ) in
H in d u is m . T h e re the “M ilk O c e a n ” is a sy m b o l fo r the m in d o r th e h u m a n
c o n s c io u s n e s s . T h e c h u rn in g o f this m ilk y o c e a n sy m b o liz e s m a n ’s s p iritu a l
a tte m p t to gain im m o rta lity th ro u g h c o n c e n tra tio n o f m in d , w ith d ra w a l o f
se n se s , c o n tro l o f d e s ir e s , d e n ia l o f m a te r ia lis m , and p ra c tic e o f a s c e tis m
(c o m p a re w ith the C h a ld e a n th e u r g is t ’s a c tio n s m e n tio n e d ea rlie r).
A p a ra lle l o f the A p s u , the o c e a n o f w is d o m and lig h t, is fo u n d in later
J e w ish m y s tic is m , w h e re E n S o f, th e c o n c e a le d G o d h e a d , is u n d e rs to o d as the
b o u n d le s s “ o c e a n o f lig h t.” E n S o f is only k n o w n th ro u g h th e lig hts s p rin g in g
f ro m H im , i.e., th ro u g h th e S e fir o t (sg. S e fir a h ) fo rm in g th e S efiro tic T re e ,
w h ic h in tu rn e m a n a te th e lig h t f u rth e r th ro u g h o u t the w o r ld .115 S. P a r p o la
h as s u g g e s te d th a t E n S o f c o rre s p o n d s to th e A s sy ria n go d A s su r, w h o “ g re w
u p in the A p s u , w as the fa th e r o f th e g o d s, k in g o f h e a v e n and e a rth , lo rd o f
all g o d s , w h o e m a n a te d (sa p a k u , lite ra lly , ‘p o u r e d o u t , ’ or ‘c r e a t e d ’) the
s u p e rn a l an d in fe rn a l g o d s an d f a sh io n e d th e v au lts o f h e a v e n an d e a r th .” 116
F u r th e r , A s s u r is also sa id to be “ d re s s e d in w a te r ” in S A A 3 3 4 :5 5 , a n d S A A
3 3 5 :4 6 .117
C o r r e s p o n d in g to th e K a b b a lis tic S e firo tic T re e (T ree o f L ife ), th ro u g h
w h ic h the tra n s c e n d e n t G o d m a n ife s ts H im s e lf , there was a T re e o f L ife in
A s s y ria , w h ich h ad e m e r g e d a lre a d y in th e M id d le A s sy ria n p e r io d , in the
reig n o f T u k u lti- N in u rta I . 118As a sy m b o l o f the d iv in e w o rld o rd e r, th e T ree
d e p ic te d the g re a t g o d s o f A s s y r ia as the p o w e rs a n d asp ects o f th e g o d A s s u r,
w h o w as r e p re s e n te d as a w in g e d so lar d isc h o v e rin g o v e r th e T r e e . 119
A c c o r d in g ly , in so m e S e firo tic d ia g ra m s , E n S o f is re p re s e n te d b y a c irc le
h o v e rin g o v e r th e T r e e . 120
A s s u r w as th e su m to tal o f all the g o d s, as e x e m p lifie d by th e p e rs o n a l n a m e
G a b b u - ila n i-A s s u r “A s s u r is the to tality o f g o d s .” 121 T h e se e m a n a tio n s in
tu rn f o rm e d an o r g a n iz e d s y ste m o f h y p o s ta tiz e d d iv in e p o w e rs ( c o rre s p o n d -
in g to th e S e fir o t a n d to th e G n o s tic P le r o m a as w e ll), each go d re p re s e n tin g

111 B lack and Green 1992, 27. For the E nglish translation o f the Epic o f Creation (Enuma e l is ), see
D ailey 2 0 0 0 ,2 2 8 -2 7 7 .
112 Parpola 2 000, 176, n. 24.
113 R einer 1958, 17, Tablet II, line 149.
114 G eorge 1991b, 152.
115 Parpola 1993, n. 5 5 , n. 9 4 , Parpola 2 0 0 0 , 176, n. 24; H alevi 1972, 32; Idel1988, 67 and n. 7 2.
116 Parpola 1993, n. 94 citing C raig, A B R T I 83.
7‫ ״‬Parpola 1993, n. 9 4 , n. 96.
8‫ ״‬A seal im pression on a text KAJ 144 dated in the eponym y o f Tukulti-Ninurta (1243 B C E ; M oortgat
1 9 4 2 ,7 7 for the im pression); tw o ivories from the palace o f Tukulti-Ninurta in Assur (K epinski 1982, v o l.
3 , nos. 414f); and the w all paintings o f K ar-Tukulti-Ninurta (ib id ., nos. 448f; see Andrae 1923, p is. 2 f).
119 Parpola 1993, 184-185.
120 P once 1973, 9 2 , 101, and 102.
121 The nam e appears in BaM 24 (1993) 2 6 2 no. 18:7 and 18, dated 7 44/3 B C E . See Parpola 1997a,
L X X X I, n. 16.

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a lim b o f th e in v is ib le g o d (A ssu r) and to g e th e r c o n s titu tin g h is m a n ife s t

b o d y . F o r c o m p a r is o n , e a c h o f the S e fir o t is th o u g h t to re p re s e n t a lim b o f
G o d , th e D iv in e A n t h r o p o s .122 In a d d itio n , in J e w is h m y stic is m , th e D iv in e
A n th r o p o s c o r re s p o n d s to the fo rm o f th e e a rth ly m an , w h o , as an id eal
c r e a te d a fte r th e im a g e o f G o d , thus c o m p ris e s the ten S efiro t. 123 A c c o rd -
in g ly , th e fa c t th a t the A s sy ria n kin g w as the p e rs o n ific a tio n o f th e T re e can
be v e r ifie d b y te x tu a l e v id e n c e as w ell as b y ic o n o g ra p h y : on th e re lie fs fro m
th e p a la c e o f A s s u rn a s irp a l II (8 8 3 -8 5 9 BCE), the k in g is d e p ic te d as ta k in g
the p la c e o f th e tre e b e tw e e n the w in g e d g e n ie s .124
A n o th e r p a ra lle l to b o th th e A s s y ria n a n d the S e firo tic T rees o c c u r re d in
G n o s is , w h e re the “ u n k n o w n G o d ” e x iste d b e y o n d all th at is v isib le or
s e n s ib le , in c o r p o ra tin g the P le r o m a (“ F u lln e s s ” ) o f an g els and o th e r h e a v e n ly
b e in g s . F o r in s ta n c e , in th e T rip a rtite T ra c ta te (N H C 1,5 5 1 ,1 5 - 2 8 ) 125 G o d ,
th e F a th e r , o r the p rim a l b e g in n in g , b e in g the M o n a d , is d e s c rib e d u s in g the
im a g e o f the “ r o o t;” h e is d e s c rib e d as “r o o t o f the a ll,” w h ic h b rin g s fo rth
tre e s , b ra n c h e s an d fru its, b y w h ic h th e P le r o m a is m e a n t.126 T h e F a th e r is
th e r e fo r e c o m p a r a b le to A s s u r o r to th e E n Sof. A c c o rd in g ly , the G n o s tic w as
an im a g e o f G o d , a c o p y o f the d iv in e p a tte rn .
T o s u m u p , lin e 27 c o u ld h a v e tw o in te rp re ta tio n s . T h e e a s ie st e x p la n a tio n
is, o f c o u r s e , th a t I s ta r as the h o ld e r o f th e g re a t kep p u (w h ip p in g to p s),
w h ir lin g a n d w h ir rin g , an d as the o n e w h o ro ils A p s u , are sta te m e n ts o f her
irr ita te d state o f m in d and a n g e r at the g ate o f th e N e th e rw o rld . She is a n x io u s
to g et in , an d p r e p a re d to d o so v io le n tly , sin ce she th re aten s to b r e a k d o w n
the d o o r if sh e is d e n ie d e n tr a n c e . T h e re f o re , the f irs t d e s c rip tio n c o u ld re fe r
to h e r w a rlik e a s p e c t, as in th e A g u s a ja H y m n m e n tio n e d e a rlie r, if one
u n d e r s ta n d s the w h irlin g m o v e m e n t m e n tio n e d in th e h y m n a s s o c ia te d w ith
h e r d e s tr u c tiv e asp e c t.
O n th e o th e r h a n d , th e se d e s c rip tio n s c o u ld also re fe r to g a in in g w is d o m .
F irs t o f all, A p s u is, by its v e ry n a m e , the o c e a n o f w is d o m , and as m e n tio n e d
e a r lie r, th e p a r a lle l o f the w h irlin g w h ip p in g to p , th e iy n x -w h e e l, w as u se d
b y th e C h a ld e a n th e u r g is ts to attra c t H e k a te and the iyn g es to d isc lo s e
in fo r m a tio n (w isd o m ) fo r th e a s c e n sio n o f th e ir s o u ls . S im ila rly , the w h irlin g
d a n c e a n d w h irlin g k e p p u - to y s w o u ld m a k e sen se i f the p e o p le d a n c in g and
u s in g th e se s p in n in g d e v ic e s w e re try in g to g e t in c o n ta c t w ith th e g o d d e s s ,
w h o w as also th e p a r a g o n o f th e ir sou l. It h as b e e n arg u ed e ls e w h e re th at,
so m e o f th e D u m u z i- I n a n n a lo v e so ng s p e r ta in in g to the ( S u m e ria n ) s a c re d
m a r ria g e can be in te rp r e te d as th e s o u l ’s u n io n w ith the d iv in e. In this c a se ,
th e g o d d e s s I n a n n a /I s ta r w a s th e so u l, w h e re a s D u m u z i, i.e. th e k in g , w a s h er
b r id e g r o o m - s a v i o r .127 A s o u l ’s u n io n w ith the d iv in e is n o t p o s sib le w ith o u t
th e n e e d e d w is d o m , an d th e s p in n in g an d w h irlin g c o u ld h a v e b een a w a y to
re a c h th is in fo r m a tio n by g e ttin g in c o n ta c t w ith In a n n a /Is ta r, p e rh a p s by
fa llin g in to tra n c e . In the D e s c e n t, it is Ista r h e r s e lf th at is th e s o u l, an d ,

122 P once 1973, 134ff.

123 S ch olem 1 9 9 1 ,4 3 .
124 Parpola 1993, 167, and n. 31, fig . 4.
125 R obinson 1 9 8 8 ,6 0 .
126 Rudolph 1 9 8 7 ,6 4 .
127 L apinkivi 2004.

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 IS T A R ’S DESCENT A N D RESURRECTION

th e r e fo r e , she is d e s c rib e d as h o ld in g the ke p p u a n d stirrin g the o c e a n o f

w isd o m .
Lines 28-30: W h e n E re s k ig a l h ears th a t h e r s is te r is try in g to e n te r h e r r e a lm ,
she b e c o m e s so a n g ry or f rig h te n e d th a t “ h e r face tu rn e d pale as a c u t- o ff
ta m a ris k , h e r lips tu rn e d b la c k as the rim o f th e b o w l.” E. R e in e r tra n sla te s
the last lin e as “h e r lips tu rn e d b la c k as a k u n ln u - p la n t,” thus u n d e rs ta n d in g
th e w o rd k u n in n u (k u n ln u ) as a ty p e o f u n id e n tifie d p la n t. T h e C A D (K , s.v.
k u n in n u , 53 9 ) e x p la in s th e w o rd to m e a n a ty p e o f “ b o w l (o f sto n e o r m e ta l),
o r a tro u g h for w a te r o r fo r b e e r , o fte n m a d e o f b itu m e n -c o a te d r e e d s .” In
o th e r w o rd s , the co at o f b itu m e n on th e rim m a d e th e v essel lo o k “ b la c k -
l ip p e d .” 128
In th e m y th N e r g a l a n d E r e s k ig a l (see the c o m m e n t fo r lin es 1 4 -24 ),
N a m ta r , th e m in is te r o f th e N e th e r w o rld (see th e c o m m e n t fo r lines 6 6 -7 5 ),
re a c ts e x a c tly the sam e w ay w h e n fin d in g o u t th a t N e rg a l, also k n o w n as E rra ,
stan d s at the o u te r g ate o f the u n d e r w o r ld .129
Lines 31-36: T h is p a s sa g e b e g in s w ith E r e s k i g a l ’s q u e s tio n o f I s t a r ’s re a so n
f o r a rriv in g in th e N e th e r w o rld . T h e tra n sla tio n o f lin e 31 fo llo w s th e sam e
id ea as the tra n s la tio n in th e C A D ( N / l , s.v. n a p a r d u , 279): “W h a t h as
p ro m p te d h e r h e a rt (th at she c o m es) to m e , w h a t has p u t h e r in a m o o d so
frie n d ly to w a r d m e ? ” In o th e r w o rd s , E r e s k ig a l ’s q u e s tio n is sarcastic: she
u n d e r s ta n d s th at I s ta r has n o t arriv e d fo r a frie n d ly v isit, and she h e r s e lf h as
alre a d y b e c o m e a n g ry o r frig h te n e d at h e a rin g o f I s t a r ’s arriv al. It c o u ld be
p o s sib le th a t E r e s k i g a l ’s q u e s tio n e ch o es th e S u m e ria n v e rsio n , w h e re In an -
n a, a lth o u g h actin g a g g re ss iv e ly an d w ith an u lte rio r m o tiv e , is said to co m e
to p ay h e r re sp e c ts on the d e a th o f E r e s k i g a l’s h u s b a n d .
T h e n e x t tw o lin es (3 2 -3 3 ), u sin g the p r e s e n t te n s e , h av e b e e n ta k e n as
d e c la ra tiv e se n te n c e s (“ I e a t clay fo r b r e a d ” ). T h e fo llo w in g th re e lin es
(3 4 -3 6 ), u s in g th e p re c a tiv e , are tra n sla te d as q u e s tio n s , w ith “ s h o u ld .” T h e
c h o ic e o f tra n sla tin g th e last th re e lines as q u e s tio n s , “ S h o u ld I w e e p ,” o r as
w is h e s , “ I w ish I w e p t” (b o th tra n sla tio n s are eq u ally p o s sib le w ith the
p re c a tiv e ), a ffe c t the u n d e rs ta n d in g o f the p a s s a g e . I f th e se th re e lin es are
tra n s la te d as q u e s tio n s , th e n E r e s k ig a l is re a lly in d iffe re n t to the u n f o rtu n a te
fates o f th o se n o w re sid in g u n d e r h e r ru le . If, h o w e v e r , the lines are tra n s la te d
as w is h e s, th e n m a y b e E r e s k ig a l, o u t o f fe a r o f I s t a r ’s a c tio n s, is s h o w in g
so m e re m o rs e for th e y o u n g m e n , w o m e n , a n d c h ild re n , w ho d ie d b e f o re th e ir
t i m e .130
I b e lie v e th at E re s k ig a l c o n tin u e s h e r s p e e c h in a sa rc a stic m a n n e r: e v e n
th o u g h she d w e lls in h o rrib le c o n d itio n s , e a tin g clay an d d rin k in g m u d d y
w a te r, Is ta r has d e c id e d to p a y h e r a “ f rie n d ly ” v isit. T h e re f o re , she s a rcasti-
cally ask s w h e th e r s h e , on to p o f e v e ry th in g e lse , is no w s u p p o se d to fe e l p ity
f o r th e d e a d p e o p le .
T h e sam e s p e e c h by E re s k ig a l o c c u rs in p a rt in th e m y th o f N e r g a l a n d
E r e s k ig a l (see the c o m m e n t fo r lin es 14-24 ). T h e re , a fter N e rg a l has a rriv e d

128 So also D ailey 2 0 0 0 , 161, n. 7.

129 D ailey 2 0 0 0 , 169.
130 So also R einer 1985, 38-39.
131 Translation after D ailey 2 000, 169-170.

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 CO M M ENTARY A N D A N A LY SIS

at the o u te r g ate o f th e N e th e r w o rld , and N a m ta r h as go ne to r e c o g n iz e the

v isito r a n d th e n c o m e to re p o rt to E re s k ig a l o f h e r g u e s t ’s id e n tity , E r e s k ig a l
b e g in s a ra th e r e n ig m a tic s p e e c h to h e r m i n i s t e r : 131
My dear Namtar, you should not seek Ellil-power,
Nor should you desire to do heroic deeds.
(What,) come up and sit on the throne of the royal dais?
You, perform the judgments of the broad Earth?
Should I go up to the heaven of Anu my father?
Should I eat the bread o f the Anunnaki?
Should I drink the water of the Anunnaki?'
Go and bring the god [into my presence]!
It is o b v io u s th a t also h e re E r e s k i g a l ’s w o rd s are m e a n t to be s a rc a s tic .
A p p a re n tly she w a rn s N a m ta r n o t to e le v a te h im s e lf to too h ig h a ran k: e v e n
th o u g h a ll th e o th e r g o d s ( e x c e p t N e rg a l) re s p e c te d h im as th e ir e q u a l at the
b a n q u e t, he is still o n ly E r e s k i g a l ’s u n d e rlin g . B y asking the la st th re e
rh e to ric a l q u e s tio n s o f h e r o w n b e h a v io r she w an ts to p o in t o u t that sh e, to o ,
n eed s to stic k to h e r o w n statu s (b u t see the p a ra lle l lines o f the D e s c e n t,
w h e re th e tra n s la tio n u n d e r s ta n d s th a t she d o es d rin k th e w a te r w ith the
A n u n n a k i! ).
T h e M e s o p o ta m ia n s b e lie v e d th a t th ere w as a sp ecial g ro u p o f d e m o n ic
b e in g s , f o rm e d o f p e o p le w h o d ie d u n m a rrie d . T h is gro up w as f o rm e d o f the
m a le lilu , an d th e fe m a le lilitu an d a r d a t-lili. T h e lilu h a u n te d d e s e rts and
o p en c o u n tr y , an d w as e s p e c ia lly d a n g e ro u s to p re g n a n t w o m e n and in fa n ts,
L ilu ' s f e m a le e q u iv a le n t w a s th e lilitu , w h e re a s the a r d a t- lili (lit. the “ m a id e n
lilu ‫ ) ״‬w as a fru s tra te d b r id e , in c a p a b le o f n o rm a l sex u al activ ity . In g e n e ra l,
th e se d e m o n s w e re th o u g h t to slip in th ro u g h w in d o w s to lo o k fo r v ic tim s to
fill the ro le o f h u s b a n d s a n d w iv es w h o m th e y h a d n e v e r h a d , an d c a rry th e m
o f f to an e a rly d e a th . T h e s e u n f o rtu n a te y o u n g p e o p le th en fo rm e d th e n e x t
g e n e ra tio n o f th e lilu -g r o u p .132 O b v io u s ly , th e r e fe re n c e to th e y o u n g m e n ,
w o m e n , and th e in fa n t(s ) w h o d ie d b e f o re th e ir tim e re fe r to the h o rrif y in g
fate o f b e in g s n a tc h e d a w a y b y th e d e m o n s.
T h e A n u n n a ( k i) , m e n tio n e d in line 32, w e re a g ro u p o f god s w h o o r ig in a lly
c o n s titu te d a g ro u p n o t d if f e r e n tia te d b y th e ir in d iv id u a l n a m e s , a n d w ith
A n /A n u as th e ir h e a d . A c c o r d in g to th e E p ic o f C rea tio n , th ere w e re a
m u ltitu d e o f g o d s , the “ A n u n n a k k u o f h e a v e n an d e a r th .” S in ce in th e M id d le
B a b y lo n ia n p e r io d th e te r m Ig ig u c a m e to m e a n th e g od s o f h e a v e n , th e te rm
A n u n n a k i (o r th e A n u n n a ) w a s tr a n s f e rr e d to m e a n th e god s o f e arth (k i) an d
the N e t h e r w o r l d . 133
Line 38: T h e “ a n c ie n t r it e s ” m e n tio n e d h e re m u st re fer to the p a s s a g e th a t
f o llo w s , th a t is, th e u n d r e s s in g o f Is ta r w h e n she e n te rs th ro u g h e a c h g a te o f
the N e th e r w o rld . C o n s e q u e n tly , I s t a r ’s u n d re s s in g h a s in flu e n c e d th e sch o l-
arly v ie w th a t the a n c ie n t M e s o p o ta m ia n s v ie w e d th e d ead as a rriv in g in the
N e th e r w o r ld n a k e d .134 D . K a tz , h o w e v e r , has p o in te d out th a t the a rc h a e o -
lo g ic a l f in d s d o n o t s u p p o rt th is v ie w , sin ce the d e a d se e m to h a v e b e e n b u rie d

132 Scurlock 1995, 1890; B lack and Green 1992, 118.

133 B lack and Green 1992, 34.
134 Kramer 1960, 65; Jacobsen 1976, 57; B ottero 1 980, 3 3 -3 4 .

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 !ST A R ’S DESCENT A N D RESURRECTION

c lo th e d and w ith th e ir p e rso n a l b e lo n g in g s . A lth o u g h clo th es are m a d e o f

p e ris h a b le m a te ria ls and are th e re fo re n o t e a s ily id e n tifie d , e x c a v a to rs h a v e
f o u n d o th e r p e rs o n a l o b je c ts s y m b o liz in g th e id e n tity and so cial status o f the
d e c e a s e d , such as je w e lr y . T h u s it seem s th a t th e d e c e a s e d re ta in e d h is /h e r
statu s e v e n a fte r d e a t h , 135 an d th e re is no re a s o n w hy they w o u ld b e s trip p e d
n a k e d b e fo re b u r i a l . 136
T h e re f o re , if th e re w ere no real “r ite s ” to u n d re ss the d e a d or to p ro h ib it
c lo th in g in th e N e th e r w o rld , th e re m o v a l o f th e g o d d e s s ’ c lo th e s at h e r
d e s c e n t m u st serv e a n o th e r p u rp o se . S in ce the S u m e ria n D e s c e n t e q u a te s the
d iv in e p o w e rs an d th e g a rm e n ts o f th e g o d d e s s - a fa c t th at is c e rta in ly true
w ith the A k k a d ia n v e rsio n as w ell - th e u n d re ss in g is o b v io u sly d o n e in o rd e r
to m a k e the g o d d e ss o f h e a v e n p o w e r le s s . In o th e r w o rd s, K a tz sees th at th e se
“ r ite s ” h a v e b e e n c r e a te d fo r the o c c a s io n , an d th e u n d re s s in g is ap p lie d o n ly
to In a n n a /Is ta r. In fe a r o f lo sin g h e r s ta tu s , E re s k ig a l has c o m m a n d e d the
u n d re s s in g o f p o w e r s in o rd e r to su b ju g a te h e r h e a v e n ly siste r, w h o at this
p o in t, is still v e ry m u c h a l i v e .137 O n th e o th e r h a n d , D . C o llo n h as s u g g e ste d
th a t, sin ce E r e s k ig a l is d e s c rib e d as b e in g n a k e d in b o th the G ilg a m e s E p ic
(X II 2 8 -3 0 and 4 7 -4 9 ) an d in the S u m e ria n G ilg a m e s, E n k id u a n d the N e th e r -
w o r ld (1 9 9 -2 0 4 ), p e rh a p s she d id n o t w a n t to b e u p s ta g e d by h e r fu lly c lo th e d
s is te r, and th e re fo re o rd e re d h e r to be strip p e d o f h e r c lo th e s .138 S trictly
sp e a k in g , h o w e v e r , th e re fe re n c e s to E r e s k ig a l say only that “h e r p u re sh o u l-
d ers are n o t c o v e re d w ith a g a rm e n t, a n d no lin en is s p re a d o v e r h e r p u re
b r e a s t,” w h ic h m e a n s th a t the u p p e r p a rt o f h e r b o d y w as n o t c lo th e d . It w as
also c o m m o n to d e p ic t I n a n n a /Is ta r fu lly n u d e o r n u d e fro m th e w a is t d o w n ,
w h ich m e a n s th a t e v e n p a rtia l n u d ity w as no real re a so n fo r E re s k ig a l to
c o m p e l I n a n n a /Is ta r to g e t u n d re ss e d .
E v e n th o u g h th e u ltim a te in te n tio n o f the u n d re s s in g is to h a v e I n a n n a /Is ta r
p o w e rle s s , it m u st b e n o te d th at th ere m ig h t h a v e b e e n o th e r re a s o n s as w ell
to tre a t h e r th e w ay she is tre a te d . F irs t o f a ll, in the D e a th o f U r -N a m m u the
rites o f the N e th e r w o rld (g a rz a k u r - r a - k e 4) re fe r to k n o w in g th e p ro p e r
o ffe rin g s th a t th e d e a d k in g sh o u ld g iv e to d iff e r e n t d eities w h ile he d e s c e n d s
to the N e t h e r w o r l d .139 D e s p ite th e fa c t th a t Is ta r is aliv e an d n o t d e a d , she is
still on h e r w ay to th e r e a lm o f th e d e a d , a n d it is likely th a t this k in d o f v isit
w o u ld r e q u ire o ffe rin g s o f som e k in d . S ince Ista r has no in te n tio n o f d o in g
so, she is tre a te d a c c o rd in g to th e rites o f th e N e th e rw o rld in th e c a s e w h e n
o ffe rin g s a re n o t m a d e . In a d d itio n , in the S u m e ria n D e s c e n t, I n a n n a c la im s
she w a n ts to v isit h e r sister in o rd e r to p a y h e r re sp e c ts on G u g a l a n n a ’s d e a th .
S in ce sh e, a p p a r e n t l y , h a s c a u s e d his d e a th , it is u n d e rs ta n d a b le th a t E re s k ig a l
is n o t very w e lc o m in g (see the c o m m e n t fo r lin es 14-24). A lth o u g h th e re is
n o m e n tio n o f any fu n e ra l in the A k k a d ia n v e rsio n , it c o u ld be o n e o f the
u n d e rly in g th e m e s , k n o w n to the a u d ie n c e f a m ilia r w ith th e S u m e ria n v er-
sion. In o th e r w o r d s , th e “ a n c ie n t r ite s ” m ay r e fe r to the m is tre a tm e n t o f Istar,

135 Cf. Forest 1983, 144-146.

136 Katz 1995, 2 21-223; for jew elry found in the tom bs, se e , e .g ., Bahrani 1995, 1 6 3 5 -1645.
137 Katz 1 9 9 5 ,2 2 1 -2 2 8 .
138 C ollon 2 0 0 5 ,4 4 .
139 ETCSL: The D eath o f U r-Namma ( Ur-Namma A): the Nippur version, 11. 84-137; the version from
Susa, 11. C 18-67.

56
 CO M M ENTARY A N D A N A LY SIS

not n e c e s s a r ily to th e very act o f u n d re s s in g (see also the c o m m e n t fo r lines

6 6 -7 5 ).
L i n e 4 0 : T h e re fe re n c e to th e city o f C u th a /K u th a (Tel Ib ra h im , lo c a te d
n o rth w e s t o f th e city o f K is) m a y b e u s e d h e re as a n o th e r n a m e f o r the
N e th e r w o rld , sin ce the p a tro n g o d o f C u th a w as N e rg a l, the lo rd o f the
N e th e r w o rld (se e the c o m m e n t fo r lin e 4 ) . 140 N e rg a l w as also E r e s k i g a l ’s
h u s b a n d , a lth o u g h a c c o rd in g to the S u m e ria n v e rsio n o f th e D e s c e n t, h er
h u s b a n d w a s th e late G u g a la n n a (see the c o m m e n t fo r lines 14-24). T h e city
o f C u th a is m e n tio n e d as a m e ta p h o r fo r the N e th e rw o rld in a n o th e r te x t,
n a m e ly in an A k k a d ia n in c a n ta tio n a g a in s t a p p e a rin g g h o s ts , w h e re C u th a is
m e n tio n e d as “ the g a th e rin g o f th e g h o s ts .” 141
A lte r n a tiv e ly , G . B u c c e lla ti h a s s u g g e s te d th a t the r e fe re n c e to C u th a m a y
b e an a llu s io n to the jo u rn e y th e m e in the S u m e ria n v e rsio n o f the D e s c e n t.
T h e b e g in n in g o f the S u m e ria n v e rs io n (11. 7 -1 3 ) d e s c rib e s h o w I n a n n a ,
a p p a re n tly in th e fo rm o f a s ta tu e , a b a n d o n s se v e ra l o f h er citie s, a n d h er
te m p le s in th o s e cities: U r u k , B a d tib ir a , Z a b a la m , A d a b , N ip p u r, K is h an d
A k k a d . S in c e th e city o f A k k a d is n o t h er final d e stin a tio n , as she “ sets her
m in d to the G r e a t B e lo w ” a n d “ d e s c e n d e d to the N e th e r w o rld ,” B u c c e lla ti
th in k s th e fin a l stop w o u ld h a v e b e e n th e city o f C u th a , the r e s id e n c e o f the
N e th e r w o rld g o d s. T h e re a s o n w h y I n a n n a is u n d e rs to o d as a statu e d e riv e s
fro m th e p a s s a g e w h e re h e r m in is te r N in s u b u r, w h ile v isitin g I n a n n a ’s f a th e rs
in o r d e r to g e t h e lp fo r h e r re s c u e , d e s c rib e s the g o d d e ss w ith the fo llo w in g
w ord s:
O Father Enlil, let not your daughter be put to death in the Netherworld,
Let not your good metal be covered with dust of the Netherworld,
Let not your good lapis lazuli be broken up into the stone of the stoneworker,
Let not your boxwood be cut up into the wood of the woodworker.
M e ta l, lap is la z u li an d w o o d are all ra w m a te ria ls o f w h ic h d iv in e sta tu e s
w ere m a d e . B u c c e lla ti also n o tes th a t I n a n n a ’s d re s s in g and u n d re s s in g c o u ld
be ta k e n lite ra lly , re fe r r in g to d r e s s in g an d u n d re s s in g o f a cu ltic s ta tu e .
B u c c e lla ti su g g e sts th at th e ritu a l fo r d is m a n tlin g a d iv in e s tatu e, w h e th e r
a c c id e n ta l o r in te n tio n a l by th e e n e m y , m ay h a v e in sp ire d the n a rra tiv e o f
this m y th . T h e d is m a n tlin g o f a d iv in e sta tu e w as seen as the d e a th o f the
g iv e n d iv in ity . T h e r e f o r e , w h e n I n a n n a “d ie d ,” she “ d e s c e n d e d ” to the
N e th e r w o r ld , i.e ., the city o f C u th a , w h e re she w as re sto re d to p e rfe c tio n . In
a d d itio n , B u c c e lla ti th in k s th a t th e re a s o n w h y In a n n a starts h e r jo u r n e y in
the firs t p la c e f r o m the city o f U ru k a n d th e n d e to u rs to the ea st to w a rd s L a rs a
an d B a d - T ib ir a , in ste a d o f m o v in g n o rth to I s in , m a y su g g est th a t th e story
w as c o m p o s e d u n d e r the g e o g r a p h ic a l in flu e n c e o f the city o f L a rs a . A t the
sam e tim e th e city o f Isin w as lo sin g its p o litic a l im p o rta n c e an d te rrito ria l
c o n tr o l, a lth o u g h it still c o n tr o lle d th e m ain can al ro u te b e tw e e n U ru k an d
N i p p u r .142

140 D ailey 2 0 0 0 , 1 6 1 , n . 9 ; Katz 2003,406-420. Cutha w as the city o f N ergal from the tim e o f N aram -Sin
o f A kkad (K atz, ib id ., 406, 4 1 1-4 12 ).
141 C astellin o 1955, 2 4 6 ,1 . 14 (CT 23 16:14).
142 B u ccella ti 1 9 8 2 ,5 3 -5 7 .

57
 IST A R ’S DESCENT A N D RESURRECTION

O n the o th e r h a n d , th e S u m e ria n v e rsio n o f the D e s c e n t h as m a n y s o u rc e s ,

an d B u c c e lla ti’s o r d e r o f the cities an d te m p le s fo llo w o n ly o n e o f th e se
so u rces (m a n u s c rip t C in W . R. S l a d e k ’s e d itio n o f th e tex t). B u c c e lla ti h a s
ig n o re d the o th e r so u rc e s; e s p e c ia lly ta b le t HS 1480 + 1580 (T u M N F 3 2;
m a n u s c rip t E in S la d e k ’s e d i t io n ) 143 w h ic h add s sev en n ew te m p le s to the
list. T h e tem p les an d cities listed in m a n u s c rip t E show th at I n a n n a ’s j o u r n e y

A________________ B______________ C_______________ D ___________ E

tw o c itie s , U ru k [U ruk] U ru k [Uruk]
no t p re s e rv e d Z a b a la m [B ad -T ib ira] Z a b a la m Z a b a la m
[A dab] [Z a balam ] Umma
Akkad [A dab] Ur
K is N ip p u r K is ig a
B a d -T ib ira K is G irsu
N ip p u r Akkad Adab
N ip p u r
Isin
Kis
A ksak
S u ru p p a k
K a z a llu
‫י‬ Akkad

w as n o t d ire c t at all: the lo c a tio n o f th e a d d itio n a l cities m e n tio n e d re v e a l

th at the g o d d e ss w as re a lly z ig z a g g in g S u m e r w h en she h e a d e d to th e N e th e r-
w orld.
E a ch o f the m a n u s c rip ts u sed by S la d e k in his ed itio n list the o r d e r o f
I n a n n a ’s c u lt c e n te rs d ifferen tly :
S la d e k h as s u g g e ste d th a t th e listin g o f I n a n n a ’s te m p le s h a s b e e n in-
f lu e n c e d b y th e s o -c a lle d e - e s - d a m c o m p o s itio n s , w h ich list I n a n n a ’s tern-
p i e s . 144 T h e n u m b e r a n d o rd e r o f the te m p le s and cities listed v a ry a g re a t
d e a l in th e se c o m p o s itio n s as w ell as in the m a n u sc rip ts o f I n a n n a ’s D e s c e n t.
O n ly m a n u s c rip t C s e e m to fo llo w a lo g ic a l order: the cities liste d start fro m
U ru k , w h ic h w as I n a n n a ’s c ity , and fo llo w th e Itu ru n g a l can al n o r th w a r d .145
D . K atz p ro p o s e s th a t th e w h o le p a s sa g e (11. 4 -1 3 ) o f In a n n a a b a n d o n in g h e r
o ffic e s , cities an d te m p le s is an in tro d u c tio n o f the n arrato r. A c c o rd in g to h e r,
it is m o re p r o b a b le th a t the list o f the d e s e rte d tem p les is n o t p a r t o f the
p r e p a ra tio n s In a n n a m a k e s p r io r h e r d e s c e n t, b u t the r e su lt o f h e r v o lu n ta ry
d e s c e n t a n d s u b s e q u e n t d e a t h .146
A . G e o rg e h a s a g r e e d w ith B u c c e lla ti th a t In a n n a in the D e s c e n t is de-
s c rib e d in te rm s o f a d iv in e statu e. G e o r g e , h o w e v e r , tra n sla te s th e r e le v a n t
p a s sa g e as fo llo w s:

143 In his com m entary, Sladek says that these additional lines were left out o f the textual apparatus,
because “its length and different order w ould have made the apparatus unw ieldy” (Sladek 1974, 183, n. 2).
*44 E .g ., V S 2 4 8 , cf. Bergm an 1964, 1-13; V S 10 199 iii 2 9 -4 1 , cf. R om er 1969, 9 7 -114; ETCSL: A
hymn to Inana (Inana F).
H5 Sladek 1974, 183-186.
>46 Katz 1995, 226; Katz 2 0 0 3 , 256.

58 \
 CO M M EN TARY A N D AN ALYSIS

a - [ a ] dm u - u l - 1 1 1 d u 5- m u - z u m u ‫ ־‬l u k u r ‫ ־‬r a n a m - b a - d a - a n ‫ ־‬G A M 147- e

k u - s a 6- g a - z u s a h a r - k u r - r a - k a n a m - b a - d a - a b - s a r - r e
z a - g i n - s a 6- g a - z u z a - z a d i m - m a - k a n a m - b a ‫ ־‬d a - a n ‫ ־‬s i ‫ ־‬i l - l e
gl§t a s k a r i n - z u g i s - n a g a r - r a - k a n a m - b a - d a - a n - d a r - d a r - r e
k i - s i k i l dg a - [ s a ] - a n - n a k u r - r a n a m - b a ‫ ־‬d a - a n - G A M !- e

O Father Enlil, let no one in the Netherworld kill your child!

Let no one smelt your fine silver along with crude ore!
Let no one cleave your fine lapis lazuli along with the lapidary’s stones!
Let no one cut up your boxwood(?) along with the carpenter’s timber!
Let no one in the Netherworld kill the youfig woman Inanna!
T h e n ew id e a in G e o r g e ’s in te rp r e ta tio n is th a t sa h a r-k u r-ra -(k ) is not
m e re ly “d u s t o f th e N e th e r w o r ld ,” b u t re fe rs to so -c a lle d “c ru d e o r e ,” th a t is,
g o ld a n d s ilv e r in its n e w ly - m in e d , u n r e fin e d fo rm . T h e te c h n ic a l te rm in
A k k a d ia n is e p e r s a d ts u , lite ra lly “ its m o u n ta in d u s t.” T h is te rm is f o u n d in
the r o y a l in s c rip tio n s o f th e A s s y r ia n k in g s T ig la th p ile s e r III, E s a r h a d d o n ,
and A s s u r b a n ip a l.
G e o rg e su g g e sts th a t the a b o v e lin es d e s c rib e I n a n n a ’s u n fo rtu n a te fate in
te rm s o f th e d e s e c ra tio n o f h e r statu e a n d its d ism a n tlin g for the re u se o f its
c o m p o n e n t p a rts. T h e m y th d e s c rib e s th e lo ss o f I n a n n a in th e N e th e r w o rld
as if it w as h e r statu e th a t h a d b e e n c a p tu re d an d w as in d a n g e r o f b e in g
d e s e c ra te d b y “h e o f the N e th e r w o r ld .” 148
Lines 42-62 and 119-125: In the S iim erian v e rsio n o f the m y th , In a n n a
d e s c e n d s to th e N e th e r w o rld as th e q u e e n , d re ss e d in h e r ro y al g a r m e n ts ,
h o ld in g the s ev en d iv in e p o w e rs (the m e ’s) in h e r h a n d . A lth o u g h In a n n a /Is ta r
is f re q u e n tly d e p ic te d w ith “ n u m e r o u s m e ’s,” so m e texts assign h e r s ev en
d iv in e p o w e r s , e .g ., the m y th o f I n a n n a a n d S u k a lle tu d a 11 8-1 19 , o r In a n n a
B 5 . 149
T h e D e s c e n t f irs t d e s c rib e s h o w I n a n n a ad orns h e r s e lf fo r th e j o u r n e y (11.
1 7 - 2 5 ):150
tdgs u - g u r - r a m e n e d i n - n a s a g - g a - n a m u - u n - g a l
h i - l i s a g - k i - n a su b a - n i - i n - t i ,
na4z a - g i n d i 4- d i 4- l a g u - n a b a - a n - l a
na4n u n u z - t a b - b a g a b a - n a b a - n i - i n - s i
tugp a l a 3 t u g n a m - n i n - a b a r - r a - n a b a - a n - d u l
s e m b i lu h e - e m - d u h e - e m - d u i g i - n a b a -n i-in -g a r
t u - d i - d a lu g a - n u g a - n u g a b a - n a b a - a n - g f d
h a r k u g - s i g 17 s u - n a b a - a n - d u 8
g i - d i s - n i n d a n e s - g a n a 2 z a - g i n su b a - n i - i n - d u 8

147 g a m (reading uncertain) can correspond to sumutu, “to k ill” in b ilingual literary texts o f the first
m illennium (see C A D M /1 , 421b ). The earlier ev id en ce is lacking. It is p ossib le to read the verb as gur or
gurum, corresponding to Akkadian kunnusu, “to subdue,” but as G eorge (1 9 8 5 , 110-11 l , n . 11) n otes, this
translation w ould w eaken the interpretation: Inanna w as not m erely subdued, but k illed in the N etherw orld.
148 G eorge 1985, 109-113.
149 V olk 1993, Inanna und S u kaletu da‫׳‬, H allo and van Dijk 1968, The Exaltation o f Inanna‫׳‬, ETCSL:
The exaltation o f l n a n a (Inana B). N ote that the num ber seven is associated w ith her also in other ways:
e .g ., in Inanna C 105, she is said to “ride on sev en great dogs (ur = kalbu) as you com e forth from h ea v en ”
(Sjoberg 1976; ETCSL: A hymn to Inana [Inana C ]); and correspondingly, in Inana D 2 9 , she is said to
be “standing on seven dogs (ur)” (B ehrens 1998; ETCSL: A hymn to Inana as N in egala [Inana D] ) .
150 T ransliteration and translation after ETCSL: In a n a ’s d es ce n t to the nether w orld, except that the
word tu-di-da is here translated as “d ress-pin” instead o f “p ectoral.”

59
 IST A R ’S DESCENT A N D RESURRECTION

She put a turban, headgear for the open country, on her head,
she took a wig for her forehead,
she hung small lapis lazuli beads around her neck,
she placed twin egg-shaped beads on her breast,
she covered her body with a pala dress, the garment of ladyship,
she placed mascara which is called “Let a man come, let him come” on her eyes,
she pulled the dress-pins which are called “Come, man, come” over her breast,
she placed a golden ring on her hand,
she held the lapis lazuli measuring rod and measuring line in her hand.
A t th e g a te s, th e d iv in e p o w e rs are e q u a te d w ith h er g a rm e n ts . In o th e r
w o r d s , w h e n she is s trip p e d o f h er o r n a m e n ts , she is also s trip p e d o f h e r
p o w e rs (11. 130-160):
Gate I: The turban, headgear for the open country, was removed from her head;
Gate II: the small lapis lazuli beads were removed from her neck;
Gate III: the twin egg-shaped beads were removed from her breast;
Gate IV: the “Come, man, come!” dress-pin was removed from her breast;
Gate V: the gold ring was removed from her hand;
Gate VI: the lapis lazuli measuring rod and measuring line were removed from
her hand;
Gate VII: the pala dress, the garment of ladyship, was removed from her body.
E v e n th o u g h I n a n n a is c o m p le te ly n a k e d a n d w ith o u t h er p o w e rs at th e la st
g a te , th e S u m e ria n m y th d o es n o t d e s c rib e at w h ich p o in t I n a n n a lo se s h e r
w ig an d m a s c a ra . A s a m a tte r o f fa c t, th e m a n u sc rip ts do n o t a g re e in the
o rd e r o f th e g a rm e n ts In a n n a first puts on (e x c e p t fo r the firs t tw o , th e tu rb a n
an d the w ig ), a n d th e n th e ones tak eh o f f . T h e o rd e r o f the g a rm e n ts in b o th
cases is b a s e d on the ta b le t HS 1480 + 1580 (T u M N F 3 2 ), b e c a u s e its o r d e r
ag re e s w ith the p a s s a g e w h e re the g a te k e e p e r d e s c rib e s I n a n n a to E re s k ig a l
(11. 1 0 5 -1 1 3 ).151
T h e A k k a d ia n v e rs io n d oes n o t d e s c rib e h o w the g o d d e s s d re s s e s up fo r
the jo u r n e y , an d th e re a d e r is o n ly in fo r m e d o f the re m o v a l o f th e g a rm e n ts
at this p o in t. A s o n e can see, the g a rm e n ts I s ta r w ears slig h tly d iffe r f ro m the
S u m e ria n v e rsio n . T h e g a te k e e p e r lo o se d a n d r e m o v e d the fo llo w in g item s:
Gate I: a g a ( A G A ) raba(GAL:a ) sa qaqqad!(SAG .DU)-sa
Gate II: ins aba te sa uzni(Pl.2.MES)-sa
Gate III: N A 4.m m m a f t '( N A 4.N U N U Z .M E S ) sa kisadi{G\5)-sa
Gate IV: du din ate sa irti(GABA)-sa
Gate V: sibbu a b a n { N A 4) a la d i{ T U ) sa g a & /i(M U R U B 4.M E S )-.sa
Gate VI: .fe m e r (H A R .M E S ) qati(SG.2)-sa u sepl(GlR.2)-sa
Gate VII: s u b a t ba lt i sa zumrlsa
Gate I: the great tiara of her head
Gate II: the earrings of her ears
Gate III: the egg-shaped beads of her neck
Gate IV: the dress-pins of her breast
Gate V: the girdle o f birth-stones of her waist
Gate VI: the bangles of her wrists and ankles
Gate VII: the garment of dignity of her body

151 See Sladek 1974, 7 1 -7 5 . H ow ever, in tw o o f the m anuscripts, CBS 11064 + 11088 and U ET VI 9 ,
Inanna lo se s her w ig either at the third or sixth gate.

60
 C O M M EN TARY A N D AN ALYSIS

T h e o r d e r o f the g a rm e n ts o r je w e l r y u n d re s s e d starts f ro m h e r h e a d an d
en d s w ith h e r w ris ts an d an k les (in the S u m e ria n v e rsio n w ith h e r h a n d s ),
u n til h e r d re s s is re m o v e d , le a v in g h e r c o m p le te ly n ak ed . In h e r a s c e n t, the
g o d d e ss is g iv e n b a c k h e r c lo th in g in a r e v e rs e d o rd er. T h e S u m e ria n v e rs io n
e x c lu d e s th e r e d re s s in g , b u t it m u s t b e re a d in the m y th im p lic itly .
A s said e a r lie r , th e u n d re s s in g o f th e g o d d e s s w as do ne a c c o rd in g to the
“ a n c ie n t r ite s ,” w h ic h se e m to h a v e b e e n c re a te d o n ly fo r this o c c a s io n : to
m a k e I n a n n a /I s ta r p o w e rle ss (see th e c o m m e n t fo r line 38). T h e u se o f the
n u m b e r s e v e n fo r th e g a rm e n ts a n d fo r th e g ates has b e e n e x p la in e d to d e riv e
f ro m th e d ig it itse lf, sin ce s e v e n is a ty p o lo g ic a l n u m b e r (see a lso the
c o m m e n t fo r lin e s 9 3 -9 4 ). F u r th e r m o r e , D . K atz h as s u g g e ste d th at th e fa c t
the g o d d e s s is strip p e d o f o n e g a r m e n t at a tim e s erv es a lite ra ry fu n c tio n : the
a ctio n is to ld as a g ra d u a l p r o c e s s w h ic h b u ild s in te re s t and su sp e n s e fo r the
a u d ie n c e . In a d d itio n , if it h a d b e e n d e m a n d e d th at the g o d d e ss g et u n d r e s s e d
at the f ir s t g a te , she m ig h t h a v e r e a liz e d th a t h e r u s u rp a tio n s ch em e w o u ld
fall a p a r t, an d she m ay h a v e c h a n g e d h e r m in d an d re tu rn e d to h e a v e n . In
o th e r w o r d s , th e re w o u ld not h a v e b e e n a n y story to t e l l . 152
A s a lre a d y m e n tio n e d e a r lie r, it h a s b e e n a rg u ed th a t the D e s c e n t c a n be
in te rp r e te d as th e s o u l ’s d e s c e n t to th e m a te ria l w o rld , its (sp iritu a l) d e a th ,
s u b s e q u e n t r e s u r r e c tio n , an d a s c e n t b a c k to p e rfe c tio n in h e a v e n , re s to rin g
its o rig in a l sta te . T h is fall a n d r e d e m p tio n o f the soul fo llo w the sam e id ea
as in G n o s is o r in J e w ish m y s tic is m (se e the c o m m e n t fo r lines 10 an d 27).
T h e tra n s c e n d e n t G o d o f J e w is h m y s tic is m can m a n ife s t H im s e lf th ro u g h
th e S e firo tic T r e e (T re e o f L if e ) , w h ic h is c o m p o se d o f the ten S e f i r o t, the
d iv in e p o w e rs o r a ttrib u te s o f E n S o f. T h e S e f i r o t , literally “ c o u n tin g s ” or
“ n u m b e r s ,” a re re p re s e n te d in a d ia g r a m b y circles n u m b e re d fro m o n e to ten.
F o u r o f th e S e fir o t are d e p ic te d o n th e tru n k o f the T re e , an d th re e o f the
S e fir o t are d e p ic te d o n e a c h s i d e . 153 A c c o r d in g ly , the g reat gods c o n s titu tin g
th e b o d y o f A s s u r are m a n ife s te d in th e f o rm o f the A s s y ria n T re e . E q u a lin g
th e S e firo tic T r e e and th e a ttrib u te s o f E n Sof, th e c o rre c t p lace o f e a c h
A s s y ria n (M e s o p o ta m ia n ) g o d o n th e A s s y ria n T re e (the tw o sid es o r the
tru n k ) c a n b e c o n c lu d e d by the a s p e c ts th e y re p re s e n t, as w ell as by th e ir
m y stic n u m e r ic a l v a l u e s .154
T h e S e firo tic T r e e is b o th a m a n ife s ta tio n o f the a sp e c ts o f E n S o f, a n d an
im a g e o f th e D iv in e A n th r o p o s , c o r r e s p o n d in g to an ea rth ly (p e rfe c t) m a n ,
w h o th u s c o m p r is e s th e tra n s c e n d e n t G o d h e a d . In this w ay the s tru c tu re o f
the T re e c o r re s p o n d s to th e s tru c tu re o f th e h u m a n so ul, an d in the sa m e w ay
as in N e o p la to n is m , th e so u l h as th re e g rad es: o v e rs o u l, m o ra l so u l, and
a n im a l so u l. T h e b a s ic in stin c ts (a n im a l soul) are lo c a te d at th e b o tto m , the
m o ra l a n d e th ic a l p o w e rs (m o ra l s o u l) are in the m id d le , and the in te lle c tu a l
p o w e rs ( o v e rs o u l) are lo c a te d at th e to p in th e T ree. T h e s tru c tu re o f th e T ree
o u tlin e s th e p u r if ie d s o u l ’s a s c e n t to h e a v e n : it d ep icts the p ath fro m ig n o r-
an ce (a n im a l so u l) to c o n s c io u s n e s s (m o ra l soul) and s a lv a tio n (d iv in e o v e r ­

152 Katz 1 9 9 5 ,2 2 5 -2 2 8 .
153 H alevi 1979, 5f; see also Parpola 1993, 172 n. 5 3 .
154 Parpola 1993 177-190; Parpola 2 0 0 0 , 1 7 5 -1 8 5 .

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sou l). T h e sam e d iv is io n is ap p lic a b le to th e A s sy ria n T re e , an d thus to the

so u l, a n d to its fall a n d r e d e m p tio n as w e l l.155
S. P a rp o la h as n o te d th a t I n a n n a /I s ta r ’s, i.e ., th e s o u l ’s, d e s c e n t a g re e s w ith
the stru c tu re o f the T r e e o f L ife , the p r o g re s s io n b e in g fro m top to b o tto m .
In the D e s c e n t , the s in g le an d p a ire d p ie c e s o f c lo th in g a lte rn a te , w h ic h also
a g rees w ith the s tru c tu re o f th e T ree. In o th e r w o rd s , the sing le p ieces m a k e
u p the tru n k o f the tre e , w h e re a s th e p a ire d p ie c e s m ak e up th e th re e fru its on
each side o f the tru n k . T h e re f o re , the g a rm e n ts o r the seven d iv in e p o w e rs
e q u a l th e n u m b e r o f the g a te s , w h ich in tu rn e q u al the stru c tu re o f the T re e .
T h e g reat tia ra (cro w n ) or as in the S u m e ria n v e rs io n , the tu rb a n , c o rre s p o n d s
to the p a lm e tte c ro w n ; th e (n e c k la c e of) tw in e g g -s h a p e d b e a d s , the g ird le
(S u m . g o ld rin g ), a n d th e g a rm e n t o f d ig n ity (S u m . th e p ala d ress) c o r re s p o n d
to the th re e n o d es on th e tru n k ; and th e e a r rin g s (S um . lap is lazu li b e a d s ), the
d re s s -p in s , and th e b a n g le s (S u m . the lap is la z u li m e a s u rin g ro d an d m e a s u r-
ing line) c o rre s p o n d to th e circles o r fru its s u rro u n d in g the tru n k . A c c o rd -
in g ly , the g a rm e n ts and je w e lr y (in th e S u m e ria n v ersio n the m e ’s) can be
id e n tifie d w ith th e d iv in e p o w e rs c o n s titu tin g the T r e e .156 S in ce the g re a t
g o d s c o n s titu te d th e A s s y r ia n T ree as A s s u r ’s p o w e rs or m a n ife s ta tio n s , the
p o w ers o r g a rm e n ts o f the g o d d e s s can be c o r re la te d w ith th ese g re a t g o d s . 157
S u b s e q u e n tly , at its a s c e n t, th e soul b e c o m e s o n ce m o re c o m p le te an d p u re ,
as it is re g a rb e d in all th e v irtu es or d iv in e p o w e rs (= the g reat g o d s) th a t it
h a s lo st in its d e s c e n t.
In m an y tra d itio n s , th e re ex ists th e id e a o f the fa lle n so u l b e in g firs t
p u rifie d , th en re g a rb e d o r ad o rn e d w ith p r o p e r g a rm e n ts, s y m b o liz in g w is-
d o m , p rio r to the u n io n w ith the d iv in e. F o r in s ta n c e , in G n o s tic and ea rly
C h ristia n te x ts, su ch as th e E x e g e sis on the S o u l an d the H y m n o f the P e a r l ,158
the soul seek in g u n io n w ith G o d is p ro v id e d w ith p r o p e r c lo th in g o r ad o rn -
m e n ts , w h ic h is a m e ta p h o r fo r a tta in in g th e n e c e s sa ry w is d o m e n a b lin g the
u n io n . In J e w ish m y s tic is m , th e s tu d e n t o f th e T o ra h (= the h u m a n so ul) w ill
o n ly re a c h the u ltim a te k n o w le d g e and u n io n w ith the T o ra h (i.e., w ith G o d ’s
fe m in in e a s p e c t th e S h e k h in a h , e q u a te d w ith th e T o ra h ) by d re ss in g in its
la y e rs. T h e T o ra h re v e a ls its e lf b y a p ro c e s s o f u n d re s s in g , b u t m a n can
re c e iv e it on ly th ro u g h a p ro c e s s o f d re s s in g . F o r the T o r a h , th e s ig n ific a n c e
o f u n d re ss in g is its re tu rn to a su p e rn a l p o s itio n p rio r to its d e s c e n t into the
m a te ria l w o rld . F o r th e h u m a n b e in g , d re s s in g is the only w ay by w h ic h he
can as c e n d to h ig h e r w o rld s , fo r b y d re ss in g in th e ir g a rm e n ts he a s su m e s the
q u a litie s o f th e se w o r l d s . 159
T h e sa c re d m a r ria g e so n g s o f th e D u m u z i- In a n n a cy c le also c o n ta in the
th e m e o f a d o rn in g a n d d re ss in g th e b rid e b e f o re the u n io n w ith the k in g is
c o m p le te d . C e r ta in ly , th e a d o rn in g o f th e b rid e m u st, on on e le v e l, be o n ly
fo llo w in g th e c u s to m s p r a c tic e d at w e d d in g s in a n c ie n t M e s o p o ta m ia . O n the

155 The A ssyrian Tree m anifested the sam e three grades o f the human soul as the Sefirotic Tree: the
god s located at the bottom , A dad, Nabu and N ergal, are the b a sic instincts (anim al soul); the gods located
in the m idd le, Istar, Marduk and Sam as, are the moral and eth ical pow ers (moral soul); the gods located
at the top, A nu , Ea and Sin, are the in tellectual pow ers (o v erso u l), see Parpola 1995, 384-87; and Parpola
1 9 9 3 ,1 8 7 ,n . 98.
156 Parpola 1997a, X C I, n. 112.
157 Parpola 2 0 0 0 , 197-198.
158 Layton 1 9 8 7 ,3 6 5 -3 7 5 ; R oukem a 1999, 145-148.
159 !del 1 9 8 8 ,2 2 7 -2 2 9 .

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 CO M M ENTARY A N D A N A LY SIS

o th e r h a n d , b y a n a lo g y w ith a s so c ia tin g th e D e s c e n t w ith the s o u l ’s re d e m p -

tio n , the a d o rn in g and d re s s in g o f th e b rid e in th e lo v e so n g s m ay also
r e p re s e n t h e r (i.e., th e s o u l ’s) p r e p a ra tio n s b e fo re m e e tin g w ith th e b rid e -
g r o o m - s a v io r w h o , in th ese s o n g s, is n a tu ra lly the k in g as D u m u z i. D e s p ite
his h u m a n ity , th e S u m e ria n k in g w as also c o n s id e re d d iv in e , as in d ic a te d by
the d iv in e d e te r m in a tiv e a tta c h e d to his n a m e an d by h is d iv in e fa m ilia l
r e l a t io n s .160 H e c o u ld thus be e a s ily c a s t in tw o d iffe re n t ro le s c o a le s c in g in
the p a r a d o x ic a l fig u re o f th e s h e p h e rd g o d D u m u z i, w h o w as at the sa m e tim e
a h u m a n k in g a n d the h u s b a n d a n d r e s c u e r o f,I n a n n a fro m the N e th e rw o rld .
T h ro u g h a d o r n in g , th e b rid e , as th e s o u l, is also re sto rin g h e r n a tu re like
S o p h ia (= the S o u l) o f the G n o s tic tra d itio n . W h e re a s in th e D e s c e n t the
g o d d e s s is r e g a rb e d in h e r c lo th e s or p o w e r s , in the D u m u z i- In a n n a te x ts , it
is th e k in g w h o p r o v id e s the a d o r n m e n ts f o r h er. T h e re f o re , in th e lo v e s o n g s,
the k in g acts as th e sav io r, w h o p ro v id e s h e r w ith k n o w le d g e an d salv a tio n in
the fo rm o f the g e m s w ith w h ich I n a n n a ad o rn s h e r s e lf .161 L a te r, as p a r t o f the
c o n tin u u m o f the S u m e ria n s a c re d m a r ria g e tra d itio n , the N e o - A s s y ria n L o v e
L y r ic s o f N a b u a n d T a sm e tu a b o u n d s w ith this m e ta p h o r, as the g o d d e s s is
a d o rn e d in o r d e r to e n te r the g a r d e n o f p le a s u re and w is d o m w ith h er
b r id e g ro o m , a n d h a v e h e r statu s e l e v a t e d .162
N o te th a t s o m e o f the g a rm e n ts o r je w e lr y m e n tio n e d in the D e s c e n t , also
o c c u r in o n e o f the D u m u z i- In a n n a lo v e s o n g s , n a m e ly in D I C . 163 A c c o r d in g
to this te x t, I n a n n a p u ts on th e p a la d re s s , th e g a rm e n t o f th e Q u e e n o f H e a v e n
(tugp a la 3 n a -a g g a - s a - a n - a n -n a [= tdgp a l a 3 u g n a m -n in -a n -n a ]), g o ld b ra c e le t(s )
(h a r k u g - s ig 17) o n h e r h a n d s , sm all lap is la z u li b ead s (za-g in d i4-d i4) o n h er
n e c k , and p a in ts h e r ey es w ith k o h l (SIM xUH-zi/simbi-zi), w h ile p re p a rin g
h e r s e lf to m e e t h e r b r id e g ro o m D u m u z i.
L i n e 42: T h e c r o w n (tiara), a gu (a g a ), is a lso e q u a te d w ith th e S u m e ria n w o rd
m e n , 164 w h ic h , to g e th e r w ith se m b i ( k o h l, m a sc a ra ) and th e p a la d ress (A kk .
te d iq b e l t i ‫׳‬, b u t h e re s u b a t b a lt i) all b e lo n g e d to the a ttire o f e n -p rie s te s s e s
( h ig h - p r ie s te s s e s ) .165 T h e c ro w n and the d ress w ere also sym bols o f roy al
p o w e r.166 T h e p ala dress is p ro b ab ly d e p ic te d in a w all painting fro m cou rt 106
at M ari, and fro m this and fro m th e rep resen tatio n s on cylinder seals, the dress
seem s to h ave been a long flo u n c ed d r e s s .167 In the D e a th o f U r-N a m m u , the
d ead k in g , w h ile d e s c e n d in g to th e N e th e r w o r ld , m ak es o ffe rin g s to d iffe re n t
d eities, a n d to E re s k ig a l he g iv es a “h e a v y g a rm e n t, a lo n g -fle e c e d g a rm e n t,
a q u een ly p a la - r o b e ” (1. 98: tug d u g u d t6gz u lu m h i t6gp a la 3 n a m - n in - a ) .168

160 N ote that although the use o f the divine d eterm inative attached to the name o f the king was carefully
avoided in A ssyria, the king w as the perfect lik en ess o f god , and therefore a god in human form . For
instance, the idea o f the king being “the im age (sa lm u ) o f g o d ” occurs frequently in N eo-A ssyrian royal
correspondence (e .g ., in LAS 125:18.; LAS 145; see also Parpola 1993, 168 n. 33).
161 L apinkivi 2 0 0 4 .
162 For the L ove L y r i c s , see M atsushim a 1 987, 143-149; L ivinsgtone 1989, 14; N issinen 1998a,
5 85-634; L apinkivi 2 0 0 4 , 8 4 -8 5 , 2 0 5 -2 0 6 . For T asm etu ’s id en tification with Inanna/Istar, see L apinkivi
2 0 0 4 , 81-82; for N ab u ’s id en tification with the k in g , i.e ., the bridegroom -savior, see L apinkivi, ib id .,
Parpola 1997a, X C III, n. 123 and C l, n. 196.
163 Sefati 1998, 132-150; ETCSL: A b a lb a le to Inana a n d D um uzid (Dumuzid-Inana C).
164 For the turban (‘“Ssu-gur-ra) m entioned in the Sum erian version , see Sladek 1974, 7 5 -7 7 .
165 R enger 1967, 127.
166 Landsberger, M SL 10 131 n. to 138ff; c f. D iri .v 124ff.
167 Sladek 1974, 80; c f. e .g ., Parrot 1937, 3 3 5 -3 3 9 and PI. X X X IX ; Haidar 1952, 5 2 , 64; Parrot 1958,
55 and PI. A.
168 ETCSL: The D ea th o f U r-Nam m a (U r-N am m a A).

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 IST A R ’S DESCENT A N D RESURRECTION

L i n e 5 1: T h e w o rd d /tu d ittu has n ow b e e n id e n tifie d as a “ d r e s s - p in ”

(“ to g g le -p in ” ) in s te a d o f its p re v io u s id e n tific a tio n as a “p e c to r a l,” o r a
“b r e a s tp la te .” T h e s e d re s s -p in s w ere m a d e o f p re c io u s m etal or s to n e s .169 In
the S u m e ria n v e rsio n o f th e D e s c e n t, d u d ittu is d e s c rib e d as tu -d i-d a lu g a-n u
g a-n u (g a b a -n a b a -a n -g fd ), “th e d re ss -p in s w h ic h are called ‘C o m e , m a n ,
c o m e ’ (she p u lle d o v e r h e r b r e a s t) .”
P re v io u s ly , M . H . P o p e h a d s u g g e ste d th a t, in the S on g o f S o n g s 5 :6 -7 , the
H e b re w w o rd , r e d id , “ v e il” (tra n s la te d b y M . V . Fox as “ s h a w l,” see b e lo w ) ,
is actu ally a m is r e a d in g o f the S u m e ria n /A k k a d ia n o rig in a l, d u d ittu /tu d ittu .
T h e e rro r c o u ld be th e r e s u lt o f m ista k in g th e sim ila r letters r and d , a n d thus
p ro d u c in g rd d (t) fro m an o rig in a l d d d ft) (d u d ittu h av in g d e v e lo p e d f ro m
d u d id tu ) . 170
I opened to my beloved, but my beloved had turned away and gone. (Because
o f him) my soul went forth: I sought him but did not find him, I called him but
he did not answer me. The watchmen who roam the city found me - they beat
me and bruised me, took my shawl away from me - those who watch the
walls.171
L i n e 54: W illia m R . S la d e k has s u g g e s te d th a t the g ird le o f b irth - s to n e s ,
sib b u a b a n ( NA4) a la d i( TU), m a y be e x p la in e d b y re la tin g a b a n a la d i, “ sto n e s
o f (= th at c a u s e ) b ir th ,” to NA4.PES4 = a b a n e r e } 12 “ sto n es o f (= th a t ca u s e )
c o n c e p tio n .” 173 T h e fa c t th a t the PES4-sto n e s are n o t stones b u t c o w r ie -ty p e
sh ells, i.e., sh ells th a t re s e m b le a w o m a n ’s sex u al o rg a n , h as n o w b e e n
e s ta b lis h e d .174 S la d e k s u g g e sts th a t th e a b a n a la d i m a y h a v e h a d a sim ila r
sh ap e to c o w r ie -s h e lls , w h ic h o f c o u rs e , w o u ld h av e b een a p p r o p ria te fo r
Istar, the g o d d e s s o f se x u a l l o v e .175
A ty p e o f th e se c o w rie -s h e lls o c c u rs la te r on in th e D e s c e n t, in lin es 112
and 116, w h e re N a m ta r is a s k e d to d e c o ra te th e th re sh o ld s o f E g a lg in a , th e
“ S tead y P a la c e ,” w ith th e a ja r tu ( NA4,PA = ia A-a rtu - a ja r tu ). It is k n o w n th a t
th e se a ja r tu - sh ells w e re , f o r in s ta n c e , u s e d in ap o tro p a ic rituals: th ey w e re
d e s ig n a te d to h a v e s ev en “ s p o ts ” (GUN), w h ic h seem s to h av e been a tra it th a t
in c re a s e d th e ir ritu a lis tic e ffe c tiv e n e s s . A p p a r e n t l y , th e spots re fe r to s e v e ra l
d iffe re n t c o w r ie -ty p e s , w h ic h h a v e s p o tte d b a c k s .176 H o w e v e r, th e sh e lls
u sed for d iff e r e n t p u rp o s e s w e re n o t alw ay s re a l o n e s, b u t im ita tio n s m a d e o f
m e ta l, c la y , o r s t o n e . 177 T h e re f o re , w h e th e r the th re sh o ld s o f the “ S te a d y
P a la c e ” w ere d e c o r a te d w ith re a l c o w rie s o r w ith so m e o th er m a te r ia l, c a n n o t
b e a sc e rta in e d .

>69 K lein 1983, 2 5 7 -2 8 4 .

> 0‫ ל‬Pope 1 9 7 7 ,5 2 7 .
>7> Fox 1985, 140.
172 The logogram peS4 has the m eanings e r u / a r u , “to b e(co m e) pregnant, to c o n c e iv e ”; ( w ) a l a d u , “to
g iv e birth to”; b i s s u r u , “fem ale g en itals, vu lva.”
173 T hese tw o stones occur together in B . Landsberger, M SL 10 10:215-218; 31:72-75; na4.pes4.a =
a - b a n e - r e - e “charm to b ecom e pregnant,” na4.nu.pes4.a = a - b a n l a e - r e - e “charm against b ecom in g
pregnant” Hg. B IV i 7 2 f (cf. C A D E s.v . e r u , 325) (H g. = L ex ica l series HAR.gud = i m r u = b a l l u )
>74 S ee O ppenheim 1963, 4 0 7 -4 1 2 .
> 5 ‫ ל‬Sladek 1974, 84.
176 O ppenheim , ib id ., 409; C A D A /1 , s.v. a j a r t u , 228: i a 4- a r t u s a 7 G U N.M ES-sa AM T 8 8, 4 r. 8; ib id .,
3, 2:16; 9 1 , 2:2; 102:23; STT 102:3; K A R 213 ii 13; LK A 136 r. 15, etc. The Sum erian word g u n m eans
“to decorate with cd lors/d ots/sp ots, to sparkle, to be m ulticolored.”
177 O ppenheim , ib id ., 411; C A D A /1 , s.v . a j a r t u , 229.

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L i n e s 6 3 -6 5 : T h is p a s s a g e d e s c rib e s h o w th e situ atio n d e v e lo p s b e tw e e n th e

tw o sisters w h e n th e y fin a lly m eet. U n f o rtu n a te ly , the e x a c t m e a n in g o f th e
p a s sa g e is ra th e r u n c le a r in all the m a n u s c r ip ts , b o th in th e S u m e ria n a n d
A k k a d ia n v e r s i o n s . 178 In th e A k k a d ia n v e r s io n , E re s k ig a l firs t tre m b le s (o u t
o f fe a r o r a n g e r) b e f o re Ista r, w h o in tu rn , takes h e r se a t a b o v e E re s k ig a l.
T h is su g g e sts th a t it is Is ta r, in fa c t, w h o tries to s u b ju g a te h e r s iste r in spite
o f h e r n a k e d and th u s p o w e rle ss a p p e a r a n c e (see also the n e x t c o m m e n t). In
o th e r w o rd s , it s e e m s th at E re s k ig a l f ir s t s u b m its to Ista r, b u t then g a th e rs h e r
o w n p o w ers a n d starts to a c t as th e Q u e e n o f th e N e th e rw o rld by c u rs in g the
v isito r. O n e o f th e p ro b le m s has b e e n th e in te rp re ta tio n o f the v erb al f o rm in
d/5tar(IN N IN ) u l im m a lik e le n u s s a u sb i. T h e f o rm usb i has b e e n th o u g h t to be
a scrib al e rro r fo r u sib (cf. w a s a b u = “ to sit, to d w e ll” ), w h ic h it n e e d n o t b e ,
sin ce th e w o rd is a N e o - A s s y ria n sta tiv e f o r m u sin g the m e ta th e s is o f sylla-
b les: u sb i < u sib . W . R . S la d e k s u g g e s te d th e fo rm co m e s fro m s u b e ’u = “ to
ru sh u p o n ,” a n d tra n s la te d lines 6 3 - 6 5 : 179
As soon as Istar had descended to Kurnugi,
Ereskigal saw her and became enraged at her presence,
Istar, without reflection, rushed at her.
S la d e k a lso d is c u s s e s the d iffic u lty o f u n d e rs ta n d in g th e p a s s a g e , a n d n o tes
th a t the a n c ie n t s c rib e s w e re c o n f u s e d o n th e c o rre s p o n d in g p a s s a g e in th e
S u m e ria n v e rsio n (11. 1 6 5 -1 6 6 ), as is s h o w n in the n u m b e r o f v a r i a n t s .180
W h a t fo llo w s in th e S u m e ria n v e rs io n is th a t, as soon as I n a n n a has ta k e n h e r
se a t o n h e r ( s i s t e r ’s) th ro n e , the A n u n n a , th e sev en ju d g e s o f the N e th e r w o rld ,
re n d e r th e ir ju d g m e n t o f d e a th o n th e g o d d e s s , for w h ic h see also th e n e x t
c o m m e n t. In the A k k a d ia n v e rs io n , it is E re s k ig a l h e r s e lf w h o , th ro u g h h e r
a g e n t N a m ta r , in flic ts d e a th ly d is e a s e s o n Istar.
L i n e s 6 6 -7 5 : B e c a u s e it is c e n tra l fo r th e m y t h ’s p lo t th at Is ta r dies o n c e she
h a s d e s c e n d e d to th e N e th e r w o rld , if is a lso in e v ita b le th at she m u st m e e t h e r
d e a th in o n e w ay o r a n o th e r. In the A k k a d ia n v e rsio n , she b e c o m e s m o rta lly
ill th ro u g h E r e s k i g a l ’s use o f b la c k m a g ic , as she o rd ers h e r m in is te r N a m ta r
to release six ty d is e a s e s a g a in s t Ista r. N a m ta r was the o n e e x e c u tin g h is
m i s t r e s s ’s c o m m a n d s . T h e n a m e its e lf, N a m ta r , is a n o n -fin ite f o rm (par-
ticip le) o f th e S u m e ria n c o m p o u n d v e rb n a m .. .t a r , “ to d e c re e the f a te ,” a n d
th e f o rm th u s m e a n s “he w h o d e c r e e s th e fa te s .” In an in c a n ta tio n o f the
U d u g h u l-s e rie s , N a m ta r is d e s c rib e d as son o f E re s k ig a l a n d E n lil, so h is ra n k
w as high in th e N e th e r w o rld an d in th e e n to u r a g e o f its q u e e n .181
E v e n th o u g h th e te x t sp eak s o f six ty d is e a s e s , o n ly fiv e d iffe re n t d is e a s e s
are actu ally m e n tio n e d in th e tex t. T h e s e d ise a se s are a g a in st th e e y e s , a rm s,
fe e t, h e a r t, an d th e h e a d . A s n o te d b y E. R e in e r , th e se w e re th e b o d y p arts
th a t w ere no l o n g e r p ro te c te d b y th e d iv in e g a rm e n ts (p o w e rs ) as th e y h a d

178 The Sum erian version (11. 165-166) reads (translation after Katz 2 0 0 3 , 260):
nin9-a-ni 6i5gu-za-ni-ta im -m a-da-an-zi
e-n e i iSgu -za-n i-ta dur im -m i‫־‬in-gar
She (Inanna) raised her sister from her throne
And took a seat in her (E resk igal’s) throne.
179 Sladek 1974, 2 5 6 , n. 1.
180 Sladek 1 9 7 4 ,2 0 2 .
181 Katz 2 0 0 3 , 3 9 0 -3 1 9 ; for the Udughul see G eller 1 9 8 5 ,4 0 , Udughul 360; CT 16, 12 i 5.

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 IST A R ’S DESCENT A N D RESURRECTION

b een re m o v e d at th e sev en g ates. T h e c ro w n h a d p ro te c te d I s t a r ’s h e a d , the

d re ss -p in s an d the e g g -s h a p e d b e a d s h er h e a rt an d th e b a n g le s h e r arm s a n d
feet. T h e re w as n o sp e c ia l g a rm e n t o r o r n a m e n t to p ro te c t h e r e y e s , b u t
a c c o rd in g to R e in e r , th e n e c k la c e m ay also h a v e p ro te c te d th e ey es o f the
g o d d e s s .182 It seem s m o re lik ely , h o w e v e r , th a t the v u ln e ra b ility o f th e e y e s
d eriv es fro m th e S u m e ria n v e rs io n , w h e re I n a n n a , b e fo re e n te rin g the N e th e r-
w o rld , p u ts k o h l/m a s c a r a (se m b i/sim b i) on h e r ey es. A lth o u g h this m a k e u p
is n o t r e m o v e d at any o f th e g a te s , the g o d d e s s is n a k e d at th e la st g a te , w h ic h
m e a n s th a t the r e m o v a l o f sem b i m u st be u n d e r s to o d im p licitly in the sto ry .
A lth o u g h M e s o p o ta m ia n s h a d k n o w le d g e o f the u se o f h erb al r e m e d ie s a n d
s o m e f a m ilia rity w ith s u rg ic a l o p e ra tio n s , th e ca u s e s o f d iffe re n t d is e a s e s
w e re n o t k n o w n . In g e n e ra l, d ise a se s w ere th o u g h t to be ca u s e d b y g o d s an d
d e m o n s as p u n is h m e n t fo r sin , o r then they w e re c a u s e d by s o rcery . In th e se
c a s e s, th e illn e ss e s w e re tre a te d by e x o rc is ts (a s ip u ). I f th e d ise a se w as
th o u g h t to h a v e o c c u r re d th ro u g h m o re “ n a tu r a l” c a u s e s , the p a tie n t w as
tre a te d b y a p h y s ic ia n (a su ). T h e fu n c tio n s o f th ese tw o p ro fe s sio n a ls w e re
o v e r l a p p i n g , a n d o f te n b o th o f th e m w e r e s u m m o n e d to h e lp th e s ic k
p a t i e n t . 183
In o rd e r to re m o v e ev il an d d is e a s e s , in c a n ta tio n s , sh e lls , and ritu a ls w e re
u se d . T w o o f th e b e s t k n o w n m a g ic a l c o lle c tio n s are S u r p u an d M a q lu , b o th
o f w h ic h m e a n “b u r n in g .” S u r p u w as u s e d w h e n th e p a tie n t h a d no k n o w le d g e
o f ho w h e h ad o f fe n d e d th e g o d s o r d is tu rb e d th e w o rld o rd er. In th e se ritu a ls ,
all the p o s sib le sins h a d firs t to be e n u m e r a te d , an d th en the p a tie n t tra n s-
fe rre d his sins and s u ffe rin g to an o b je c t, su ch as a p e e le d o n io n , w h ic h w as
th ro w n in to a fire w h ile re c itin g a p p ro p ria te in c a n ta tio n s. T h e m a g ic ia n th e n
e x tin g u is h e d th e fire as w ell as the sins the p a tie n t h a d c o m m itte d .ls4M a q lu ,
on the o th e r h a n d , w as a n o c tu rn a l ritu al th a t w as in te n d e d to c o u n te ra c t b la c k
m a g ic an d th u s h e lp a p a tie n t w h o w as c o n v in c e d h e h ad b een b e w itc h e d .
F ig u rin e s o f th e s o rc e re r o r s o rc e re s s , m a d e o f w ax , w o o d , d o u g h , c la y or
b itu m e n , w ere m e lte d or b u r n t in fire , an d th e c o n ju ra tio n s w ere a d d r e s s e d to
th e so rc e re rs th e m s e lv e s , to g o d s o f th e n ig h t, or to the fire g o d G ib il w h o
d e s tr o y e d th e fig u rin e s o f th e s o r c e r e r s .185
T h e so -c a lle d A s s y r ia n M e d ic a l T exts list so m e s y m p to m s o r illn e ss e s the
p a tie n t m ay h a v e d e v e lo p e d w h e n he w as a v ic tim o f s o r c e r y :186
AMT 3 1 ,4 rev. 14 (= rev. 16):
DIS NA UH ina KA -su NU T A R -as NA BI ka-sip

Wenn ein Mensch - der Speichel in seinem Mund kann nicht gestopft werden -
dieser Mensch ist verhext.
AMT 86, 1 (II 3-7):
DIS NA SAG.DU-.sw is- sa-na-bat-su sit-ta [ . . . ] / / MAS.GI6.MES-5m p a r - d a ina
sit-ti-su iq -b [i .. .] II bir-ka-su ka-si-a ba- ma -as -s u sim- m[ a- tu...] II UZU-sw
ru-ti-ib-[tu] im-ta-na-al-lu-su II LU BI ka-si-ip

182 R einer 1985, 4 9 , n. 7.

183 Black and Green 1 9 9 2 ,6 7 -6 8 ,1 2 4 -1 2 8 ,1 4 9 ; see alsoFarber 1995 ,1 8 9 5 -1 9 0 9 ; B iggs 1 9 9 5 ,1 9 1 1 -1 9 2 3 .
184 R einer 1958.
185 M eier 1967; Farber 1995, 1898-1899.
86‫ י‬Cam pbell Thom pson 1923; transliteration and German translation by Thom sen 1987b, 5 1 , 83.

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 CO M M EN TARY A N D AN A LY SIS

Wenn ein Mensch - sein Kopf ist immer wieder angegriffen, [...] seine Traume
sind schrecklich, er spricht im Traum [...], seine Knie sind gebunden, sein
Brustkasten gelahmt (?) - sein Korper stets voll von Feuchtigkeit - dieser
Mensch ist verhext.
S in c e a c c u s a tio n s o f b e in g a s o rc e r e r o r so rc e re ss w ere se v e re , p e o p le u s in g
b la c k m a g ic w e re c a re fu l n o t to w rite c u rs e s d o w n . On the o th e r h a n d , false
a c c u s a tio n s o f s o rc e ry c o u ld le a d to the d e a th o f the p r o s e c u to r , as se e n in
th e L a w C o d e o f H a m m u r a p i § 2 . 187 W h a t have su rv iv ed are the m an y
ap o tro p a ic ritu a ls fo r d iss o lv in g c u rse s a n d g ettin g rid o f ev il th a t h a d b e fa lle n
som eone.
N e v e r th e le s s , c u rs e s w ere c o m m o n ly u s e d in tre a tie s, a c c o rd in g to w h ic h
it w as c u s to m a r y to c u rse th e v a s s a l, i.e ., th e p o te n tia l e n e m y . F o r in s ta n c e ,
w h e n th e A s s y ria n k in g E s a rh a d d o n w ro te v assal tre a tie s w ith n in e d iffe re n t
b o r d e rin g Ira n ia n states fo r s e c u rin g his d y n a s ty after his d e a th , th e v a s sa ls
w e re e x te n s iv e ly c u r s e d in case o f m is c o n d u c t or d is o b e d ie n c e .188 H e r e , as
in I s t a r ’s D e s c e n t, th e cu rse a lso in c lu d e s a w ish fo r illn e s s e s , as th e kin g
ask s G u la , th e h e a le r g o d d e s s , to in flic t th e v a ssa ls w ith illn e ss e s (§ 5 2 , 11.
4 6 1 - 4 6 3 ) : 189
Gula azugallatu rabltu mursu tanehu [ina libbikunu?]
simmu lazzu ina zumrikunu liskun [damu u sarku]
kima me ru[mlnka\
May Gula, the great physician, put illness and distress [in your hearts], (and)
enduring wounds to your bodies! Bathe in blood and pus like in water!
T h e e p ilo g u e o f the L a w C o d e o f H a m m u r a p i (C o l. 51, 5 0 -6 9 ) in c lu d e s a
le n g th y c u rs e fo r th e fu tu re k in g s w h o do n o t fo llo w the law s o f H a m m u r a p i,
a n d also here the d is o b e d ie n t k in g s are c u r s e d w ith illn e s s e s :190
dNin-kar-ra-ak II D U M U .M I A N -num II qa-bi-a-at II dum-qi'-ya II ina £-kur II
mur-sa-am kab-tam II A.zAg le-em-nam II si'-im-ma-am mar-sa-am II sa la
i-pa-as-se-hu II A .Z U !( S U ) qe-re-eb-su II la i-lam-ma-du II i-na si-im-di II la
u-na-ah-hu-su II ki-ma ni-si-ik mu-tim la in-na-sa-hu II i-na bi-ni-a-ti-su II
li-sa-si-a-as-sum-ma II a-di na-pi-is-ta-su II i-be-el-lu-u // a-na et-lu-ti-su II
li-id'(DA)-dam-ma-am
May N inkarrak,191 the daughter of Anu, who in Ekur speaks in my favor, bring
a severe illness upon his limbs, an evil asakku-demon, a sore wound which
none can assuage, whose nature the physician does not understand, which he
can not relieve with dressings, which, like the bite of death, can not be
removed, (and) until his life is extinguished, may he moan for his (lost)
manhood.
A s m e n tio n e d b e f o r e , the S u m e ria n D e s c e n t u ses a n o th e r m e a n s o f g e ttin g
In a n n a k illed : th e g o d d e ss is j u d g e d by th e A n u n n a , the sev en j u d g e s (11.
1 6 5 - 1 7 2 ):192

187 D river and M iles 1952-55.

188 W isem an 1958; W atanabe 1987.
189 Transliteration after W atanabe 1987, 164-165; E n glish translation by PL.
190 T ransliteration after W atanabe 1987, 35; E n glish translation by PL.
191 The patroness o f doctors and the h ealin g g od d ess Gula w as also w orshipped under the name
Ninkarrak, N in tin uga, M em e, as w ell as N in isin a, the god dess o f Isin, with w hom Inanna w as id en tified .
192 T ransliteration and translation after Katz 2 0 0 3 , 2 6 0 -2 6 1 .

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 IST A R ’S DESCENT A N D RESURRECTION

nin9-a-ni ®1*gu-za-ni-ta im-ma-da-an-zi

e-ne s1§gu‫־‬za-ni-ta dur im-mi-in-gar
da-nun-na di-ku5-imin-bi igi-ni-se di mu-un-da-ku5-ru-de
igi mu-si-in-bar gi-us-a-kam
inim i-ne-ne inim-libis-gig‫־‬ga-am
gu i-ne‫־‬de gu-nam-tag-ga-am
munus-tu-ra uzu-ni-sig-ga-se ba-an-ku4
uzu-ni-sig-ga §1§kak-ta lu ba-an-ta-la
She (= Inanna) raised her sister from her throne,
and took a seat on her (= Ereskigal’s) thrones
The Anunna, the seven judges, rendered a decision against her.
They looked at her, the look of death.
They spoke against her, a speech of wrath.
They shouted at her, a shout of guilt.
The ailing woman turned into a corpse.
The corpse was hung on a nail.
L a te r in the S u m e ria n v e rsio n , b o th E n lil an d N a n n a ex p la in I n a n n a ’s d e a th
as a p u n is h m e n t f o r an o ffe n s e ag ain st the m e o f the N e th e r w o rld (11.193-194,
2 0 7 -20 8):
The divine powers (me kur-ra) of the underworld are divine powers which
should not be craved, for whoever gets them must remain in the underworld.
S in ce the g o d d e ss o b e y s the m e ’s/g arza ( p a r s u ) o f the N e th e rw o rld as she
u n d re sse s w h ile e n te rin g th ro u g h the g a te s, the “ crav in g o f the m e ’s” w h ic h
ju stifie s h e r d e a th s e n te n c e m u st o c c u r later in the tex t. K atz has p o in te d o u t
th at the tw o lines (1 6 5 -1 6 6 ) e x p la in in g h o w so m e o n e (In an n a) sat o n s o m e o n e
e l s e ’s ( E r e s k ig a l’s) seat ju s t b e fo re ju d g in g In a n n a , m u st b e the cru cial p o in t
w h en the o ffe n s e is c o m m itte d . T h e se tw o lines h a v e b e e n c o n tro v e rs ia l
b e c a u s e the s u b je c t an d the o b je c t are n o t d e fin ite ly d e te rm in e d , and b e c a u s e
o f the o b sc u re use o f the ab lativ e suffix / ‫־‬ta/ w ith the v erb d u r . . .gar in line 166
(see also the c o m m e n t fo r lines 6 3 -6 5). T h e re fo re , som e ed ito rs h a v e in ter-
p re te d th e lines in a w ay th at E re s k ig a l left h e r seat v o lu n tarily on I n a n n a ’s
b eh alf. K atz arg u e s, h o w e v e r , th a t it is by u s u rp a tio n th at In a n n a tak es th e
th ro n e o f the q u e e n o f the N e th e rw o rld , d esp ite o f h e r p o w e rle ss statu s, an d
by d o in g so, also c o m e s in c o n ta c t w ith the d iv in e p o w ers o f the N e th e rw o rld .
It is ev id e n t th at th ere w o u ld n ot b e a ru le r w ith o u t div ine p o w ers to rule w ith ,
and n o w In a n n a has seiz ed the p o w e rs o f E re s k ig a l. In short, by actin g as a
u s u rp e r, In an n a has c o m m itte d a crim e that ju s tifie s a d eath p e n a lty .193
T h e fa c t th a t th e A n u n n a - g o d s re n d e re d th e ju d g m e n t on In a n n a h a s in-
f lu e n c e d th e v ie w th a t th e A n u n n a w ere ju d g in g the d e a d in th e N e th e r w o rld
in g e n e ra l. T his v ie w , h o w e v e r , has n o t f o u n d s u p p o rt in an y o th e r te x ts. I f
the d ead are j u d g e d , th e j u d g e is u s u a lly th e sun g o d , U tu / S a m a s . In th e D e a th
o f U r-N a m m u th e v e r d ic t is re n d e re d by G ilg a m e s , b u t th e u ltim a te c o m m a n d
is first g iv en b y E r e s k i g a l .194 T h e sam e s itu a tio n a p p lie s to th e A k k a d ia n

193 Katz 1995, 22 7 , n. 15; Katz 2 0 0 3 , 26 1-265; cf. F alkenstein 1965, 280 and n. 10. For E reskigal
leaving her seat voluntarily se e , e .g ., Sladek 1974, 2 1 , 165, and 2 02.
194 ETCSL: The D ea th o f Ur-Nam ma ( U r-Namma A), the version from Susa, 11. C 68-72:
At the com m and o f E reskigala, w ith (?) G ilg a m es, his b elo v ed brother, he w ill pass the
judgm ents o f the nether world and render t h e d ecision s concerning (?) all the men w ho fe ll
by w eapons and all the m en w h o guilty.

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 COM M ENTARY A N D A N A L Y SIS

D e s c e n t. F u r th e r m o r e , as K a tz has p o in te d o u t, the m o m e n t the A n u n n a

a p p e a r on the sc e n e in the S u m e ria n D e s c e n t , is w hen In a n n a is still a liv e,
n o t d e a d . M o s t im p o rta n tly , she is n o t a h u m a n b e in g , b u t a g o d d e s s . T h e re -
f o re , this is n o t th e c a s e o f ju d g in g a d e a d p e r s o n , and the a p p e a ra n c e o f the
A n u n n a as ju d g e s c a lls fo r a n o th e r e x p la n a tio n . K atz su gg ests th a t the re a so n
f o r th e ir a p p e a ra n c e is th e act o f u s u rp a tio n by In a n n a , w h ich is an act s e v e re
e n o u g h to n e e d th e ju d g m e n t o f o th e r g r e a t g o d s as w ell, n o t j u s t by E re s k ig a l
a lo n e , and that th e A n u n n a w e re the ju d g e s fo r o th e r d e itie s .195
In the case th a t I n a n n a /Is ta r in the m y th is th e S o u l, an d th u s a p a r a g o n for
th e h u m a n so u l, th e im p o rta n c e o f the sc e n e w ith th e A n u n n a lies in th e fact
th a t the g o d d e s s /S o u l u ltim a te ly d ies b e c a u s e o f h er sin fu l a c tio n (s) (cf.
S o p h ia ’s s p iritu a l d e a th in th e G n o s tic E x e g e s is on the Soul; see the c o m m e n t
f o r lin e 10). W h e th e r th e A n u n n a a p p e a r as j u d g e s fo r th e d eities o r for
h u m a n s o r w h e th e r E re s k ig a l afflic ts I s ta r w ith d eath ly d ise a se s d o es not
r e a lly m a tte r, as the im p o rta n c e lies in th e resu lt: th e g o d d ess m u st die.
Lines 76-80 and 85-90: A s soo n as I s ta r h as d e s c e n d e d to th e N e th e r w o rld ,
i.e ., as so o n as she has b een u n d re s s e d o f h e r p o w ers and d ie s, the fe rtility on
e a r th d isa p p e a rs . I s t a r ’s d eath a ffe c ts the a n im a ls as w ell as th e h u m a n s. T h is
is n o t th e case in th e S u m e ria n v e rs io n , w h e re I n a n n a ’s d is a p p e a ra n c e d oes
n o t h a v e any c o n s e q u e n c e fo r fe rtility , o r at le a s t it is not m e n tio n e d . I n s te a d ,
th e re the im p a c t o n fertility has a lw a y s b e e n seen in the fa te o f D u m u z i.
T r a d itio n a lly , th e m y th o f the D e s c e n t h a s b e e n c la s sifie d w ith th e S u m e-
ria n s a c re d m a r ria g e c y c le , i.e., w ith th e D u m u z i- In a n n a lo v e so n g c y c le . T h is
c la s s if ic a tio n h as b e e n a re su lt o f the fa c t th a t b o th the D e s c e n t and th e s a c re d
m a rria g e o f I n a n n a a n d D u m u z i, i.e., th e u n io n b etw een the g o d d e s s an d the
k in g , are c o n n e c te d w ith fe rtility . It h a s to be n o te d , h o w e v e r, th a t a lth o u g h
th e S u m e ria n s a c re d m a rria g e is n ot e x c lu s iv e ly a fe rtility ritu a l, so m e o f the
lo v e so n g s d e s c rib in g the u n io n e x p lic itly state th a t the m a rria g e a ffe c te d
g e n e ra l fe rtility . B e c a u s e o f the fe rtility th e m e , S. N . K r a m e r, fo r in sta n c e ,
h a s s u g g e s te d th a t th e D e s c e n t w a s c r e a te d to e x p la in w h y , d u rin g th e b a r re n
tim e o f the y e a r, all th e v e g e ta tio n d ie d . N a tu r a lly this co u ld on ly m e a n th at
th e g o d in c h a r g e o f th e se e s s e h tia l a c tiv itie s h a d d ied an d g o n e to the
N e th e r w o rld an d th e r e fo r e c o u ld no l o n g e r fu n c tio n . T his g o d w as D u m u z i,
th e sh e p h e rd , w h o at the e n d o f the m y th is sen t to the N e th e r w o rld to take
I n a n n a ’s p la c e . F u r th e r , th e D e s c e n t e x p la in e d w hy D u m u z i, a lth o u g h m ad e
im m o rta l, h a d su ch a tra g ic fate r e m e m b e r e d in l a m e n ts .196
As alre a d y m e n tio n e d , in th e A k k a d ia n v e rsio n it is th e g o d d e s s w h o s e
s o rry fa te a ffe c ts th e fe rtility . I n a n n a /I s ta r w as not really a fe rtility g o d d e s s ,
b u t a g o d d e ss o f lo v e and s e x u a lity , as w e ll as w a rfa re . T h e d ra stic re s u lt her
d e a th ca u s e s can be e x p la in e d w ith the fa c t th at, w h en I s t a r ’s p o w e r o f
s e x u a lity w as e x tin g u is h e d , p e o p le a n d a n im a ls also lost th e ir se x u a l d e s ire
to p r o c re a te . A s T. F r y m e r - K e n s k y h as p o in te d o u t, she r e p re s e n te d the
a ttra c tio n th a t w a s n e c e s s a ry fo r s e x u a l c o p u la tio n , and th e re fo re , all sex u al
d e s ire a n d c o p u la tio n d e p e n d e d on h e r p r e s e n c e . 197

195 Katz 1995, 231 and n. 23; Katz 2 0 0 3 , 4 0 2 -4 0 4 .

196 Kramer 1969, 107.
197 Frym er-K ensky 1 9 9 3 ,4 7 .

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 IST A R ’S DESCENT A N D RESURRECTION

Lines 81-84: P a p s u k k a l, th e m in iste r or v iz ie r (su k k al) o f the g re a t g o d s , is

also I s t a r ’s v iz ie r. In the S u m e ria n v e rs io n , I n a n n a ’s v iz ie r is c a lle d N in -
s u b u r .198 In th is e a rlie r v e rs io n , In a n n a , b e fo re e n te rin g the N e th e r w o rld ,
in stru c ts N in s u b u r first to p e r fo r m the p ro p e r m o u rn in g rites an d la m e n t fo r
h er. T h e n she s h o u ld go to e a c h o f I n a n n a ’s f a th e rs , E n lil, N a n n a , an d E n k i,
to ask fo r h elp in re le a sin g th e ir d a u g h te r fro m h er d e a th ly p riso n .
I n a n n a in stru c ts N in s u b u r w ith the f o llo w in g w o rd s (11. 3 4 - 4 7 ) :199
Make a lament for me in my ruined (temples),
beat the drum for me in the sanctuary, ‫״‬
make the rounds of the [temples] of the gods for me,
scratch at [your eyes], scratch at your nose,
scratch at your ears, the public place,
scratch at your buttocks, the private place,
like a pauper, clothe yourself in a single garment,
and all alone [set] your foot in the Ekur, the temple o f Enlil,
when you have entered the [E]kur, the temple of Enlil,
lament before Enlil:
“ [Father] Enlil, do n’t let anyone subjugate your daughter in the Netherworld,
d o n ’t let your precious metal be alloyed there with the dirt of the Netherworld,
do n’t let your precious lapis lazuli be split there with the mason’s stone,
do n’t let your boxwood be chopped up there with the carpenter’s lumber,
do n’t let young lady Inanna be subjugated in the Netherworld.”
W h a t fo llo w s are f u rth e r instructiori% to also visit N a n n a , th e m o o n g o d ,
an d th e n E n k i, the g o d o f w is d o m .
In the A k k a d ia n v e rs io n th e se in stru c tio n s are ig n o re d , b u t are ag ain to be
re a d im p lic itly in the s to ry , sin ce it is o b v io u s th a t P a p s u k k a l has re c e iv e d
in stru c tio n s o f w h a t to d o a fte r I s t a r ’s d e s c e n t. C o n s e q u e n tly , a fter s h o w in g
his g rie f, P a p s u k k a l g o es first to Sin an d th e n to E a to seek h elp fo r Ista r. T h e
v isit to E n lil has b e e n c o m p le te ly ig n o re d , p ro b a b ly b e c a u s e his g reat im p o rt-
an ce in th e p a n th e o n h a d d e c lin e d by th e tim e the A k k a d ia n v e rs io n w a s
w ritten . T h e story d o e s n o t d is c lo s e any d e ta ils o f P a p s u k k a l ’s v isit to S in ,
b u t o b v io u s ly the la tte r re fu s e s to h e lp his d a u g h te r in the sam e w ay as in th e
S u m e ria n v e rs io n , a n d th e re fo re P a p s u k k a l e n d s up w ith E a (= E n k i). L in e s
8 1 -8 4 read:
Papsukkal, the minister of the great gods, his nose downcast, his face gloomy,
dressed in a mourning garment, his hair unkempt,
wearily, went before Sin, his father, weeping,
his tears flowing in front of Ea, the king.
T h e s e tw o p a s s a g e s c ite d a b o v e d e s c rib e h o w a n c ie n t M e s o p o ta m ia n s
sh o w e d m o u rn in g a fter o n e ’s d e a th . It w as e x p e c te d th a t b o th th e r e la tiv e s
an d th e frie n d s o f the d e c e a s e d m a d e p u b lic d isp la y o f th e ir g rie f. T h e y w e re
e x p e c te d to d re ss an d act in a p r o p e r w a y fo r m o u rn in g , w h ic h m e a n t th a t
th ey w o re e ith e r s a c k c lo th o r to rn c lo th e s , th ey r e m o v e d th e ir tu rb a n s o r
c o v e re d th e ir h e a d s w ith th e ir g a r m e n ts , an d th e y d id n o t b a th e o r g r o o m th e ir

198 Ninsubur is fem inine w hen she acts as the m inister o f Inanna, m asculine w hen he acts as the m inister
o f An (Sladek 1974, 187; see also B lack and Green 1992, 14 1 -1 4 2 ). N ote that the Sum erian word nin can
m ean both “lady” and “lord.”
Translation after Sladek 1974, 156-1 5 7 . See the com m ent for lin e 40 for the idea that the god dess
is here described in the form o f a statue.

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 COM M ENTARY A N D A N A L Y SIS

h a ir. T e a rin g o u t o n e ’s h a ir o r s c ra tc h in g th e c h eek s and b re a s t w ere e x tre m e

a c ts o f m o u rn in g , an d w e re u su a lly p r a c tic e d by w o m e n (b u t see the c o m m e n t
f o r lin es 9 1 -9 2 fo r th e s e lf-in flic te d w o u n d s an d s e lf-c a stra tio n o f the d ev o -
te e s o f I n a n n a /Is ta r) . T h e m o u rn in g rites c o u ld la s t fo r as lo ng as s ev en d ay s
i f th e d e c e a s e d w a s a p r o m in e n t p e rso n . T h e re w ere also p r o fe s s io n a l m a le
a n d fe m a le m o u rn e rs (e .g ., g a la /k a lu ) 200 w h o c o u ld be h ire d fo r a d is p la y o f
s o rro w o r to lead th e la m e n ts (see also th e n e x t c o m m e n t fo r lines 9 1 - 9 2 ) .201
In the S u m e ria n D e s c e n t, D u m u z i m a k e s th e tra g ic m ista k e o f n o t s h o w in g
a n y sig n s o f g r ie f o v e r his w i f e ’s d e a th , a n d as a c o n s e q u e n c e , the g o d d e s s
d e c id e s to g iv e h im as h e r su b stitu te in to th e fsfetherworld. H o w e v e r, th e en d
o f th e S u m e ria n v e r s io n d e s c rib e s h o w I n a n n a “w e p t b itte rly fo r h e r h u s b a n d
( fo llo w e d by fo u r f ra g m e n ta ry lin e s ) , a n d she to re at h e r h a ir like e s p a rto
g r a s s , she rip p e d it o u t lik e e s p a rto g r a s s .” O n e m ig h t also ad d th a t, in o n e o f
th e e r s e m m a - la m e n ts (se e la te r), D u m u z i in stru c ts his s is te r G e s tin a n n a to
a s k th e ir m o th e r to e x p re ss h e r g r ie f o v e r h im the sam e w ay as In a n n a
in s tru c ts N in s u b u r in th e D e s c e n t: 202
May she scratch her eyes for me! May she scratch her nose for me!
May she scratch her ears, the ‘public place,’ for me!
May she scratch her buttocks, the ‘secret place,’ for me!
May she [go] to the house (of) her personal god for me!
May she [go] for me, (that) I, the young man, can stay away from the
galla-demon!
T h e S u m e ria n v e r s io n a lso m e n tio n s c u ltic la m e n ta tio n an d m o u rn in g for
th e ru in s o f th e a b a n d o n e d te m p le s o f I n a n n a . It is am ply d o c u m e n te d in the
la m e n ts w ritten in E m e s a l (“ w o m e n ’s l a n g u a g e ,” fo r w h ic h see th e n e x t
c o m m e n t) th a t, if a d e ity left h is or h e r te m p le by fo rc e o r fo r s o m e o th e r
r e a s o n , it re su lte d in th e ru in o f th a t te m p le . H e re it is In a n n a th a t has le ft h e r
te m p le s - by h e r o w n w ill - b y d e s c e n d in g to the N e th e rw o rld (see also the
c o m m e n t fo r lin e 4 0 ). O n th e o th e r h a n d , in th e la m e n ts it w as c u s to m a r y to
w is h fo r the retu rn o f th e d eity to the te m p le in q u e s tio n , a n d also h e re I n a n n a

200 See Rubio 2 0 0 1 , 2 7 0 . On the existen ce o f fem ale g a la , see al-R aw i 1992, 180-185.
201 Scurlock 1995, 1885-1886. For other groups o f p ersons perform ing the m ourning, see the com m ent
for lin es 9 1 -9 2 .
202 Ersemma no. 88,11. 53-57 in C ohen 1981, 8 5 , 87:
[ i - b ]1 h a -m a -d a -H A R k i r i 4 h a -m a -d a -H A R
[ g e s ] t u g 2 k i - u 6- d a h a -[m a ] -d a -H A R
[ k i ] - l u - d a n u - ru 6H d i ] r x L T A (? ) h [a -m a - d ] a -H A R
1e "1 d i n g i r - r a - n e [ ( . . . ) ] h a - m a - d a - [ . . . ] - e
g u r u s - m e - e n g a l 5- l a - t a m u - z a l h a - m a - d a - [ . . . ] - e
C o m p a r e th e p a s s a g e w i t h In a n n a ’s D esc en t, 11. 3 7 - 4 0 ( t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n a n d t r a n s l a t i o n a f t e r ETCSL:
I n a n a ’s d esce n t to the n eth er world):
[ i- b f - z u ] h u r - m a - a b g i r i 17- z u h u r - m a - a b
[g e s tu g 2 k i] u 6 d i- z u [h u r-m a -a b ]
k i m u - l u - d a n u - d i h a s 4- g a l - z u h u r - m a - a b
m u - l u n u - t u k u - g i n 7 t u g d i l i - a m u r 10- m a - a b
e - k u r - r e e dm u - u l - l f l - l a - s e m e - r i - z u d i l i [ g u b - m u - u n ]
Lacerate your e y e s for m e, lacerate your n ose for m e.
Lacerate your ears for m e, in public.
In private, lacerate your buttocks for m e.
L ike a pauper, cloth e y o u rself in a sin g le garm ent and
all alone set your foot in the E-kur, the h ouse o f E n lil.
W h e r e a s t h e D e sc e n t u s e s i m p e r a t i v e ( s g . 2 .) f o r m s , e . g . , h u r - m a - a b , th e e r s e m m a u s e s p r e c a t i v e ( s g .
3 .) f o r m s , e .g . , h a -m a - d a -H A R .

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 IST A R ’S DESCENT A N D RESURRECTION

h e r s e lf asks N in s u b u r to m a k e su ch a la m e n t for h e r.203 T h e lam en ts c o u ld be

p e rfo rm e d by sin g in g o r be a c c o m p a n ie d w ith a m u sic a l in s tru m e n t, su ch as
a d ru m . In fa c t, th e initial lin es 35 a n d 36 o f the re le v a n t S u m e ria n p a s sa g e
b e g in w ith th e w o rd s er (la m e n t) a n d sem (a ty p e o f a d r u m /ta m b o u r in e , A k k .
halhallatu ), w h ic h fo rm s th e n a m e o f o n e o f the m a jo r typ es o f E m e s a l
la m e n ts , n a m e ly th e e r -s e m -m a (“ w ail o f the s e m - d r u m /ta m b o u r in e ” ; see the
c o m m e n t fo r lin es 9 1 - 9 2 ).204 In fa c t, th e re are a few e rs e m m a s th a t fo c u s o n
I n a n n a ’s d e s c e n t to th e lan d o f th e d e a d as w ell as th e su b se q u e n t e ffe c ts o f
h e r d eath on h e r city o f U ru k , te m p le s , etc. T h e re are also e rse m m a s th a t d e a l
w ith the a fte rm a th o f the D e s c e n t , n a m e ly t h e ’tra g ic fa te o f D u m u z i, a n d the
so rro w his w ife I n a n n a , h is sister G e s tin a n n a , and his m o th e r Z e rtu r (S irtu r)
all h av e o v e r h im .205
Lines 91-92: In o rd e r to r e sc u e h is d a u g h te r fro m th e r e a lm o f th e d e a d , E a ,
the g o d o f w is d o m , c re a te s the “ w o r d ” ( zikru ), Asusu-namir, w h o s e n a m e
m e a n s “H is A p p e a r a n c e (lit. ‘C o m in g O u t ’) is B r ig h t.” 206 A c c o rd in g to the
N in e v e h r e c e n s io n (m a n u s c r ip t A ) , he is an assinnu, a n d a c c o rd in g to th e
A s su r re c e n s io n ( m a n u s c r ip t C ), he is a kulu’u. It is his ta sk to ask fo r th e
w a te rsk in , i.e., th e d e a d Is ta r, and to be a llo w e d to h a v e a d rin k f ro m th a t,
a n d in this w ay to h a v e the d ead g o d d e s s to h im s e lf (see b e lo w , the c o m m e n t
fo r lines 1 0 9 -1 1 8 ). E r e s k ig a l, h o w e v e r , rea liz e s the p la n a n d c u rses Asusu-
namir, a fte r w h ic h he d isa p p e a rs fro m th e sc e n e , and it is, in fact, N a m ta r
w h o sp rin k le s I s t a r ’s b o d y w ith th e w afer o f life.
In the S u m e ria n Descent, E n k i (= E a ) sen ds tw o p e r s o n s , a k u rg a rra a n d a
g a la tu rra , to re s c u e the g o d d e s s. It is th e ir ta s k to s p rin k le the life -g iv in g p la n t
and the life -g iv in g w a te r on th e g o d d e s s in o rd e r to b rin g h er to life. T h e e x a c t
n atu re o f th e se tw o re sc u e rs h as b e e n m u c h d e b a te d , b u t b a s e d on th e
e v id e n c e , it is c le a r th a t b o th o f th e m b e lo n g e d to the v a s t v a rie ty o f d e v o te e s
o f In a n n a /Is ta r, a n d th a t th e y w ere se x u a lly a m b iv a le n t.
T h e S u m e ria n te rm fo r th e A k k a d ia n assinnu is sag u rsag (s a g -u r-sa g ),
w h e re a s the S u m e ria n te rm k u rg a rra (k u r-g a r-ra ) is tra n sla te d into A k k a d ia n
by a lo a n w o rd kurgarru .207 T h e fa c t th a t b o th o f th e se tw o g ro u p s w e re
sex u ally a m b iv a le n t o r tra n s v e s tite s , is e x p la in e d in a S u m e ria n sa c re d m ar-
riag e te x t, Iddin-Dagan A, w h ic h w as w ritte n fo r th e Isin D y n a sty k in g

203 S ee, e .g ., C ohen, 1981, no. 7 9 , the ersem m a o f the goddess N ingirgilu (= Inanna), and nos. 32 and
106, which are also addressed to Inanna.
204 Sladek 1974, 187-188; Krecher 1966, 2 1 , n. 11, and 25; H allo 1995, 1872-73; C ohen 1981, 6 , 18.
Cohen notes that the term “w a il” is som ew hat m isleadin g for the ersem m a-com p osition s, as they are not
alw ays mournful or sad (ib id .), se e , e .g ., nos. 34.1 and 3 4 .2 , w hich only praise Inanna.
205 See C ohen 1981, for ersem m as nos. 3 2, 7 9 , and 106 that deal with the destruction o f the tem ple o f
Eanna and the city o f Uruk w h ile the goddess is held in the Netherworld; and nos. 6 0, 8 8, 9 7 , 165 deal
with the capture and death o f D um uzi.
206 M . N issin en (1998b , 147, n. 50) translates the nam e as “H is departure (from the underworld) is
sp len did.” W . von S oldt (in Katz 1995, 22 9 , n. 19) has remarked that the name Asusu-namir occurs in
other texts as w e ll, w here its m eaning is “H is/Its rising is brilliant,” w hich refers to the rising o f a ce le stia l
body. The nam e is frequently attested in the texts from Nippur during the K assite period (cf. C lay 1 9 1 2 ,
142; I. Bernhardt, TM H N F 5 , 17; Stam m 1939, 184 n. 7 , and 369; CAD A /2 , s.v . asu, 3 6 9 ). Further, the
name could be given to both m en and w om en, as is shown by the unpublished M iddle Babylonian personnel
roster CBS 3 4 7 2 , side B ii' 5': m unus UD-iw-ZALAGj-ir dum u.munus i I-n a -di-n i-ra-x[...]\ and 8':
dum u.gaba 1 UD-sM-ZALAG2-/r dum u.a.ni (v iz ., 1 sum -^ag). In these exam p les, the su ffix -su can only refer
to u d , i.e ., the celestia l b ody, and not to the bearer o f the name.
207 On assinnu, kurgarru and the other d evotees o f Inanna discussed b elo w , see also N issin en , ib id .,
2 8 -3 6 , 144-152.

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I d d in - D a g a n (ca. 1 9 7 4 -1 9 5 4 BCE). In lines 6 0-6 3 o f the te x t in q u e s tio n , the

s a g u rs a g are d e s c rib e d in th e fo llo w in g m a n n e r :208
Dressed with m en’s clothing on the right side, they parade before her, holy
Inanna...
Adorned (?) with w om en’s clothing on the left side, they parade before her,
holy Inanna.
A p p a r e n t l y , the ro le o f tra n s v e s tite s an d m e n b e h a v in g lik e w o m e n w as not
te m p o r a r y , b u t p e r m a n e n t, a c h ie v e d b y c a s tra tio n o r s e lf-e m a s c u la tio n 209 as
r e fe r r e d to in the sa m e te x t (1. 76): *
Those who (kurgarra) cover their swords with gore spatter blood as they parade
before her, holy Inanna.
F u r th e r , I d d in - D a g a n A 4 9 says th a t th e sag u rsag (a s s in n u ) c o v e re d th e ir
b o d ie s (k u s-b i-a ) w ith th e “ s k in /le a th e r /b o d y o f d iv in ity (k u s n a m - d ig ir - ra ) ,”
th u s in d ic a tin g th a t sin ce th e y w e re a llo w e d to be d re s s e d as d eities o r e v e n
h a d d iv in e b o d ies (k us = b o d y ) , th e y w e r e , in fa c t, id e n tifie d w ith I n a n n a .210
I n a n n a /Is ta r h e r s e l f w as n o t o n ly a b e a u tif u l m a id e n and v irg in , th e G o d d e s s
p a r e x c e lle n c e , b u t she w as also a n d r o g y n o u s , as she h ad b o th fe m in in e an d
m a s c u lin e c h a ra c te ris tic s e n tw in e d in h er. H e r n a tu re w as b ip o la r in m a n y
r e s p e c ts , c o m b in in g an d m e d ia tin g th e o p p o s ite s , in c lu d in g fe m in in e and
m a s c u lin e c h a r a c te r is tic s , e ro tic sex a n d c a s tra tio n .211 S h e h ad the a b ility to
c h a n g e p e o p l e ’s s e x , o r ra th e r, h e r fo llo w e rs e m u la te d h e r n atu re by e m a s c u -
la tio n , b u t a p p a re n tly also in o th e r, le ss ra d ic a l w a y s , such as b y d r e s s in g in
th e c lo th e s o f the o p p o s ite sex. T h e f irs t m ille n n iu m te x t E r r a a n d I s u m IV
5 5 -5 8 s ta te s :212
de-ku-u e-an-na kur-gar-ri L U .i-sin-[ni]
sa ana sup-lu-uh U N .M E S dIstar zik-ru-su-nu u-te-ru ana M [L M E S ]
na-as pat-r i na-as nag-la-bi qup-pe-e u sur-t[i ]
sa ana ul-lu-us kab-ta-at dIstar i-tak-ka-lu ra^-[sak-ka]
They remove from Eanna (= Istar’s temple in Uruk) the kurgarru and issinnu
(= assinnu), whose manhood Jstar changed to womanhood in order to strike
awe into the people, the wielders o f daggers and razors, vintner’s shears and
flint knives, who take part in tabooed acts for the entertainment of Istar.
A t M a ri th ere w e re c a s tra te assm n M -p ro p h ets in the serv ice o f the g o d d e s s
A n u n itu m (= Is ta r), tw o o f th e m k n o w n b y th e ir p ro p e r n a m e s .213 A c c o rd -
in g ly , the e v id e n c e also su g g e sts that s o m e o f I s t a r ’s or M u ll is s u ’s p ro p h e ts

208 ETCSL: A sir-n am ursaga to N in siana f o r Id d in -D agan (Iddin -D agan A).

209 Groneberg 1986, 39 and n. 86.
210 G. L eick (1 9 9 4 , 158-1 5 9 ) su ggests that kus-nam -digir-ra refers to the p hysical distinction o f the
sag-ur-sag divin ely b estow ed on these in dividu als. This p h ysical distinction could have b een a genital
m alform ation , herm aphroditism , or absence o f external g en ita ls. Like the Indian Hijras, their M esopota-
m ian eq u ivalen ts, assinnus (and sim ilar p eop le) w ere part o f the religiou s system , nam ely Inanna/Istar’s
cu lt.
2!1 Lapinkivi 2 0 0 4 , 178-182; G roneberg 1986, 3 0 -4 6 .
212 Cagni 1969, 110-111; translation in “Erra and Ishum ” in Foster 1 9 9 6 ,7 8 1 -7 8 2 .
213 In A R M 10 7 = ARM 26 213 an assinnu named Selebum (cf. AR M 10 80 = ARM 26 197 and the
end o f the letter) falls into a trance in the tem ple o f Anunitum and delivers an oracle to the king; in ARM
10 6 = AR M 26 21 2 another assinnu, nam ed Ili-haznaya, d elivers an oracle to the king (see a lso Parpola
1997a, CIII n. 220; cf. X C V I n. 138.

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 !ST A R ’S DESCENT A N D RESURRECTION

(,raggimu/mahhu ) w e re c a s tra te s .214 T h e re are tw o p ro p h e c ie s fo r the N e o -

A s sy ria n ru le r E s a r h a d d o n f ro m th e p ro p h e ts B a y a a n d I lu s s a -a m u r , w h ic h
in d ic a te th a t th e se tw o p e rso n s w e re at th e sam e tim e b o th a w o m a n a n d a
m an. T h e ir n a m e s h a v e a fe m in in e d e te rm in a tiv e M I , b u t th e y are r e fe r r e d to
as D U M U (“ s o n ” ) o r w ith a m a sc u lin e p r o n o u n .215
In the A s su r re c e n s io n o f th e Descent, I s t a r ’s r e s c u e r is c a lle d kulu’u. S in ce
the tw o te rm s , assinnu an d kulu’u, o c c u r as v arian ts o f o n e a n o th e r, it is c le a r
th at th e se tw o o ffic e s w e re re la te d , o r ev e n e q u a te d . B a s e d on this e q u a tio n ,
it is safe to a s su m e th a t the role o f the kulu’u w as sim ilar to th at o f the assinnu
in the c u lt o f Ista r. A c c o r d in g ly , the e v i d e n c e 5in d ic a te s th a t th e kulu’u w ere
not m en: (P N ) sa taqbu umma kulu’u la zikaru su, “ (P N ) a b o u t w h o m y o u
said , ‘he is a kulu’u, h e is n o t a m a n ’” (A fO 10 3:21) 216 In a n o th e r p ie c e o f
e v id e n c e kulu’u is p a r a lle le d w ith a harimtu, a “fe m a le p r o s titu te ” : amat
abika amat ummika amat ahatika am at L U . kulu’u u harimti ali attadin ina
erseti mukattimti, “ I h a v e g iv e n to the c o v e rin g o f earth th e w o rd o f y o u r (m y
e n e m y ’s) fa th e r, th e w o rd o f y o u r m o th e r, th e w o rd o f y o u r sister (as it w e re)
the w o rd o f the kulu’u a n d the w o rd o f th e h a rlo t o f the c ity ” (K A R 4 3 :3 , d u p l.
6 3 :3 , tra n sl. a fte r C A D K , s.v. kulu’u, 5 2 9 ). A c c o rd in g to y et a n o th e r p ie c e
o f e v id e n c e kulu’u is liste d as p a rt o f I s t a r ’s in tim a te en to u ra g e : ittiki liruba
salilki tabu h[ab]bubuki u kulu’uki, “let y o u r sw eet b e d f e llo w , y o u r lo v e r a n d
y o u r kulu’u co m e in w ith y o u (Z A 32 174:47 [SB n a m b u r b i] , see R A 4 9 182:3,
tra n sl. a fte r the C A D , ib id .).217 B a s e d o p this e v id e n c e , it is lik ely th a t kulu’u
w as s e x u a lly a m b iv a le n t, a tra n s v e s tite o r a c a s tra te , a n d c o m p a ra b le to a
fe m a le p ro stitu te .
In the S u m e ria n Descent, I n a n n a ’s o th e r re s c u e r is c a lle d g a la tu rra (g ala-
tu r-ra). T h e g a la (A k k . kalu) w e re ritu a l sin g ers w ho sp e c ia liz e d in re c itin g
la m e n ta tio n s . T h e y a c c o m p a n ie d th e ir sin g in g w ith m u s ic a l in s tru m e n ts , su ch
as a h a rp o r a ly re (b a la g ), o r w ith d iffe re n t k in d s o f d ru m s ( halhallatu,
lilissu).2n S u m e ria n cu ltic la m e n ta tio n s w ere w ritten in E m e s a l, “ w o m e n ’s
la n g u a g e .” T h e e x a c t n atu re o f E m e s a l is d isp u te d , b u t w h e th e r it can be
called a n o th e r d ia le c t o r w h e th e r it o n ly h as to do w ith the literary g e n re a n d
style (u se d in la m e n ta tio n s , c ity la m e n ts, w o m e n ’s o r g o d d e s s e s ’ s p eech in
m y th s and lo v e s o n g s ) , it is s tro n g ly c o n n e c te d w ith w o m e n an d th e fe m a le
s p h e re .219 F o r in s ta n c e , in th e T a m m u z c u lt, la m e n ta tio n s a n d m o u rn in g w e re
larg ely p e r fo r m e d by w o m e n , o r b y g a la - c h a n te rs , and the T a m m u z tex ts o f
the firs t m ille n n iu m w e re m o stly w ritte n in E m e s a l.220 F u r th e r m o r e , th e
e v id e n c e fro m E z e k ie l ( E z e k 8:1 4) re fe rs to w o m e n ’s p a r tic ip a tio n in th e

214 Istar o f A rbela and M u llissu , A ssu r’s w ife , are frequently equated, e.g . in oracle no 2 .4 ,1 . 30': “The
word o f Istar o f A rbela, the word o f Q ueen M u llissu !” For this and other exam p les, see Parpola 1997a,
X V III, and n. 5.
215 Parpola 1997a, Baya (Mi.ba-ia-a d u m u u r u .ar-b a-il), IL, oracle 1.4:40‫ ;׳‬Ilussa-am ur (M 1.D1NG1R-.sa
a-m [ur], referred to w ith the sg. m. pronoun a tta ) , L, oracle 1.5. For the term inology o f the prophets, see
ib id ., X L V -X L V II.
216 “K u lu ’u la zikaru su” appears in a letter about a short-term ruler o f A ssyria, N inurta-tukulti-A ssur
(ca. 1115 BCE), see W eidner 1935-1 9 3 6 , 3.
Zimmern 1 9 18-19, 174; E beling 1955, 182.
2!8 For the gal&lkalu see C A D K , s.v . kalu, 91 -94; and, e .g ., G elb 1 9 7 5 ,6 4 -7 4 ; H allo 1 9 9 5 ,1 8 7 2 ; R ubio
2 0 0 1 , 270; Krecher 1966, 2 6 -2 8 , 35-41.
219 For the use o f E m esal, see e .g ., Krecher 1966; T hom sen 1987a, 2 8 5 -2 9 4 ; S efati 1998, 53-55; and
R ubio 2 0 0 1 , 2 6 9 -2 7 1 , all with references.
220 Kutscher 1990, 44.

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m o u r n in g r itu a ls , as d o c s th e m o u rn in g f o r T a ’uz (= D u m u z i) a m o n g the

S a b e a n w o m e n in th e city o f H a rra n in m e d ie v a l tim e s .221
T h e c a s tra tio n o f th e g a la is a d is p u te d m a tte r, sin ce th ere is e v id e n c e th a t
th e r e w e re b o th f e m a le an d m a le g a la - c h a n te rs , an d m a n y a d m in is tra tiv e tex ts
m e n tio n th at a g a la c o u ld h a v e c h ild re n a n d a w if e .222 O n the o th e r h a n d ,
W . G. L a m b e rt h as p o in te d o u t th at th e g a la c o u ld be c a s tra te d and still h av e
c h ild r e n , since they c o u ld s im p ly h a v e a d o p te d .223 In any c a s e , the g a la w ere
c u ltic s in g e rs , an d if th e m a le g a la w e re n o t p h y s ic a lly c a s tra te d (o r m a y b e
b o rn w ith o u t a c le a r g e n d e r ), p e rh a p s th e y w<gre th en tra n sv e s tite s , im ita tin g
b e in g w o m e n . F u r th e r m o r e , it is in te re s tin g th at the w o rd itself, g a la , is a
h o m o n y m fo r th e w o rd g a l4-la , “v u lv a ,” w h ic h c o u ld in d ic a te th e k a l u ’s
s e x u a l a m b iv a le n c e .224 T o c o n c lu d e , I n a n n a ’s re sc u e r, the g a la tu rra , w as a
j u n i o r g a la - c h a n te r ( o f l a m e n ta tio n s ) ,” w h ic h m a y h a v e re fe rre d to a c a s tra te
c h o i r b o y .225
T h e r e is so m e e v id e n c e , a lb e it s c a n ty , for h o m o s e x u a l ac tiv ity o f the
d e v o te e s o f the g o d d e s s . F o r in s ta n c e , o n e o f the o m en s o f the S u m m a a lu
s e rie s sp eak s o f a m a n w h o h as a n eed to h a v e sex w ith a n o th e r m a n , “lik e an
a s s i n n u r 226 A n o th e r s ta te s , th a t, “ if a m an c o p u la te s w ith an a s s in n u , a h a rd
d e s tin y w ill le a v e h im ( ? ) .”227 F u r th e r , b a s e d on the e q u a tio n o f fe m a le
p r o s titu te s , h a r im tu , w ith k u lu 'u (see a b o v e ), W . R. S lad ek has te n ta tiv e ly
s u g g e s te d th at the k u l u ’u w e r e p e rh a p s m a le h o m o s e x u a l p r o s titu te s .228 W h e n
r e v ie w in g the e v id e n c e , M . N is s in e n n o te s th a t th e re is th e p o s sib ility o f an
a s s in n u actin g as “ a p a s s iv e p a r tn e r in a sex u al c o n ta c t w ith m e n ,” b u t if th at
w a s th e c a s e , it d o es n o t n e c e s s a rily r e fe r to o n e ’s sex u al o rie n ta tio n , sin ce
se x u a l c o n ta c t w ith a d e v o te e o f I n a n n a /Is ta r w as the sam e as a u n io n w ith
th e g o d d e s s h e rse lf. F u r th e r m o r e , as N is s in e n p o in ts o u t, if the d e v o te e s w ere
r e a lly e m a s c u la te d , th e y h a rd ly w ere s e x u a lly o rie n te d to a n y o n e , w o m a n or
m an. S till, the lo g o g ra p h ic s p e llin g o f th e w o rd gala(&a//i) is p r o v o c a tiv e ,
s in c e i t w a s w ritte n w ith th e sign s US X U , w h ic h eq u als G IS .D U R , G IS m e a n in g
p e n i s , ” an d D U R “b u t t o c k s / a n u s .” T h e lo g o g ra p h ic sp ellin g its e lf th u s sug-
g e s ts th a t the s e x u a lity o f th e ka lu w as o r ie n te d to w ard s m e n .230

221 C hw olson 1 8 56/1965, 27.

222 S ee R ubio, ibid. On the ex iste n c e o f fem ale gala, se e al-R aw i 1992, 180-185. On gala in the third
m illenn iu m having fa m ilies, see G elb 1975, 4 3 -7 6 and Sallaberger 1992 149-150 288 298
223 Lambert 1992, 151. ’
224 R ubio 2 001, 270.
225 S ee Parpola 1997a, X C V I, n. 138.
7‫׳‬c 22i L CT 39 44:15: ° s -s e - e -n i-iS na -a k zi-ka-ru-ta hu-us-su-uh-su\ see also Bottero and P etschow 1972-
/4 0 4 , ‫כ‬.

227 CT 39 45:32: d i s (summa) na(< 2h 1‫׳‬/m) a -n a as-sin -n i-te dan-na-tu d u 8-5k . The translation o f w ould
require the v erb p a ta ru (D v s) = “to relea se, free” (C A D D , s.v . dannatu, 8 8 ), but then the pronom inal su ffix
sh ould be -su, not -su.
228 Sladek 1974, 88-89.
229 S ee also N issinen 1998b, 2 8 -3 4 , for further ev id en ce on the sexual orientation o f Inanna/Istar’s
“w k 7 ^ d ev0tl0n o f the d ev o tees to the g o d d ess, one m ight add here yet another saying■
1 S 9 248 2 4 9 7 ** ^ 6X0116 ^ Whi° h bel0n gs 10 my lady Inanna ” ’ (Gordon
230 N issin en 1998b, 150, n. 88; so also R ubio 2 0 0 1 . 270

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 !ST A R 'S d e s c e n t a n d r e s u r r e c t io n

In a d d itio n to th e gala(fca/w), cu ltic la m e n ta tio n s , w e e p in g a n d w a ilin g w ere

also p e rfo rm e d b y th e e c sta tic lu -a l-e -d e (m a h h u ),231 p ilip ili, k u rg a rra {kur-
g a r r u ) and s a g u rsa g (a ss in n u ), as d e s c rib e d in In a n n a C 8 8 - 9 0 :232
The ecstatic, the transformed pilipili, the kurgarra and the sagursag ... Lament
and song ... They exhaust themselves with weeping and grief, they... laments.
T h e m e a n in g o f the p ilip ili,233 p e rs o n s th a t h a v e “ c h a n g e d ” or b e e n
tra n s f o rm e d ” (b a l),234 is f u rth e r e x te n d e d in In a n n a C 8 0 -8 1 , w h ic h e x p la in s
ho w the p ilip ili w e re c r e a te d :235 ^
nir-da gu-la-ni su-ni-ta u-mu-e-ni-in-gar
ugu-ba giri‫ ״‬su gal-la mu-ni-in‫־‬ak pi-li‫־‬pi-li mu-ni-in‫־‬sa4
When she had removed the great punishment from her body ,
she invoked blessings upon it, she caused it to be named pilipili.
T h e re f o re , it se e m s th a t p ilip ili w e re c re a te d fro m the g o d d e s s h e rse lf: she
re m o v e d p u n is h m e n t and sin f ro m h e r b o d y , p u rifie d th a t p a r t by b le s s in g it
(u g u -b a refers to an in a n im a te o b je c t), a n d fro m th a t c re a te d p ilip ili. F u rth e r-
m o re , she g a v e the p ilip ili w is d o m , as “ sh e (o p en ed ) the d o o r o f the H o u s e
o f W is d o m , an d m a d e k n o w n its in te rio r ” (1. 84). In s h o rt, In a n n a C s u g g e sts
th a t the p ilip ili w e re s in n e rs , b u t p u rifie d f ro m th a t sta te , a n d m o re o v e r, g iv e n
w is d o m 236
T h e sa m e id e a o f p u r ific a tio n is fo u n d in th e S u m e ria n D e s c e n t , w h e re E n k i
c re a te d b o th th e k u rg a rra a n d the g a la tu rra b y re m o v in g d irt fro m th e tip o f
his f in g e rn a il, and th e n g av e th e m the “ life -g iv in g p la n t” a n d th e “ life -g iv in g
w a te r” in o rd e r to b rin g In a n n a b a c k f ro m th e N e th e rw o rld . In o th e r w o rd s ,
b o th k u rg a rra a n d g a la tu rra w e re c r e a te d f ro m an u n c le a n s u b sta n c e , b u t th e n
p u rifie d w h e n th ey w e re g iv e n th e p o s s e s s io n o f life -g iv in g s u b sta n c e s . T h e
b ip a rtite n a tu re o f th e se c u lt p e rs o n s is c o m p a ra b le to th e n atu re o f the
g o d d e ss h erself: she is b o th a v irg in a n d a p r o s titu te , e x p r e s s e d , fo r in s ta n c e ,
in h e r e p ith e t n u -g ig ( a n -n a ), w h ic h im p lie s b o th th e n e g a tiv e a s p e c t o f a
“ ta b o o e d w o m a n /p r o s titu te ” a n d the p o s itiv e a s p e c t o f b e in g the “ m istre ss
o v e r h e a v e n .” 237 M . N is s in e n h a s s u g g e s te d th a t the w a y E n k i c r e a te d In an -

231 Mahhu can also be translated as “ecstatic prophet,” for w hich see Parpola 1997a, X L V f.
232 ETCSL: A hymn to Inana (Inana C ) 88-90:
lu a l- e d - d e p i- li- p i- li b a l k u r - g a r - r a s a g -u r-s a g -e -n e [ ...]
i - l u s i r - r a - a m R1? a z u ? b a r n e [ . . . ]
e r e r - r a b f - f b - k u s - u - n e a - n i r m u -x -[...]
233 The lexical lists equate the p ilip ili with the assinnu, kurgarru and kulu'u, as w ell as with other
groups o f d evotees, for w hich see C A D A /2 , s.v. assinnu, 341.
234 1‫ ״‬Inanna an d Ebih 173-175, the p ilip ili are m entioned together with other cu ltic persons: I have
given the kurgarra cu lt performers a dagger and prod. I have given the gala cult performers ub and 1111
drums. I have changed the headgear o f the p ilip ili cult performers (ETCSL: Inana and Ebih). Here the
last lin e 175, p i-li-p i-li sag-su bal m u-ni-ak, is understood as changing the garm ents (headgear) o f the
p ilip ili w hereas L im et (1 9 7 1 , 18) understands this as describing Inanna’s ability to turn men into w om en
and v ic e versa, and thus translates “a l ’inverti, j ’ai change le sexe.
235 ETCSL: A hymn to Inana (Inana C).
236 p i-li-p i-li p ossib ly derives from the verb p i-la (= p il/p il) = to be/m ake obscure, to be/m ake d irty,
d efiled , disgraced (see H alloran, Sumerian Lexicon, Version 3.0) and Groneberg 1986, n. 54; van derT oorn
1985 29
237 R ecen tly, A . Z goll (1 9 9 7 , 181-195) has su ggested that the epithet n u-gig an-na does not m ean
“hierodule o f A n” but refers to Inanna’s pow er over heaven (an), in juxtaposition to her epithet lady of
all the lands” (nin kur-kur-ra). The term itse lf is w ell suited for describing Inanna, as its form carries the
negative aspect o f a “tabooed w om an/prostitute” (nu = lu , used to indicate p ro fessio n s, and g ig = sick ,
illn e ss, e v il, abom ination, taboo”) w h ile its use carries the p o sitiv e aspect o f the “m istress over heaven
(Lapinkivi 2 0 0 4 , 70-71; 2 4 3 -2 4 4 ).

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n a ’s re s c u e rs f ro m th e d irt u n d e r his fin g e rn a ils d e s c rib e s the m a rg in a lity o f

th e s e b e in g s , i.e ., th e m a r g in a lity o f I n a n n a ’s s e x u a lly a m b iv a le n t d e v o te e s
as a w h o le . A lth o u g h th ey w e re p a rt o f th e g o d d e s s ’s cu lt, th ey w ere n o t re a lly
a c c e p te d in the s o c ie ty b e c a u s e o f th e ir se x u a l d e f ic ie n c y . W h e n d is c u s s in g
th e m a rg in a lity o f th e s e d e v o te e s ( assinnu, kurgarru, pilpilu, and kalu),
N is s in e n also p o in ts o u t th a t th e y w e re c h a ra c te riz e d in a d e m e a n in g m a n n e r
b y c a llin g th em sinnisanu, “ m a n - w o m a n ,” o r u r.s a l, “ m a n - w o m a n ,” lite ra lly
“ d o g - w o m a n .” F u r th e r m o r e , as a lre a d y m e n tio n e d e a rlie r, a m an c o u ld be
r id ic u le d by c a llin g h im a kulu’u. In a d d itio n , the assinnu o f the D escen t is
c u r s e d to h a v e an in h u m a n life , w h ic h su g g e sts p o o r so cial sta tu s .238
A c c o r d in g to S. P a r p o la , th e m y th o f th e D esc en t h a d a ro le in the e c s ta tic
c u lt o f I n a n n a /Is ta r, a c c o rd in g to w h ic h th e fo llo w e rs o f th e g o d d e s s , i.e., h e r
c u lt p e r s o n n e l, w ere p r o m is e d s a lv a tio n fro m the m a te ria l w o rld b y fo llo w in g
h e r e x a m p le set in th e Descen t. P a r p o la h as s u g g e ste d th a t the task o f the
assinnu w as to act as a “h e l p e r ” o f th e n o v ic e s o f I s t a r ’s c u lt, c o m fo rtin g a n d
g iv in g th e p ro m is e o f s a lv a tio n , an d in tro d u c in g th e m to the d o c trin e o f the
a s c e n t o f the soul. In o th e r w o rd s , it w as the assinnu’s task to s p iritu a lly
p r e p a r e th e in itiates for th e fin a l u n io n in h e a v e n , thus c o a le s c in g w ith the
ta s k o f th e b r id e g r o o m - s a v io r in th e G n o s tic te x t Exegesis on the Soul, w ith
w h o m the re b o rn soul S o p h ia u n ite s in the “b rid a l c h a m b e r ” in o r d e r to
“ r e c e iv e the lig h t” p r io r to h e r fin al a s c e n t to h e a v e n , thus h e lp in g th e soul
o n h e r w ay fo r the fin a l u n io n w ith G 0 4 •239 In G n o s is , a p e rs o n n e e d e d h e lp -
a c a ll, a w o rd (logos) f ro m G o d - in o r d e r to b e “ a w a k e n e d fro m his s le e p ”
o r m a k e h im “ so b er f ro m h is d r u n k e n n e s s ,” i.e., b e d e liv e re d fro m the state
o f ig n o r a n c e .240 T h e assinnu’s ta s k as th e “ h e lp e r ” is in d ic a te d in th e S u m e-
r ia n Descent, w h e re h e c o m fo rts E r e s k ig a l, the “ soul in p a in ,” a n d b rin g s
I n a n n a to life - a s itu a tio n c o m p a r a b le w ith the S o u l, S o p h ia , w ho w as ra g in g
lik e a w o m a n in la b o r p r io r to h er s a lv a tio n f ro m th e w o r ld .241 A c c o rd in g to
th is in te rp re ta tio n , the q u e e n o f th e N e th e r w o rld m ay b e seen as a h y p o s ta s is
o f th e q u e e n o f h e a v e n , th e s in fu l soul vs. th e p u rifie d s o u l.242 In the M id d le
A s s y r ia n f ra g m e n t o f th e Desc ent, E re s k ig a l is said to be “Is ta r ( istaru ) w h o
r e s id e s in the m id s t o f I r k a l la .” I n a n n a /I s t a r ’s tw o -s id e d n atu re is also p r e s e n t
in th e p la q u e o f th e Q u e e n o f the N ig h t: th e u p p e r p a rt b e in g c e le s tia l/p u re
a n d th e lo w e r p art d e m o n ic /im p u r e (see the c o m m e n t fo r lin e 10).
T h e sam e d u ty o f b e in g th e “ h e lp e r ” is a lso in d ic a te d in the Gilgames Epic
I 2 7 0 , w h e re it is E n k i d u ’s ta s k to be th e “h e lp e r /s a v io r o f the f r i e n d ”
(musezib ibri ).243 T h is f rie n d w o u ld h a v e b e e n G ilg a m e s , a m o d el f o r the
h u m a n so u l, w h o s e jo u r n e y f r o m fa lle n state to p e rfe c tio n th e Epic d e s c rib e s .
A p p r o p r ia te ly , the Epic calls E n k id u the “m u l e ,” w h ic h refers to his e m a s c u -
la te d s ta te .244 E v e n t h ro u g h the m e a n in g o f E n k i d u ’s n a m e , “ C r e a te d b y

238 N issin en 1998b, 2 8 -3 3 , and n. 4 6 .

239 S ee Parpola 1997a, X C II-X C III, nn. 119-121.
240 Rudolph 1987, 119f. E .g ., in the apocryphal A c ts o f John, 96 (e .g ., in James 1924), the redeem er
says to h is disciples: “Y ou cou ld by no m eans understand what you suffer i f I had not been sent to you as
a word (logos) from the Father” (see R udolph, ib id ., 120).
241 The E xegesis on the Soul, N H C 11,6 132 3-5; in R obinson 1988, 190f.
242 S ee Parpola 1997a, L X X X V III, n. 91; p. X C II, n. 119.
243 Parpola 1997a, X C II-X C III, n. 119; Parpola 1997b.
244 A s Enkidu fights against the B u ll o f H eaven, he cuts o f f the “right hand” (imittu, also “shoulder”)
o f the B u ll and throws it at Istar’s fa ce (Tablet V I). The “right hand” is here a metaphor for the p en is, as
in Mt 5 :3 0 , where Jesus preaches about ad ultery. In T ablet X , Enkidu is called the “rejected m ule” (kudanu

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 !ST A R 'S d e s c e n t a n d r e s u r r e c t io n

E n k i,” he is g iv e n th e id e n tic a l o rig in w ith A s u su -n a m ir, w h o w as c r e a te d by

E a w hen he c r e a te d a “ zikru .” In this c o n te x t, the w ord zikru p ro b a b ly m e a n s
“ w o rd ” (cf. zakaru = “ to s p e a k ” ), in d ic a tin g th a t the assinnu w as the p e rso n i-
fic atio n o f the w o rd o f E a , c o m p a r a b le to th e G n o stic logos. T h e o th e r
m e a n in g o f zikru is “ m a n /m a le ,” b u t this tra n sla tio n w o u ld n o t su it th e c o n te x t
sin ce the assinnu is n o t a m a n , b u t a c a s tra te , a n d ro g y n o u s. N o te th a t E n k id u
is also a “zikru” o f a g o d , n a m e ly o f A n u , in the Gilgames Epic I 8 3 245 (see
also the c o m m e n t fo r lin es 10 an d 14-24).
T h e te rm s assinnutu, kulu’utu an d kurgarrutu, w h ic h m e a n th e “ a r t” or
“ p r o fe s s io n ” o f th e assinnu, kulu’u o r kurgarru r e s p e c tiv e ly , in d ic a te th a t
th ese th re e g r o u p s o f d e v o te e s b e lo n g e d to th eir ro le s p e rm a n e n tly . T h e
p e rm a n e n t statu s o f th e ir c h a r a c te r is also in d ic a te d by th e ir e m a s c u la tio n , or
p e rh a p s b y th e ir p h y s ic a l d istin c tio n fro m b ir th , such as g e n ita l m a lfo rm a tio n .
T h e d e v o te e s w e re sp e c ia lly tra in e d f o r th e ir ro le in th e c u lt, w h ic h in c lu d e d
ecstatic d a n c in g , m u s ic , sin g in g a n d p la y in g . T his b e c o m e s e v id e n t f ro m a
N e o - A s s y ria n d o c u m e n t w h e re it is m e n tio n e d th at a p e rs o n ta u g h t a n o th e r
p e rso n the art o f kurgarru f o r tw o y e a r s .246
A s m e n tio n e d a b o v e , the d e v o te e s o f th e g o d d e ss p ra c tic e d s e lf-m u tila tio n ,
d a n c in g , w e e p in g , and w a ilin g . T h e s e w ere p ra c tic e d in o rd e r to re a c h a
p a ra n o rm a l state o f c o n s c io u s n e s s , fre n z y a n d e c sta sy , w h ic h is a w e ll- k n o w n
w ay to u n ite o r c o m m u n e w ith th e d iv in e . T h e fa c t th a t I n a n n a / I s ta r ’s c u lt
p e rso n n e l w e re e c s ta tic d e v o te e s is e v id e n t fro m the fa c t th a t th ey are liste d
to g e th e r w ith mahhu a n d zabbu in le x ic a l lis ts .247 T h e se mahhe also p ra c tic e d
s e lf-m u tila tio n , sin c e in a M id d le B a b y lo n ia n w is d o m te x t, the b ro th e rs o f
the s u ffe re r are sa id to h a v e “b a th e d in th e ir b lo o d like p ro p h e ts ( m a h h u ) ”24*
In Iddin-Dagan A 7 4 -7 5 , th e k u rg a rra are d e s c rib e d as fallin g in to a
tra n c e :249
With daggers in their hands, the ascending kurgarra (kur-gar-ra ed-da ba-da-ra
su b 1-in-du8-us) parade before her, Holy Inanna.
T h e v erb e d / e ‫ ״‬.d u s e d to d e s c rib e th e m o v e m e n t is e n ig m a tic , since it h as
tw o o p p o s ite m e a n in g s “ to d e s c e n d ” an d “ to a s c e n d .” O n e c o u ld in sist it o n ly
m ean s h e re m o v e m e n t “ u p w a r d s ” o r “ d o w n w a r d s ” w h ile p a ra d in g w ith the
d a g g e rs. H o w e v e r , if o n e c o n s id e rs th e fa c t th a t the h y m n is ta lk in g a b o u t the
k u rg arra and h o w th e y la c e ra te th e m s e lv e s , th e as c e n d in g is easily e x p la in e d
by tra n c e , “ s p iritu a l a s c e n t.” M o re o v e r , a c c o rd in g to Isme-Dagan K 13-14 250
E n lil an d N in lil g a v e I n a n n a the ab ility to

tardu), a reference to his em asculation w hich m ust have taken place during the battle against the B u ll (see
Parpola 1997a, XCII-III n. 119 and X C V I-V II, n. 140 for more d etails).
245 Through p layin g with the con son ants, zikru b ecom es kezru, the “coiffured m an,” w ho w as a d evotee
o f Istar. In the G ilg a m e s Epic Enkidu is equally ca lled a “m eteorite,” kisru, fallin g from h eaven , and an
“a x e,” hassinnu, lo v ed by G ilgam es “like a w ife ,” thus m aking a pun with the w ords kezru and kisru, and
assinnu and hassinnu (Parpola 1997a, X C II-III, n. 119; cf. Draffkorn K ilm er 1 9 8 2 ,1 2 9 -1 3 0 , for w hich see
the com m ent for lin e i2 ) .
246 CAD K, s.v . kurgarrutu, 559; cf. Pinches 1 915, 103:3; see also N issin en 1998b, 30.
242 See G roneberg 1986, 33 n. 54, 39; Parpola 1997a, CIV n. 232 (lu = sa, Tablet I [M SL 12 102] and
IV [MSL 12 132:1 1 6 -2 3 ]).
248 U garitica V 162:11‫ ׳‬. In M SL 12 132:116-23 mahhu and zabbu “frenzied ” - both given the sam e
Sumerian eq u ivalen ts lu-nf-su-ub, lu-gub-ba and lu -a l-e-d e - are grouped together w ith the word lu -zag-
gi'r-la, w hich denotes a d evotee o f Istar equipped w ith a sw ord and participating in self-castration scen es
(see Parpola 1997a, CIV n. 232).
249 ETCSL: A sir-n am ursaga to Ninsiana f o r Iddin -D agan (Iddin-Dagan A).
250 ETCSL: A hymn to Inana f o r Ism e-D agan (Ism e-D agan K)\ cf. Rom er 1988, 2 4 -6 0 .

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un ki-ta an-na-se ed-ed un kur [1 ms. has instead: sar] ki su bal-e

zalag kukku2-se du kukku2 zalag-se dfb-be
Make the people ascend from below to above, to make the foreign/numerous
people (un kur/sar) change their place, to turn light to darkness and darkness
to light.
W h ile c o m m e n tin g th is, W . H . P h . R o m e r su g g e sts th a t “ a s c e n d in g fro m
b e l o w to a b o v e ” im p lies I n a n n a ’s ab ility to m a k e p e o p le fall into a tra n c e ,
lite ra lly “to a scen d fro m e a rth to h e a v e n .”251 T h e w o rd s u n k u r (“ fo re ig n
p e o p l e ” ) c a n also m e a n “ h o s tile p e o p l e ” : th ay c a n be in te rp re te d as s in n e rs
w h o “ c h a n g e th e ir p la c e ” w h e n re p e n tin g , an d th u s are a b le to a s c e n d fro m
b e lo w (th e m a te ria l w o rld ) to a b o v e (h e a v e n ). C o n s e q u e n tly , In a n n a tu rn s the
liv e s o f th o se w h o do n o t r e p e n t to m is e ry (d a rk n e s s ), b u t fo r th o se w h o d o ,
sh e tu rn s th e ir m ise ry to f o rg iv e n e s s (light).
In a d d itio n to c o m m u n in g w ith th e d iv in e , s e lf-m u tila tio n w as u s e d to
e m u l a t e th e a g o n y o f th e g o d d e s s , w h o s e r e d e m p tio n w as p re c e d e d b y (sp iri-
tu a l) d e a th and a g o n y , as d e s c r ib e d in the Desc ent 252 T h e c u s to m o f in flic tin g
b o d ily h a rm w as w id e ly p r a c tic e d by the galli in the cu lt o f the S y ria n
g o d d e s s e s C y b e le and A ta r g a tis , a n d th e p ra c tic e w as later sp re a d to the
G r a e c o - R o m a n w o rld to g e th e r w ith the c u lt o f C y b e le a n d A ttis. B y self-
c a s tr a tio n th e galli d e d ic a te d th e ir liv es to the g o d d e s s , as w ell as e m u la te d
th e fa te o f A ttis, w h o h ad d ie d o f s e lf - e m a s c u la tio n b u t w h o h ad risen fro m
th e d e a d .253 S e lf-m u tila tio n is also m e n tio n e d in the O ld T e s ta m e n t (Z e c h
1 3 :6 ), w h e re “ w o u n d s on y o u r c h e s t” are a tra it o f a p ro p h e t, and in 1 K g s
1 8 :2 6 -2 9 , w h e re the p r o p h e ts o f B a a l and A s h e ra h are la c e ra tin g th e m s e lv e s
to fa ll in to a tra n c e a n d to g et in c o n ta c t w ith B aa l.
Lines 93-94: A c c o rd in g to th e D e s c e n t , th e N e th e r w o rld h a d sev en g ates. T h e
s a m e n u m b e r o f g ates is a lso k n o w n , fo r in s ta n c e , f ro m the b e g in n in g o f the
m y th N e rga l and Ereskigal (see the c o m m e n t fo r lin e 13), an d th e Death o f
Ur-Nammu, w h e re the d e a d k in g o ffe rs g ifts to e a c h o f th e seven g a te k e e p e rs
([ 1- d u 8 gal k u r ]- ra 7-bi) in th e ir p a la c e s - b y c o n tr a s t to the Descent, w h ic h
h a s o n ly o n e g a te k e e p e r .254
W h e n d isc u s s in g th e a r c h ite c tu ra l a sp e c ts o f th e N e th e rw o rld , D . K a tz
n o te s th a t i f the N e th e r w o rld w a s v is u a liz e d as h a v in g s ev en g ates a tta c h e d
to s e v e n w a lls, it d id n o t h a v e a p a ra lle l in the a c tu a l city fo rtific a tio n s in
a n c i e n t M e s o p o ta m ia . It is k n o w n th a t th e fo rtifie d c itie s h a d no m o re th a n
th r e e g a te s . A c c o rd in g to K a tz , sin c e an e n tra n c e w ith sev en g ates h ad n o real
p a r a l le l , the o n ly re a s o n th e Desc ent uses this fe a tu re has to w ith th e lite ra ry
f u n c tio n o f the story: th e fa c t th a t th e g o d d e ss e n te rs th ro u g h m o re g ates th a n
o n e a d d s to the su sp e n s e o f th e s to ry , an d also serv es as a m eans to g et h er
n a k e d an d p o w e r le s s - at e a c h g ate she lo se s o ne o f h e r g a rm e n ts , e q u a te d
w ith h e r d iv in e p o w e rs (see th e c o m m e n t fo r lin es 4 2 -6 2 and 11 9 -1 2 5 ).

251 R om er 1 9 8 8 ,4 2 .
252 Parpola 1997a, X X X IV .
253 Parpola 1 9 9 7 a ,X X X IV ,a n d n. 138-140; N issin en 1998b, 31-32; M eyer 1 9 8 7 ,1 1 3 -1 1 6 ; c f.A p u le iu s,
M e ta m o rp h o se s VIII 26-28 (V olu m e II, Loeb); C atullus, P oem 63; Lucian o f Sam osata, D e d ea S yria , 4 3 ,
5 0 -5 1 ; A u gu stin e, C ity o f G o d , II 7 and V II 26 (V olum es I-II, Loeb); see also M eyer ib id ., 125-128
(C atu llu s), 138-139 (L u cian ), and 143-145 (A p u leiu s).
254 Horowitz 1998, 3 58-359; N e rg a l a n d E resk igal, e.g., in Dailey 2 0 0 0 ,1 6 3 -1 8 1 ; ETCSL: The D ea th
o f U r-Nam m a ( Ur-Namma A ), 11. 76-131; c f. Castellino 1 957, 18-19, 2 2 -2 3 .

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 IST A R ’S DESCENT A N D RESURRECTION

F u rth e rm o re , sin ce th e n u m b e r s ev en is a ty p o lo g ic a l n u m b e r, th e fa c t th a t it
is u sed h e re o n ly c o n firm s th at th e c h o ic e o f th e n u m b e r o f th e g ates is on ly
an “ a rtificial lite ra ry c o n f ig u ra tio n .”255
A lth o u g h K a tz says th a t M e s o p o ta m ia n c itie s h ad no m o re th an th re e w a lls,
th ere w as at le a s t th e (m y th o lo g ic a l) city o f A ra tta , w h ic h h a d s ev en w alls.
In the S u m e ria n m y th Enmerkar and the Lord o f Aratta 2 8 7 , th e city o f A ra tta
has seven w a lls , and In a n n a w as th e o n e “ w h o a d o r n s ” th e se w a lls .256 In
an o th er m y th b e lo n g in g to the sa m e E n m e r k a r c y c le , Lugalbanda and the
Anzud Bird, th e w alls are said to b e c o lo re d b rig h t re d . T h e la tte r m y th
d e scrib es the c ity as fo llo w s , 11. 4 1 3 - 4 1 6 :257
Now A ratta’s battlements are of green lapis lazuli, its walls and its towering
brickwork are bright red, their brick clay is made of tinstone dug out in the
mountains where the cypress grows.
T h e n u m b e r o f th e w alls is the sa m e as in the city o f E c b a ta n a (m o d e rn
H a m a d a n ), tra d itio n a lly said to be fo u n d e d b y th e first M e d ia n k in g D e io c e s .
A c c o rd in g to H e r o d o tu s , th e city h a d s ev en w alls, b u ilt in c irc le s aro u n d it.
S in ce th e city w a s b u ilt on a h ill, each w all w as h ig h e r th an the o n e b e lo w it
by the h e ig h t o f the b a ttle m e n ts. H e r o d o tu s d e s c rib e s th at th e se sev en c irc u la r
w alls w ere p a in te d , e a c h in d iffe re n t co lo rs: the first w h ite , th e se c o n d b la c k ,
the th ird c r im s o n , th e fo u rth b lu e , th e fifth o r a n g e , and the b a ttle m e n ts o f the
tw o in n er circ le s w e re p la te d w ith s ilv e r an d g o ld re s p e c tiv e ly .258 A lth o u g h
th e city o f A r a tta ap p e a rs in m y th o lo g ic a l co n te x t as an e n e m y city (state)
ag ain st E n m e r k a r ’s city o f U ru k , th e re a p p a re n tly e x is te d a real city o f A ra tta
s o m e w h e re on th e Iran ian p la te a u . T h e e x a c t lo catio n o f A ra tta is u n c e rta in ,
and w h e th e r o r n o t it s itu a te d in th e v ic in ity o f the city o f E c b a ta n a is still to
b e d e te rm in e d .259
E v e n if the s e v e n u n d e rw o rld g a te s d id n o t fin d an e x a c t p a ra lle l in
M e s o p o ta m ia , th e re ce rta in ly w as a s tru c tu re th at h a d s e v e n lay ers in it,
n a m e ly th e z ig g u ra t. T h e s e v e n -s ta g e d z ig g u ra t alread y e x is te d in S u m e r in
the tim e o f G u d e a , as h e re c o rd s in h is s ta tu e in sc rip tio n s ( Statue G i 1-18;
a n d Statue E i 1 -1 7 ):260
For his king Ningirsu, the powerful warrior of Enlil, Gudea, ensi of Lagas, who
had built Eninnu o f Ningirsu, built Epa, the temple of seven stages (e-ub-7),
(and) his king Ningirsu decreed good fate for the temple, whose pa (e pa-bi)
rose foremost.261
O r ig in a lly , th e z ig g u ra ts w e re p a in te d , as can be seen fro m th e re m a in s o f
co lo rin g o n th e z ig g u r a t o f th e city o f D u r -S a r ru k e n (K h o rs a b a d ) in A s sy ria .
It show s th a t e a c h stag e w as p a in te d in a d iffe re n t colo r: w h ite , b la c k , p u rp le ,

255 Katz 2 0 0 3 , 192-193; cf. Katz 1995, 2 2 1 -2 3 3 .

256 ETCSL: Enmerkar a n d the L o r d o f A ratta: C ohen 1 973, 76 and 126.
257 ETCSL: L ugalba nda an d the A nzud Bird.
258 Herodotus 1996, 47-48: I 98; see also C ohen 1973, 5 6 , n. 6 8 .
259 See Cohen 1 9 7 3 ,5 9 -6 1 .
260 Lambert and Tournay 1952, 78 -8 5 .
261 P reviou sly, the related passage in G u d e a ’s C y lin d ers ( C y l . A xx 24 - xxi 12) has been understood
to describe “seven b lessin g s for the tem ple” (e .g ., Jacobsen 1987b, 4 1 3 -4 1 4 ). R ecen tly , C laudia E. Suter
(1 9 9 7 ,1 -1 0 ) has su ggested that the earlier reading o f the com pound verb silim ...su m should be interpreted
as sd ...s 1 , sa bein g Sum erian for “square.” In other w ords, G udea describes how he built the seven floors
or stages o f the ziggurat.

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b l u e , o r a n g e , g o ld , an d silv er. T h e se co lo rs e q u a l th e c o lo rin g o f the sev en

c o n c e n tr ic w alls o f th e city o f E c b a ta n a . T h e co lo rs p r o b a b ly re p re s e n te d the
s e v e n p la n e ta ry sp h eres: V e n u s = Istar; S a tu rn = A d a d ; M ars = N erg al;
M e r c u r y = N ab u ; J u p ite r = M a rd u k ; S u n = S a m a s; M o o n = Sin. T h e s e god s
w e r e a lso am o n g th e g re a t g o d s th a t w e re th e m a n ife s ta tio n s o f A s s u r, an d
c o n s titu te d the A s s y ria n T r e e .262 N o te th a t, a p p a r e n t ly , G u d e a ’s z ig g u r a t w as
a lso p a in te d , as in C yl. A x x i 1 1-1 2 its last stag e is d e s c rib e d as “th e m o o n at
d a w n , s h in in g u p o n th e c o u n tr y ;” an d in Cyl. A x x iv 10, it says th a t “ (G u d ea)
h a d it (E n in n u ) w e a r a c r o w n lik e the n ew m o o n .” E q u a tin g the la st, the
s e v e n t h , sta g e w ith th e m o o n is a c le a r r e fe re n c e to its c o lo r, n a m e ly silv er,
b u t a ls o to th e id e a th a t the stag e s w e re e q u a te d w ith the p la n e ta ry s p h e re s ,
th e to p b e in g the m o o n .
A s m e n tio n e d e a rlie r (see th e c o m m e n t f o r lines 4 2 - 6 2 an d 1 1 9 -1 2 5 ), the
s e v e n u n d e r w o rld g ates c o r r e s p o n d e d to th e s tru c tu re o f th e T re e o f L ife ,
w h ic h in tu rn , c o r re s p o n d e d to th e s tru c tu re o f th e h u m a n soul and its three
g r a d e s (o v e rs o u l, so u l, a n im a l so u l). T h e s tru c tu re o f the T re e o u tlin e d the
p u r if i e d s o u l’s a s c e n t to h e a v e n : it d e p ic te d th e p a th f ro m ig n o ra n c e (a n im a l
s o u l) to c o n s c io u sn e s s (m o ra l so u l) a n d s a lv a tio n (d iv in e o v e rso u l). F o r the
e q u a tio n o f th e soul w ith th e g o d d e s s I n a n n a /Is ta r see the c o m m e n t fo r line
10 .
J u s t as the d e s c e n t a n d th e a s c e n t o f the g o d d e s s are d e s c rib e d in te rm s o f
th e s a c re d tree (p ro g r e s s io n f ro m to p to b o tto m a n d v ice v e rsa ), th e sam e
p r o g r e s s io n is d e s c rib e d in te rm s o f a z ig g u ra t, w h ic h w as also a n o th e r
s y m b o l o f In a n n a /Is ta r (= th e s o u l) .263 W h e n ap p lie d to the D e s c e n t, the sev en
c o l o r e d stag es o f the z ig g u r a t r e p r e s e n t th e s ev en g ates o f th e N e th e rw o rld ,
a n d , at th e sam e tim e , th e y also r e p re s e n t the g a rm e n ts o f th e g o d d e s s. T h e
d e s c e n t o f the g o d d e s s , w h ic h b e g in s at th e silv ery to p (= M o o n ), sy m b o liz e s
th e u n d re s s in g ; th e a s c e n t s y m b o liz e s th e d o n n in g o f the g a r m e n ts .264
T h r o u g h th e e q u a tio n o f th e s e v e n - s t a g e d z ig g u r a t w ith th e u n d e r w o r l d
g a t e s a n d w ith I n a n n a ’s /I s ta r ’s g a rm e n ts o r p o w e rs on o n e h a n d , a n d th ro u g h
th e i r e q u a tio n w ith th e A s s y r ia n T r e e o n the o th e r, it is e v id e n t th a t the
z i g g u r a t and the A s s y ria n T r e e c o u ld also b e e q u a te d . In o th er w o rd s , the
s tr u c tu r e o f b o th th e z ig g u r a t a n d th e T re e o u tlin e d th e p a th to o n e ’s sa lv a tio n
(s e e a lso th e c o m m e n t fo r lin es 9 1 - 9 2 ) .265
Lines 95-97a: T h e g o d o f w is d o m , E a , in stru c ts A s u s u -n a m ir th a t w h e n he
c o n f r o n ts E r e s k ig a l, she w ill r e jo ic e to see h im , and h e r m o o d w ill be
im p r o v e d . A fte r d o in g so , th e a s s in n u is to a s k fo r th e d e a d Istar. T h e re a so n
t h a t th e a ssin n u c o u ld im p ro v e E r e s k i g a l ’s m o o d h as b e e n s u g g e ste d to be
th a t, sin c e A s u s u - n a m ir w a s a s e x u a l, he la c k e d the ab ility to c reate life , an
a b ility th a t w as so r e p u ls iv e to E r e s k ig a l, the Q u e e n o f the D e a d . In a d d itio n ,
E r e s k ig a l c o u ld h a v e b e c o m e e x c ite d seein g a h a n d s o m e m ale (a lth o u g h
a s e x u a l) , as th ere w as no r e s tr ic tio n fo r h e r to h a v e an im p o te n t, infe rtile

262 Parpola 1997a, X C II, n. 114; Parpola 2 0 0 0 , 199; cf. P lace 1870, 79.
263 For instance, in A s s u r b a n ip a l’s hymn to Istar o f Nineveh (L ivin gston e 1989, 7:9) the god dess is
addressed w ith the words: “O Z iggurat, Pride o f N in ev eh , w hich bears [aw e-inspiring splendor]!”
264 Parpola 2 0 0 0 , 199; Parpola 1997a, X C II, n. 114.
265 Parpola 1997a, X C II, n. 114, n. 116.

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lov er. T h e b e a u ty o f the a s sin n u is r e v e a le d by his n a m e , w h ich m ean s “ H is

A p p e a ra n c e is B r ig h t.” 266
In the S u m e ria n v e rsio n , th e k u rg a rra a n d g a la tu rra are a sk e d to sy m p a th iz e
w ith E re s k ig a l w h o a g o n iz e s as if in lab o r. B y affectin g E r e s k i g a l ’s m o o d ,
the re sc u e rs are ab le to o b ta in th e b o d y o f the d ead g o d d e s s :267
The mother who gave birth, Ereskigal, on account of her children, is lying
there. Her holy shoulders are not covered by a linen cloth. Her breasts are not
full like a sagan vessel. Her nails are like a pickaxe (?) upon her. The hair on
her head is bunched up as if it were leeks.
When she says “Oh my heart,” you are to say “ You are troubled, our mistress,
oh your heart.” When she says “Oh my body,” you are to say “You are troubled,
our mistress, oh your body.” (She will then ask:) “Who are you? Speaking to
you from my heart to your heart, from my body to your body - if you are gods,
let me talk with you; if you are mortals, may a destiny be decreed for you.”
Make her swear this by heaven and earth.
A s m e n tio n e d e a r lie r, it has b e e n s u g g e s te d that E re s k ig a l can be in ter-
p reted to be the sin fu l h a lf o f the so u l, tra p p e d in the N e th e rw o rld . S u b se -
q u e n tly , it w as th e a s s i n n u ’s, k u r g a r r a ’s a n d g a la tu r r a ’s ta s k to act as “ h elp-
e r s ” and to c o m f o rt E re s k ig a l, th e “ so u l in p a i n .” T h is s itu a tio n w o u ld th en
h av e b een c o m p a r a b le to th e fa lle n state o f th e S ou l (= S o p h ia ) in the G n o stic
tra d itio n , w h o w as ra g in g like a w o m a n in la b o r p rio r to h e r s a lv a tio n fro m
the w o rld (see the c o m m e n t fo r lin es 9 1 - 9 2 ) .268
E re s k ig a l, th e m is tre s s o f the N e th e r w o rld , is d e s c rib e d w ith th e sam e te rm s
in G ilg a m es, E n k id u a n d the N e th e r w o r ld 1 9 9 -2 0 4 :269
She who lies there, she who lies there, N inazu’s mother who lies there -
her pure shoulders are not covered with a garment, and no linen is spread over
her pure breast. She has fingers like a pickaxe, she plucks her hair out like
leeks.
In the s ta n d a rd v e rs io n o f the E p ic o f G i l g a m e s , the c o r re s p o n d in g p a s sa g e
is slig h tly d iff e r e n t, T a b le t X II 2 8 -3 0 an d 4 7 - 4 9 :270
She who sleeps and sleeps, the mother of Ninazu who sleeps -
her pure shoulders are not covered with a garment,
her breasts are not pendulous like an ointment jar in a sappatu-basin/sikkatu-
basin.
T h e g o d m e n tio n e d in this te x t, N in a z u , w as the m ain g o d o f tw o d iffe re n t
p laces in M e s o p o ta m ia : in a sm a lle r c u lt c e n te r o f E n e g i in s o u th e rn S u m e r
he w as an u n d e r w o rld d e ity , and his p a re n ts w ere E re s k ig a l a n d a c e rta in
“ g reat lo r d ” (en g al); and in the city o f E s n u n n a in the n o rth e rn D iy a la v alley
h e was a w a rrio r g o d , an d his p a re n ts w e re E n lil an d N in lil. In E s n u n n a his
cu lt was la te r r e p la c e d by th at o f T is p a k .271 N e v e r th e le s s , N in a z u o f E n e g i

266 See Sladek 1 9 7 4 ,9 1 -9 3 .

267 ETCSL: In a n a ’s d e s c e n t to the nether w o r ld (11. 2 3 0 -2 4 4 , 2 5 7 -2 7 1 ).
268 See Parpola 1997a, L X X X V III, n. 91; p. X C II, n. 119; The Exegesis on the Soul, NHC 11,6 132 3-5;
in R obinson 1988, 190f.
269 ETCSL: G ilg am es, Enkidu and the n ether w o r l d ; G eorge 1999, 185, w ho translates the end o f the
passage: “her fingern ails she w ielded like a rake, she was w renching her hair out like le e k s.”
270 Parpola 1997b, 115; translation after D a iley 2 0 0 0 , 121, 122.
271 N in azu ’s parents are Ereskigal and the “great lord” (en gal) in Temple Hymn no. 14, w hich is
dedicated to the E gida, N in a zu ’s tem ple in E negi (Sjoberg and Bergm an 1969, 2 7 -2 8 ). D . Katz su ggests

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a n d E s n u n n a w as th e sam e g o d , o n ly e x p re ss in g d iffe re n t lo cal c h a ra c te ris -

tic s .272 In an O ld B a b y lo n ia n la m e n t Edina-usagake ( e d in ‫־‬na u -s a g -g a -k e 4, In
the D e s e r t by the Early Grass), N in a z u ap p ears as the d y in g y o u n g g o d o f
E n e g i,273 b u t th e sa m e te x t a lso re fe rs to h im as a “ w a r r io r ,” u r-sag , w h ic h
ties u p th e tw o d iffe re n t a s p e c ts o f N in a z u to o ne a n d the sa m e d e ity .274
D . K a tz su g g ests th a t th e c o m m e n ts o f E re s k ig a l as a m o th e r in g r ie f for
h e r c h ild re n in the D escen t and fo r N in a z u in Gilgames re fe r to h e r m a te rn a l
r e la tio n s h ip w ith N in a z u , th e d y in g y o u n g go d. It is p ro b a b le that th ere o n ce
w as a c o m m o n s o u rce f o r th e s e r e fe r e n c e s , a lost m y th o f th e d y in g N in a z u
a n d E r e s k ig a l, his g r ie f- s tr ic k e n m o th e r .275
Lines 98-99: In the S u m e ria n D esc en t, the c o rp se o f the g o d d e s s is h an g in g
f ro m a n a il, w h e re a s in the A k k a d ia n v e rs io n she is s o m e h o w tu rn e d in to a
w a te r s k in . T h e r e fe re n c e to a w a te r s k in is e n ig m a tic , since th e sto ry d o es not
a n y w h e r e m e n tio n Is ta r tu rn in g in to o n e; she sim p ly dies. T h e lite ra ry ch o ic e
o f tu rn in g I s t a r ’s b o d y in to a w a te r s k in m ay d e riv e fro m th e f a c t th a t, in real
life , a fille d w a te rs k in r e s e m b le d the d e a d b o d ie s o f th e a n im a ls fro m w h ic h
th e y w e r e ta k e n , as r e m a rk e d by W . R . S la d e k .276 In this w a y , p e rh a p s , d ead
I s ta r w o u ld h a v e still k e p t h e r d iv in e sh a p e an d fo rm . W h a te v e r the re a so n
m a y b e , it is A s u s u - n a m ir ’s ta s k to a sk fo r a d rin k o f w a te r fro m th at
w a te r s k in , and in th is w a y to g e t in c o n ta c t w ith I s t a r ’s b o d y . T h e S u m e ria n
v e r s io n , o n th e o th e r h a n d , w a rn s th e re sc u e rs to a c c e p t n o th in g to d rin k or
e a t (11. 2 4 6 -2 4 8 , 2 7 3 -2 7 5 ):277 7
They will offer you a riverful o f water - do n’t accept it. They will offer you a
field with its grain - d o n ’t accept it. But say to her: “Give us the corpse hanging
on the hook.”
T h e th e m e o f tu rn in g s o m e o n e in to a w a te rsk in also o c c u rs in the sto ry o f
Inanna and Bilulu, w h e re I n a n n a tu rn s th e old w o m a n B ilu lu in to a w a te rsk in
“f o r c o ld w a te r th at is u s e d in the d e s e rt,” b e c a u s e she th in k s the w o m a n is

that this anonym ous father m ight have been E n lil, w ho, according to som e sources, w as associated with
the N etherw orld. E .g., in E nlil a n d N inlil (B ehrens 1978), Enlil is described first to have been in the
N etherw orld, but later m anaged to escap e from there. In Enlil and N inlil, N in a zu ’s parents are E nlil and
N in lil, and h is town is E n egi. Further, a third source, an Old B abylonian balbale-hym n to N inazu, calls
N in a zu ’s father Enlil and his m other N inm ah, and his city E negi (PBS 1 3 ,4 1 :1 8 -2 1 = SGL II, 5 7 -5 8 , esp.
lin es 18 -1 9 ). S ince N inm ah, the “great q u een /lad y,” is only an epithet, the goddess in question may have
been E resk igal, based on fact that here N in a zu ’s tow n is E negi. A lternatively, she m ay have been N in lil,
based on the fact that Enlil and N in lil are the parents o f N inazu o f E negi in Enlil a n d Nin lil. This is also
the case in Temple Hymn no. 3 4 , w hich is dedicated to N in a zu ’s tem ple E sikil in Esnunna (Sjoberg and
B ergm an 1969, 4 2 ). The su ggestion that E nlil m ight have been considered as E resk ig a l’s husband also
derives from the Udughul-series (3 6 0 ), w here E nlil and Ereskigal occur as N am tar’s parents (see the
com m ent for lin es 66 -7 5 ). Katz further adds that sin ce G ugalanna (the “Great B ull o f H eaven”), the name
o f E resk ig a l’s husband in the Sum erian D e sc e n t, is only an epithet, his true identity rem ains unclear and
con cealed (see also the com m ent for lin es 14-24). This m ay have been due to the fact that sin ce Enlil
b ecam e the head o f the w h ole pantheon, he had to be separated from the N etherw orld, and therefore,
E resk igal’s spouse was on ly am biguously alluded to . Rather, she seem s to have been the sole ruler o f the
N etherw orld. N ergal as E resk igal’s sp ouse is attested only later, in the myth o f N e rg a l a n d Ereskigal,
w hich dates from the M iddle B abylonian period (K atz 2 0 0 3 , 4 3 8 -4 4 2 ).
272 Katz 2 0 0 3 , 4 28-442; cf. W iggerm ann 1 989, 121-122; W iggerm ann 1997, 3 5 ,
273 C ohen 1988, 675,11. e+ 1 4 8 -1 4 9 : [e-n e -g i b a l a gurus]-tur-ra-ka ur-[sag du-m u-un-a-zu am -nu-a-ba
(restored after PRAK II, D 41 i 2 3-24; translation in Jacobsen 1987b, 7 7 ).
274 Katz 2 0 0 3 , 43 7 . N ote that it is probable that the tradition o f the lam ent predates the Old Babylonian
p eriod, i.e ., the period from w hich the cop y dates.
273 Katz 2 0 0 3 , 3 87-388 and 4 3 3 -4 3 4 , 4 4 0 -4 4 1 .
276 S ladek 1 9 7 4 ,4 0 -4 1 .
277 ETCSL: In a n a ’s d esce n t to the n eth er w orld .

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to b la m e for D u m u z i ’s d e a th 278 (fo r th e w a te r o f life see also th e c o m m e n t

fo r lines 109-1 18 a n d fo r B ilu lu th e c o m m e n t fo r lines 1 3 1-13 4 ).
Lines 100-108: W h e n E re s k ig a l h e a r d a b o u t A s u s u - n a m ir ’s re q u e s t, she
“ sm o te h er th ig h , she b it h e r f in g e r .” T h e sa m e re a c tio n is also fo u n d in the
S u m e ria n v e rs io n , a lb e it in a d iffe re n t, e a rlie r p a rt o f th e sto ry . W h e n E re sk i-
gal learn s th a t I n a n n a stan d s at th e g ate o f h e r re a lm , she “ sla p p e d the side
o f h er th ig h , she b it h e r lip and to o k the w o rd s ( o f the g a te k e e p e r) to h e r h e a r t”
(11. 114-115: u d - b a de r e s - k i-g a l- la - k e 4 h as b a r-b i b f-in -ra // n u n d u n zu bf-in-
gub in im sa-se b a - ti) .279 a
E r e s k ig a l’s r e a c tio n to A s u s u - n a m ir ’s d e m a n d to h a v e the w a te rsk in g ro w s
to im m e n se p r o p o rtio n s , as she g ets so fu rio u s th a t she cu rses th e assinnu:
Come, Asusu-namir, I will curse you with a great curse,
I will decree you a fate never to be forgotten.
May bread of the city’s ploughs be your food,
may the city drains be your drinking vessel,
may the shade of the city wall be your resting place,
may the thresholds be your seat,
may the drunk and the thirsty slap your cheek!
A c c o rd in g to M . N is s in e n , th e c o n te n ts o f th e cu rse re v e a l s o m e th in g o f
the p u b lic ro le o f th e assinn u: the p ra c tic a lly in h u m a n fa te o f th e a s sin n u
su g g ests his m a rg in a l p o sitio n in the so c ie ty . A s alread y p o in te d o u t e a rlie r,
the sex u ality o f the d e v o te e s o f th e g o d d e s s , in c lu d in g a s s in n u s , w as am b i-
v alen t. S o m e o f th e e v id e n c e e v e n su g g e sts th a t the d e v o te e s m ig h t h a v e b e e n
h o m o se x u a ls (se e th e c o m m e n t fo r lines 9 1 -9 2 ). N is s in e n p o in ts o u t th a t,
E r e s k ig a l’s c u r s e , in fa c t, c o n ta in s a llu sio n s to this aspect: th e “p lo u g h ”
(e p in n u ) w as a e u p h e m is m fo r the p e n i s ,280 an d th e “b r e a d o f the c i t y ’s
p lo u g h s ” thus r e fe rs to sex u al in te rc o u rs e w ith a m a n .281
O n th e o th e r h a n d , E . R e in e r has s u g g e ste d th at the sy llab ic re a d in g e -p i-it
in re c e n sio n C m e a n s e p itu , w h ic h stan ds f o r a “fe m a le b a k e r .” She tra n sla te s
the first line o f th e c u rse as: “M a y th e b r e a d fro m the c i t y ’s b a k e rs b e y o u r
f o o d .” A c c o rd in g to h e r, th e m e a n in g o f the cu rse is to e x p re s s a n ti-u rb a n
fe e lin g s, and c u rs e th e a s s in n u lk u lu ’u to be a c ity -d w e lle r fo re v e r , as o p p o s e d
to the m o re f a v o ra b le c o u n tr y -d w e lle r . 282 S. D a ile y , h o w e v e r , h as p o in te d
o u t th a t the s p e llin g can also be d e f e c tiv e , and the e m e n d a tio n o f the w o rd
w o u ld b e e -p i-(n e -)e t. She s u g g e sts th a t th e v a ria n t “ c i t y ’s b a k e r s ” in ste a d o f
th e “ c it y ’s p lo u g h s ” m ay be d u e to m is h e a rin g by oral tra d itio n .283
A. D ra ffk o rn K ilm e r h as s u g g e ste d th at th e cu rse a g a in s t th e m a le p ro s-
titu te creates an “ im a g e o f a b ig c ity ‘s k id - r o w ’ d e re lic t/ra g p ic k e r/m a le
s tre e tw a lk e r,” an d th e lin es c o u ld be tra n s la te d as f o llo w s :284

278 ETCSL: Inana a n d Bilulu: an ulila to Inana.

279 ETCSL: In a n a ’s d e s c e n t to the nether w orld.
280 Maul 1992, 162-163 and 168, n. 3 5 , with textual references.
281 N issinen 1998b, 28-34; so also Sladek 1 9 7 4 ,4 1 -4 2 , w ho su ggests that the curse served as an etio lo g y
to explain the social status o f the assinnu or the kulu’u.
282 R einer 1 9 8 5 ,4 4 -4 5 ; cf. R einer 1967, 117-120.
282 D ailey 2 0 0 0 , p. 161, n. 16.
284 Draffkorn K ilm er 1971, 301, n. 17.

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May the food of the city gutters be your food,

may the city sewers be your watering place,
may the shadow of the walls be your hangout,
may doorways be yor dwelling,
may thirsty drunks strike your cheek.
T h e m e n tio n o f th e sh ad e o f the city w alls as a r e s tin g p la c e fo r th e a s sin n u
is c le a r ly a re fe re n c e to the m a r g in a l, d is re p u ta b le , o r p o o r p e o p le , w h o w ere
fo rc e d to live in th e o u tsk irts o f th e city . T h e p r o s titu te s , fo r in s ta n c e ,
p r a c tic e d th e ir tra d e in the p u b lic p la c e s , such as in th e ta v e rn s (e s -d a m !b it
a s ta m m i ), o r in the stre e ts , b u t a p p a re n tly also in the v ic in ity o f th e c ity w alls,
as s u g g e s te d b y E r e s k i g a l ’s c u r s e .285
In th e G ilg a m e s E p ic V II 1 0 3 -1 2 3 , E n k id u w ish es th e sam e k in d o f fate on
S a m h a t, the p ro stitu te w h o h a d s e d u c e d h im an d lu re d h im a w a y f ro m the
b lis s fu l state o f b e in g a w ild , p r im itiv e b e in g :286
Come Samhat, I will fix your destiny, a doom to endure for all eternity: [I will]
curse you with a mighty curse, my curse shall afflict you now and forthwith!
A household to delight in [you shall not] acquire,
[never to] reside in the [midst] of a family!
In the young w om en’s [chamber you shall not] sit!
Your finest [garment] the ground shall defile!
Your festive gown [the drunkard] shall stain [in the dirt!]
Things of beauty [you shall never acquire!]
... o f the potter.
No ... shall you have ...!
No table [for a banquet,] the people’s abundance, shall be laid in your
house!
[The bed you] delight in shall be a miserable bench!
[The junction] of highways shall be where you sit!
[A f i e l d o f r u i n s s h a l l b e ] W h e r e y o u s l e e p !
The shadow of the rampart shall be where you stand!
[Thorn and] briar shall skin your feet!
[Drunk and] sober shall strike your cheek!
... shall be plaintiff, and claim against you!
[The roof o f your house] no builder shall plaster!
[In your bedroom] the owl shall roost!
[At your table never shall] banquet take place!
It is o b v io u s th a t b o th E r e s k ig a l and E n k id u are e n ra g e d an d d isa p p o in te d
in th e tw o p e rso n s in q u e s tio n : b e c a u s e o f A s u s u - n a m ir ’s r e q u e s t, E re s k ig a l
h a s no o th e r o p tio n b u t to r e le a s e th e b o d y o f h e r s is te r an d r iv a l, w h ile
S a m h a t s e d u c e d E n k id u to th e w o r ld o f h u m a n s , w h ic h n o w h ad c o st h im his
life. O n th e o th e r h a n d , t h ro u g h th e in te rv e n tio n o f the sun g o d S a m a s, E n k id u
a lle v ia te s th e cu rse h e h a d j u s t s p o k e n , an d b le sse s S a m h a t as w ell.
A . D r a ff k o r n K ilm e r has p o in te d o u t th a t, in the S u m e ria n v e rsio n o f the
D e s c e n t, E r e s k ig a l, as a g o o d h o s t, w as b e in g h o s p ita b le by o ffe rin g h e r
g u e s ts th e k u rg a rra a n d g a la tu r ra fo o d a n d d rin k (“riv e rfu l o f w a te r ” and “ a
fie ld o f g r a in ” ), e s p e c ia lly b e c a u s e th e y h a d p o s itiv e ly affe c te d h e r m o o d by

285 L eick 1994, 1 5 1-153, 1 6 2-169, esp . 166.

286 Translation after G eorge 1999, 5 7 -5 8 .

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b e in g s y m p a th e tic w ith h e r p ain . T h e y also h ad h er s w e a r an o a th , all o f w h ic h

actio n s c re a te d a sp ecial b o n d b e tw e e n a h o s t an d g u e s ts . A s a c o n s e q u e n c e ,
the g u ests w e re e n title d to re fu s e th e fo o d a n d d rin k th ey are o ffe re d , an d ask
fo r the p ie c e o f m e a t h a n g in g f ro m th e nail (1. 172: uzu n fg -sig -g a g1sk a k -ta
lu b a - d a - a n ‫־‬la) in ste a d . B y fo llo w in g th e s o c ia l ru le s, she c o u ld n o t re fu s e
h e r g u e s ts .287
A lte rn a tiv e ly , p e rh a p s E n k i sim p ly in stru c ts the tw o re sc u e rs not to a c c e p t
any o f the fo o d a n d d rin k o ffe re d , b e c a u s e he k n o w s th at th ese u n d e rw o rld
g ifts w o u ld b e d e a d ly fo r th e ir r e c ip ie n ts . T h e sam e re fu s a l o f E r e s k ig a l ’s
h o sp ita lity o c c u rs in Nergal and Ereskigal , wfiere th e g o d N e rg a l is in stru c te d
not to a c c e p t an y o f h e r g ifts. In the O ld B a b y lo n ia n Legend o f Adapa, the
last o f th e s ev en a n te d e lu v ia n sa g e s, A d a p a , h as b e e n s u m m o n e d to h e a v e n ,
b u t is in stru c te d by E a n o t to a c c e p t the fo o d an d d rin k A n u w o u ld o ffe r h im
sin ce th ey w o u ld c a u s e d e a th , w h e n in reality th e se g ifts w o u ld h a v e m ad e
h im im m o rta l.288 W h e th e r o r n o t E a is m ista k e n in h is in stru c tio n s to A d a p a
o r acts so d e lib e r a te ly , is for th e re a d e r to d e c id e . A c c o rd in g to S. P a rp o la ,
the g o d o f w is d o m acts in te n tio n a lly , sin ce th e ad v ic e he g iv es to A d a p a is
in te n d e d to b rin g th e sag e b a c k . H e a sc e n d s to h e a v e n on ly to r e c e iv e w is d o m ,
w h ic h w o u ld e n a b le h im to be th e sag e an d the “ m o d e l fo r m a n k in d .” B e fo re
his a s c e n t, A d a p a h a d b ro k e n th e w in g s o f the sou th w in d , w h ic h , a c c o rd in g
to P a r p o la ’s s u g g e s tio n , c o u ld be u n d e rs to o d a lle g o ric a lly as p re v e n tin g the
a ttack o f a d e m o n ic a l, f e m a le , w o rld ly sp irit, i.e., th e d e m o n ic a l so u th w in d ,
on the so u l o f th e s a g e .289 A f te r p ro v in g his w o rth in e s s o f b e in g a g o o d
se rv a n t o f E a , and a fte r b e in g ab le to re sis t w o rld ly te m p ta tio n s , A d a p a w as
a llo w e d to a s c e n d to h e a v e n , b u t o n ly to d e s c e n d b a c k to the h u m a n w o rld .
I f the m y th is in te rp r e te d in this w a y , th en A d a p a is re m in is c e n t o f a J e w ish
m y stic , the p e r fe c t m a n , w h o is seen as th e p illa r o f th e u n iv e rse sin ce “ he
d ra w s b le ss in g s o n to the [low er] w o r ld .”290 E s p e c ia lly in H a s id is m , the
rig h te o u s m a n (H a sid ) s p iritu a lly a s c e n d s to h e a v e n fo r a u n io n w ith G o d in
o rd er to d ra w d o w n th e d iv in e e f flu e n c e fo r the b e n e fit o f the c o m m u n ity .
T h e retu rn o f the H a s id ic m y stic fro m his ecstatic e x p e rie n c e m a k e s h im a
p o w e rfu l m a s te r and a p illa r o f his c o m m u n ity .291
A lth o u g h D r a ff k o r n K ilm e r a rg u es th a t the rule o f h o s p ita lity a p p lie s in the
A k k a d ia n v e rs io n o f th e D e s c e n t , this is n o t e n tire ly tru e . It is tru e th a t at firs t
the assinnu f o llo w s th e sa m e ru le s o f b e in g a g o o d guest: h e affects E re sk i-
g a l ’s m o o d by im p ro v in g it, a n d he m a k e s h e r s w ear an o a th . Y et E re s k ig a l
d oes n o t o ffe r th e assinnu an y fo o d o r d r in k , in ste a d , th e v is ito r d ire c tly asks
fo r a d rin k o f w a te r f ro m th e w a te rsk in . T h e re f o re , h e r r e s p o n s e to th e r e q u e s t
to h a v e th e b o d y o f th e g o d d e s s is to ta lly d iffe re n t fro m th e S u m e ria n v e rsio n ,
and as a c o n s e q u e n c e , th e assinnu is se v e re ly c u rs e d . I f re a d c a re fu lly ,
h o w e v e r , o n e c o u ld s u rm ise th a t E re s k ig a l is at first e ro tic a lly a ro u se d by the
assinnu (1. 96: kabtassa ippereddu ), w h o by b e in g a h a n d s o m e m a le w ith o u t

287 Draffkorn K ilm er 1971, 304-305.

288 For N erg a l a n d E reskigal see D a iley 2 0 0 0 , 1 6 3 -1 8 1 , and for A da p a , ib id ., 182-188.
289 The south w ind, in Akkadian sutu, is fem inine and probably to be understood as “w hirling w in d ”
(from s a ’u, “to w hirl, circ le, sw oop , flutter.”) The south w ind is a warm , pleasant w ind, but at the sam e
tim e, d eceptive and destructive. It w as en visaged as ev il and com pared to a w itch in Maqlu V 82 -8 7 (cf.
A busch 1995, 2 9 , 36).
290 Zohar I 43a; see Idel 1988, 53.
291 !del 1995, 221; see also L apinkivi 2 0 0 4 , 104-109.

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the c a p a b ility o f c re a tin g life , c o u ld h a v e b e e n a “ re a l c a tc h ” fo r th e Q u e e n

o f th e N e th e r w o rld (see th e c o m m e n t fo r lines 9 5 - 9 7 a ).292 B u t re a liz in g th a t
th e c h a rm in g g u e s t w as o n ly u s in g h e r to g et to h is g o al m a k e s h e r fu rio u s.
M a y b e th e tw o b e in g s o f th e S u m e ria n v e rs io n d o n o t a ffect E re s k ig a l the
s a m e w a y , a n d th e v e r s io n la c k s the th e m e o f s e d u c tio n . N o te th a t the
S u m e ria n re sc u e rs are n o t e v e n d e fin e d b y th eir lo o k s the sa m e w ay as the
a s s i n n u . T h e scen e o f th e c o n f ro n ta tio n is b a s ic a lly the s a m e , o n ly the p la y e rs
are d iff e r e n t, w ith o u t th e c h e m is tr y b e tw e e n th e m . A s a c o n s e q u e n c e , the
S u m e ria n re sc u e rs g et w h a t th ey w a n t w ith o u t any d iffic u lty , w h ile the
A k k a d ia n r e s c u e r is c u r s e d . It is tru e , h o w e v e r , th a t th e o rig in a l m issio n o f
r e v iv in g Is ta r is a c c o m p lis h e d , an d the a s s i n n u acts as a m e d ia to r in fu lfillin g
th e ta sk . H e affects E r e s k ig a l in a p o s itiv e w a y , sin ce she r e le a s e s Is ta r into
N a m t a r ’s h a n d s .
Lines 109-118: A fte r th e c o n f lic t w ith th e a s s i n n u , E re s k ig a l sen d s N a m ta r
to b r in g o u t th e A n u n n a k i, the ju d g e s o f th e N e th e rw o rld , and re v iv e d e a d
I s ta r b y sp rin k lin g h e r c o r p s e w ith the w a te r o f life. T h e sc e n e o f th e story
c h a n g e s f r o m E r e s k i g a l ’s p la c e to a p la c e c a lle d E g a lg in a , w h ic h is, a c c o rd -
ing to its n a m e , a p a la c e in th e N e th e r w o rld . E g a lg in a a p p e a rs in the N in e v e h
m a n u s c r ip ts , A and B , w h e r e a s th e A s s u r re c e n s io n m e n tio n s th e “ p a la c e , the
D i li g i n a .” T h e S u m e ria n lo g o g r a m e - g a l-g i- n a m e a n s “ S tead y P a la c e ,” and
d i- li- g i‫־׳‬n a “ S o lita ry and F i r m .” N a m ta r is a s k e d to d e c o ra te th e th re s h o ld s o f
th e p a la c e w ith c o w r ie -s h e lls , f o r w h ic h see th e c o m m e n t fo r lin e 54.
T h e s e v e n A n u n n a - g o d s a p p e a r in th e sc e n e to w itn ess th e re v iv a l o f the
g o d d e s s . A s m e n tio n e d e a r lie r, as so o n as I n a n n a has tak en h e r seat on h er
( s i s t e r ’s) th ro n e in th e S u m e ria n v e rs io n , th e s e ju d g e s re n d e r th e ir ju d g m e n t
o f d e a th o n th e g o d d e s s , w h e re a s in th e A k k a d ia n v e rsio n , it w as E re s k ig a l
h e r s e l f w h o , th ro u g h h e r a g e n t N a m ta r , in flic ts d e a d ly d ise a se s on Ista r (see
c o m m e n ts fo r lines 6 6 -7 5 ). L a te r in the S u m e ria n v e rsio n , th e A n u n n a reap-
p e a r at th e p o in t w h e n I n a n n a h a s b e e n re v iv e d an d is read y to a s c e n d fro m
th e N e th e r w o rld . T h e g o d s s e iz e h e r an d d e m a n d sh e m u st p ro v id e a su b stitu te
fo r h e r b e f o re she is a llo w e d to le a v e th e r e a lm o f d eath .
In th e A k k a d ia n v e r s io n , th e A n u n n a ta k e th e ir se a t on g o ld e n th ro n e s , ina
k u s s i( GIS.GU.ZA) hu ra s i( K U G .G l) u s e s i b . S. D a ile y has s u g g e s te d th a t the
w o r d k u s s u , w h ic h m e a n s b o th a c h a ir an d a th ro n e , m ay r e f e r to a ritu al
a g a in s t s e iz u re by g h o s ts . T h is s p e c ific “ g h o s t ’s c h a ir ” (§1sg u -z a g id im =
k u s s u e t i m m e ) o c c u rs in le x ic a l lis ts , an d its use is e x p la in e d in a ritu a l te x t
as p r e v e n tin g s eiz u re b y g h o s ts : 293
If a man is chosen for death, and a ghost has seized him, you must purify
everything ... place a bread ration before Samas, Ea, and Marduk, threefold;
scatter dates, flour, set up three adagurru-vessels, set up three censers with
aromatics, scatter all kinds of cereals. You must put down a chair to the left of
the offerings for the ghost of his kin ...
D a ile y f u r th e r su g g e sts th a t, th is is th e re a s o n th a t N e rg a l also tak es a c h air
w ith h im w h e n h e d e s c e n d s to th e N e th e r w o rld in N e r g a l a n d E r e s k i g a l : he

292 S ee Sladek 1 9 7 4 ,9 1 -9 3 .
293 Zim m ern 1901, N o . 52:12; see Hh. IV 93 (lex ica l series HAR.ra = hubullu‫׳‬, published in Landsberger,
M SL V . The S eries HAR-ra = hubullu, T ab lets I-IV [Rom a, 1957] 157); translation after D ailey 2 0 0 0 ,1 6 3 .

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tries to e n s u re his e s c a p e fro m th e N e th e rw o rld and thus a v o id d e a th .294

D a ile y ’s s u g g e stio n re g a rd in g th e D e s c e n t m ay be c o r re c t, sin ce the th ro n e s
o r the c h a irs a p p e a r at the p o in t w h e re Ista r is g o in g to be re v iv e d . H o w e v e r ,
the r e fe re n c e to th e “ g o ld en th r o n e s ” on w h ic h th e A n n u n a tak e th eir seat m ay
also sim p ly d e s c rib e the im p o rta n c e and d ig n ity o f th e se g o ds.
A fte r d e c o ra tin g the th re s h o ld s w ith c o w rie -s h e lls , and a fter b r in g in g o u t
the j u d g e s and h a v in g s eated th e m on the g o ld e n th ro n e s , N a m ta r is su p p o se d
to “ sp rin k le Is ta r w ith the w a te r o f life ” and ta k e h er b a c k to E re s k ig a l. In the
S u m e ria n v e rsio n (1. 2 5 2, 28 0 ) th e k u rg a rra a n d the g a la tu r ra are in s tru c te d
to s p rin k le the c o rp s e o f I n a n n a w ith “ the life -g iv in g p la n t and the life -g iv in g
w a te r.” I n te re s tin g ly , the use o f th e life -g iv in g p la n t h as b e e n re je c te d in the
later A k k a d ia n v e rsio n .
W h a t is th e “ w a te r o f life ” ? S o m e sch o la rs h a v e a s s u m e d th a t the w a te rs k in
m e n tio n e d in th e A k k a d ia n v e rsio n m u st h a v e c o n ta in e d this w a te r, m e
b a la ti.295 T h e sto ry d o es n o t, h o w e v e r , m e n tio n a n y o n e a c tu a lly p o u rin g o u t
w a te r f ro m the w a te rs k in an d sp rin k lin g Ista r w ith it, o r o ffe rin g the g o d d e s s
a d rin k fro m th e w a te rsk in . A s S la d e k has p o in te d o u t, it is m o re lik ely th a t
the c o n ta in e r is, in fa c t, Istar h e rse lf. S la d e k also n otes th a t a fille d w a te rs k in
re s e m b le the d e a d b o d y o f the a n im a l fro m w h ich it w a s m a d e , w h ic h w o u ld
suit the c o n te x t in the sto ry (se e th e c o m m e n t fo r lin es 9 8 - 9 9 ).296 I f the
w a te rs k in is in d e e d Is ta r, a n d it is h e re a s su m e d so, th en th e o rig in s o f the
w a te r o f life m u s t b e s o m e w h e re e lse . T h e w a te r is p o s s ib ly b ro u g h t d o w n b y
A s u s u - n a m ir, a lth o u g h the sto ry d o e s not s p e c ific a lly m en tio n it (see also
b elo w ). A t le a s t in the S u m e ria n v e rs io n , the tw o re sc u e rs b rin g th e life-
g ivin g p la n t a n d life -g iv in g w a te r w ith th em .
It has b e e n n o te d by S. P a rp o la th a t the sp rin k lin g o f I n a n n a ’s co rp se (= the
sp iritu ally d e a d sou l) w ith the w a te r o f life co rre s p o n d s to th e act o f b a p tis m
w h ich , in the E x e g e s is on the S o u l , is n e c e s sa ry fo r th e r e b irth an d c le a n s in g
o f the s o u l.297 S in ce G n o s tic s b e lie v e d th a t h u m a n so u ls, the d iv in e s p a rk s ,
o r ig in a te d in th e p u re k in g d o m o f lig h t (P le r o m a ), it w as e s s e n tia l th a t th e se
e le m e n ts o f lig h t co m in g fo rth f ro m the e a rth ly d a rk n e s s w e re th o ro u g h ly
p u rifie d b e fo re m a k in g a r e -e n tr y i n t o the P le r o m a .298 In o rd er to serv e this
p u rp o se , th e G n o s tic s u sed b a p tis m (or an o in tin g ), th ro u g h w h ich the G n o s tic
o b tain ed his “ im m o rta l g a rm e n t o f lig h t.”299 B ap tism o r d re ssin g o n e s e lf w ith
th e “ im m o rta l g a rm e n t o f lig h t,” e n a c te d by im m e rsio n in w a te r, is a sy m b o l
fo r im m e rsin g o n e s e lf in the p u rify in g w aters o f the “ o c e a n o f lig h t/w is d o m ,”
i.e., P le r o m a . T h e c o rre s p o n d in g “o c e a n o f lig h t or w is d o m ” in the M e so p o -
tam ian c o n te x t w o u ld h av e b een A p su (see the c o m m e n t fo r line 27).
W h e re a s b a p tis m in w a te r s e rv e d as a p u rify in g e le m e n t in G n o s tic is m , the
p u rg a to ry n a tu re o f the w a te rs o f A p s u , the s w eet w a te r, is e v id e n t, fo r

294 D ailey 2 0 0 0 , 161 n. 18. The chair that N ergal takes with him is, in fa ct, built by him by an order o f
Ea. A ccording to E. R einer, the chair is a gift to Ereskigal from her father A nu, and it w ould ensure N ergal
admittance to the netherw orld as A nu ’s m essenger. Further, when Ereskigal w ould lea v e her old throne to
occupy the new on e, she w ould thereby resign from her status as the queen o f the N etherw orld (R einer
1 9 8 5 ,5 2 ).
295 E .g ., H eidel 1963, 126, n. 79; O ppenheim 1950, 138, and n. 1.
296 Sladek 1974, 4 0 -4 1 , 42; see also the com m ent for lin es 93-99.
29‫ ל‬See Parpola 1997a, X X X II; NHC 11,6 131,29-30; 132 ,1 1 -1 4 (R obinson 1988).
298 E .g ., in the Trimorphic P roten n oia (N H C X III,1 4 5 , 13-20; 4 8 , 13-35) (R obinson 1988, 51 If);
Z ostrianos, NHC V III, 1 (R obinson 1988, 4 0 2 f).
299 Rudolph 1987, 1 8 8 ,2 2 6 f.

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in s ta n c e , in the n a m b u r b i-te x ts (fro m the e ig h th -s ix th c e n tu rie s BCE) w h ere

it is a c o m m o n p ra c tic e to p u r if y the th re a te n e d p e rso n w ith w a te r b e fo re
a p o tr o p a ic rites can w o rk . P u r if ic a tio n c o u ld also b e d o n e as a c o n c lu d in g
ritu a l a f te r the a p o tro p a ic rite s . It w as also c o m m o n to th ro w the m a le v o le n t
o b je c t o r its su b stitu te in to th e riv e r so th a t it w o u ld be lo st in th e w atery
d e p th s , a n d h e n c e b a la n c e th e s itu a tio n .300
C o u ld it be th e n , th a t th e w a te r o f life in the D e s c e n t was the w a te r o f A p su ,
th e w a te r fro m the o c e a n o f w is d o m an d lig h t? F u r th e r m o r e , since A p su w as
u n d e r s to o d as the s u b te r r a n e a n s o u rc e o f fre s h w a te r , it w as also th e so u rce
o f life , an d as s u c h , the w a te r o f life. T h e n e e d e d w a te r c o u ld h a v e b e e n
b r o u g h t d o w n b y th e a s s i n n u , e x a c tly as in the S u m e ria n v e rs io n , o r p e rh a p s
it w as in d e e d d o w n in th e N e th e r w o r ld , w h ic h i ts e lf w as so m e tim e s re fe rre d
to b y the n a m e o f A p s u (see th e c o m m e n t fo r line 27). T h u s th e d e a d g o d d e s s,
o r th e d e a d so u l, w o u ld h a v e b e e n c le a n s e d an d p r o v id e d w ith the n e c e s sa ry
w is d o m f o r h e r re b irth an d re d e m p tio n f ro m the fa lle n state.
Lines 118a-118c: T h e A s s u r v e rs io n ad ds h e re th re e m o re lin es th a t in stru c t
N a m t a r o n ly to re le a s e I s ta r i f she p ro v id e s a s u b stitu te to re p la c e her. In the
N in e v e h v e rs io n , this in s tr u c tio n o c c u rs la te r in the te x t, fo r w h ich see line
126. T h e s p e a k e r o f th e se lin e s m a y be e ith e r E r e s k ig a l o r the A n u n n a . In the
S u m e ria n v ersio n it w as the A n u n n a w h o d e m a n d e d that th e g o d d e s s m u st
g iv e s o m e o n e in h er stea d .
Lines 119-125 (see also th e c o m m e n t fo r lin es 4 2 -6 2 ): T h e g o d w h o esco rts
Is ta r th ro u g h th e g ates m u s t b e N a m ta r , as his n a m e h as b e e n m e n tio n e d
im m e d ia te ly b e fo re (cf. a lso th e a d d itio n o f the A s s u r re c e n s io n , see lines
1 1 8 a -1 1 8 c ). In th e S u m e ria n v e r s io n , In a n n a is e s c o rte d by a g ro u p o f d em o n s
(g a l5-la ), sm all (g a l5- la - tu r ) 301 an d b ig (g a l5-la -g al) (11. 2 9 0 - 3 0 5 ) :302
So when Inanna left the underworld, the one in front of her, though not a
minister, held a scepter in his hand; the one behind her, though not an escort,
carried a mace at his hip, while the small demons, like a reed enclosure, and
the big demons, like the reeds of a fence, restrained her on all sides.
Those who accompanied her, those who accompanied Inanna, know no food,
know no drink, eat no flour offering and drink no libation. They accept no
pleasant gifts. They never enjoy the pleasures of the marital embrace, never
have any sweet children to kiss. They tear away the wife from a m an’s embrace.
They snatch the son from a m an ’s knee. They make the bride leave the house
of her father-indaw. They take the wife away from a m an’s embrace. They take
away the child hanging on a w et-nurse’s breasts. They crush no bitter garlic.
They eat no fish, they eat no leeks. They, it was, who accompanied Inanna.
In g e n e ra l, the g a lla (g a l l u ) are a g ro u p o f d e m o n s or m e s s e n g e rs o f the
N e th e r w o r ld , w h o are r e s p o n s ib le fo r s e iz in g and c a rry in g u n fo rtu n a te souls
to th e r e a lm o f th e d e a d . O r ig in a lly , in h isto ric a l re a lity , f ro m the P re-
S a rg o n ic u n til the U r III p e r io d , th e g a lla g a l w e re state o ffic ia ls . T h e p r o o f

300 C aplice 1974.

301 N ote that the sm all dem on, gal5-la-tur, is not the sam e as gala-tur, w ho w as Inanna’s rescuer in the
Sum erian version o f the D escen t.
302 ETCSL: In a n a ’s d escen t to the n eth er w o rld . N o te that the name o f the goddess is written in the
translation Inanna, and not Inana as in the ETC SL. A lso , the additional lin es o f different m anuscripts are
in clu d ed in the translation, and they are not sp ec ifica lly marked.

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fo r the o ffic e o f g a lla , on the o th e r h a n d , is a m b ig u o u s , a n d i f it e v e r e x iste d ,

it w as re p la c e d b y th a t o f g a lla g a l alre a d y by the e n d o f th ird m ille n n iu m . In
m y th o lo g y , th e g a lla w ere r e s p o n s ib le fo r c a p tu rin g the y o u n g d y in g g o d s ,
e.g ., in th e S u m e ria n Descent, D u m u zi’s D r e a m , Edina-usagake, Ning iszid a’s
Journey to the N e th e rw orld .303 T h is fu n c tio n w as p ro b a b ly in flu e n c e d by the
real o ffic e o f the h isto ric a l g a lla g a l (o r g a lla ), w ho are a s su m e d to h a v e
fu n c tio n e d as d e p u tie s or as p o lic e o ffic e rs. F ro m the O ld B a b y lo n ia n p e rio d
o n w a rd s, the le x ic a l lists an d in c a n ta tio n s in c lu d e the g a lla a m o n g the s ev en
ev il d e m o n s o f th e N e th e r w o rld , w h o m ay ra n d o m ly a s s a u lt a n y o n e and ca u se
his o r h e r d e a th . N o te th at in the S u m e ria n v e rsio n o f th e Descent, the g a lla
ca p tu rin g I n a n n a ’s su b stitu te are o n o n e h a n d d e s c rib e d as d e p u tie s carry in g
out th e la w , b u t on the o th e r h a n d th e y are c la s sifie d as d e m o n s , c a re fu lly
s e p a ra te d fro m th e h u m a n s. S till, th e ir ta rg e t w as c a u tio u sly c h o s e n , and th e ir
actio n s w e r e n o t y e t a rb itra ry , b a s e d on p u re w ic k e d n e s s , as in th e tra d itio n
s h o w n in the in c a n ta tio n s .304
Lines 126-130: T h is p a s sa g e starts w ith the c o m m a n d to b rin g Ista r b a c k if
she do es n o t g iv e a su b stitu te f o r h e r s e lf (see the c o m m e n t fo r lin es 118a-
118c). O b v i o u s ly , th e su b stitu te is in te n d e d to be T a m m u z (= D u m u z i ) , I s t a r ’s
lo v e r an d h u s b a n d , w h o is h e re c a lle d the “lo v er o f h e r y o u th .” In the
S u m e ria n v e r s io n , on th e o th e r h a n d , I n a n n a o n ly at th e e n d d e c id e s to g iv e
D u m u z i to th e N e th e r w o rld , a fte r c o n s id e rin g v a rio u s p o s sib ilitie s fo r h e r
s u b stitu te . T h e A k k a d ia n v e rs io n m ake3 a sh o rtcu t a n d in sta n tly d ecid es on
the re p la c e m e n t. T h e on es u tte rin g the c o m m a n d are p r o b a b ly the A n u n n a ,
as they in sist on I n a n n a ’s r e p la c e m e n t in the S u m erian v e rsio n . F o llo w in g the
a d d itio n o f th e A s s u r r e c e n s io n , it is N a m ta r w ho is a s k e d to b rin g Istar b a c k
d o w n b e lo w if th e re is no s u b stitu te (see the c o m m e n t fo r lin es 1 1 8 a -l 18c).
A c c o r d in g ly , it is N a m ta r w h o is a s k e d to b ath e T a m m u z , a n o in t h im w ith
g o o d o il, and c lo th e h im w ith th e red g a rm e n t. H e is a lso a llo w e d to p lay the
lapis la z u li p ip e . T h e v ic tim is th u s ritu a lis tic a lly p u r if ie d and clo th e d .
S. D a ile y n o tes th a t, e x c a v a tio n s h a v e sh o w n that c o rp s e s w ere w ra p p e d in
red clo th for b u r ia l.305 T a m m u z w as thus p re p a re d fo r his fu n e ra l. It is
p ro b a b le th a t th e p la y in g o f the flu te and th e p ro stitu te s c h a n g in g his m o o d
are m e n tio n e d h e re to tu rn h is m in d o f f the tra g ic fate - d eath in o rd e r to sav e
s o m e o n e else.
Lines 131-134: T h e la st p a rt o f the sto ry in tro d u c e s th e g o d d e s s B elili, w ho
is here re fe rre d to as th e sister o f T a m m u z . T ra d itio n a lly , D u m u z i ’s sister is
G e s tin a n n a (“ H e a v e n ly V in e /W in e ” ), an d he h as no s is te r c a lle d B elili else-
w h e re , u n le ss B e lili is a n o th e r n a m e fo r G e stin a n n a . G e s tin a n n a h ad a c lo se
re la tio n s h ip w ith h e r b r o th e r, an d she w as th e one w h o trie d to save D u m u z i
f ro m th e g a lla p u rsu in g h im an d try in g to tak e h im to th e N e th e r w o rld (see
D u m u zi’s Dream o r Dumuzi and Gestinanna ).306 T h e id e n tific a tio n o f B e lili

303 For E dina-usagake, see Jacobsen 1987b, 5 6 -8 4 . For D u m u z i’s D rea m and N in g is z id a ’s Journey to
the N eth erw orld , see ETC SL.
304 Katz 2 0 0 3 , 126-170, 2 8 0 -2 8 7 , and p a s s i m ; a lso B lack and Green 1 992, 85-86; C A D G, s.v . gallu ,
18-19.
305 D ailey 2 0 0 0 , 162, n. 2 1 . .
306 For D um uzi's D rea m , see A lster 1972, or ETCSL: D u m u zid ’s D ream . For D umuzi a n d Gestinanna,
see Sladek 1974, 2 2 5 -2 3 9 , or ETCSL: D u m u zid and G estin-ana.

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as D u m u z i ’s s is te r fin d s c o n f irm a tio n in the fa c t th a t B e lili h a d a sa n c tu a ry

in th e to w n c a lle d u r u -s ig 4- e - db e -li-li (cf. u ru -s i-b i b i-li- li-s e , S K , I, iii 14;
u r u - s e - e b e -b e -li-li-s e in S K 2 7 , ii), w h ic h seem s to h av e b e e n lo c a te d n ear
B a d - T ib ir a , w h ic h , in tu rn , w as a cu lt c e n te r o f D u m u z i.307 B elili is also
m e n tio n e d in an O ld B a b y lo n ia n ta b le t, SK 27 f ro m K is (col. ii 8 -1 7 ), w h ic h
b e lo n g s to th e la m e n t fo r th e d y in g g o d s , Edina-usagake .308
T h e re is an old w o m a n c a lle d B e lili (u m -m a db e -li-li) in D u m u zi’s D r e a m ,
to w h o m D u m u z i e s c a p e s w h ile r u n n in g aw ay fro m the d e m o n s try in g to
c a p tu re h im .309 In a n o th e r m y th c a lle d Inanna and Bilulu,310 B ilu lu (u m -m a
db i-lu -lu ) is the o ld w o m a n w h o is tu rn e d into a w a te rsk in by Ista r b e c a u s e
she th in k s B ilu lu is to b la m e fo r D u m u z i ’s d eath . O n e o f th e m a n u sc rip ts
w rite s B ilu lu as B e lili, so p e r h a p s the tw o lad ies w e re the o n e an d the sam e.
A t le a s t th e y are b o th r e fe r r e d to as th e “ old w o m a n ” an d th ey o c c u r in s im ila r
c o n te x ts . In Inanna and Bilulu, B ilu lu also has a son c alled G irg ire.
T h . J a c o b s e n h a s s u g g e s te d th a t B ilu lu is the fe m in in e a s p e c t o f th e god
E n b ilu lu , the in s p e c to r o f c a n a ls (de n - b 1-lu -lu k u -g al ld -d a ), w h o a p p e a rs , for
in s ta n c e , in Enki and the World O rder (1. 272) an d Enlil a ndN in lil (1. 1 4 2 ).311
E n b ilu lu , “L o rd B ilu lu ,” w as a f o rm o f the w e a th e r g od A d a d /I s k u r , b u t it
a lso a p p e a rs as a n a m e fo r M a r d u k o f B a b y lo n in the Epic o f Creation (Enuma
elis ). S in c e E n b ilu lu w as a s s o c ia te d w ith w a te r an d c a n a ls , an d as a “ g o d o f
a b u n d a n c e ” s p e c ific a lly w ith fru c tif y in g w aters (ra in s ), B ilu lu c h a n g in g into
a w a te r s k in w o u ld m a k e s e n s e . J a c o b s e n s u g g e sts th a t p e rh a p s B ilu lu ap-
p e a r e d , in fa c t, in th e f o rm o f a r a in /th u n d e r c lo u d fro m w h ic h I n a n n a c h a n g e d
h e r in to a w a te rsk in . H e r so n , G ir g ir e (g fr-g ir-e), is also c o n n e c te d w ith w a te r,
s in c e he w as a s s o c ia te d w ith th u n d e r s to r m s th ro u g h his very n a m e , “fla sh o f
lig h tn in g .” H e “ le ft s c a tte re d in th e fie ld s his v ic tim s (cattle ) stru ck d o w n
w ith the m a c e ,” w h ic h w o u ld c o m p o r t w ith lig h tn in g strik in g d o w n s o m eo n e .
If B ilu lu w as u n d e r s to o d as a t h u n d e r c lo u d , she w o u ld h a v e b e e n an ap p ro -
p ria te m o th e r for h e r so n , th e “ fla s h o f lig h tn in g .” 312 T h is B e lili/B ilu lu ,
h o w e v e r , is h a rd ly D u m u z i ’s s is te r, w h o fo r in sta n c e in D u m u z i ’s Dream is
c le a rly a se p a ra te c h a r a c te r . T h e r e f o r e , B elili o f the Desc ent is m o st lik ely
o n ly a n o th e r n a m e for G e s tin a n n a .
T h e je w e lr y m a d e o f eyestones (m ate[N A 4.IGI.2.MES]) th a t B elili tears is
p r o b a b ly a n e c k la c e m a d e o f b e a d s o f b a n d e d ag ates or s im ila r sto n es. T h e
e y e s to n e s w ere c u t in a w a y th e y re s e m b le d an e y e , w ith th e w h ite or the
lig h te r c o lo r aro u n d th e d a r k p u p il. T h e se p o ly c h r o m e sto n es w e re u se d fo r
m a k in g je w e lr y . F o r in s ta n c e , e x c a v a to rs h a v e f o u n d a g o ld e n d ia d e m e m b e l-
lish e d w ith m e d a llio n s in la id w ith b a n d e d ag a te e y e -b e a d s in o n e o f th e three
ro y a l to m b s th a t w e re fo u n d in th e N o r th -W e s t P a la c e in K a lh u (N im ru d ),
b u ilt b y A s s u r n a s ir p a l II ( 8 8 3 -8 5 9 BCE). F o u r g o ld c u f f b ra c e le ts in la id w ith

307 A ccording to the Sumerian King L ist, there were tw o D um uzis: one was called the “Shepherd,” and
w as said to have ruled the antediluvian dynasty o f Bad-Tibira for 3 6 ,0 0 0 years; the other, known as the
“Fisherm an,” w h ose city w as K ua(ra), su cceed ed Lugalbanda as king o f Uruk in the second dynasty after
the F lood . S ee Jacobsen 1939, 88. For Kuara = Eridu; see ib id ., 5 8 , n. 107 and 7 0 , n. 5.
308 S ee Katz 2 0 0 3 , 30 9 , n. 1.
309 ETCSL: D u m u z id ’s d re a m , 11. 1 9 9-2 3 4 .
310 Jacobsen 1970, 52-71; ETCSL: Inana an d Bilulu.
311 For Enki a n d the W orld O rd e r , se e , e .g ., B en ito 1 9 6 9 ,8 2 -1 6 0 , or ETCSL: Enki a n d the w o r ld order.
For Enlil a n d N inlil, se e, e .g ., B ehrens 1978, or ETCSL: Enlil a n d Nin lil.
312 Jacobsen 1970, 5 2 -7 1 , esp . 5 7-59; c f. Jacobsen and Kramer 1953, 160-188.

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ro u n d b a n d e d a g a te e y e -b e a d s w e re also fo u n d in the sa m e to m b , w h ic h h a d
the re m a in s o f tw o ro y al w o m e n .313 T h e e a rlie st e x a m p le s o f th e ey e sto n e s
co m e f ro m th e O ld B a b y lo n ia n p e r io d , and th eir e x is te n c e c o n tin u e s un til the
N e o - B a b y lo n ia n p e rio d . S om e o f the e y e s to n e s seem to h a v e b e e n som e k in d
o f v o tiv e o b je c ts , sin ce th ey w e re o fte n in sc rib e d w ith th e n a m e o f the ro y a l
d o n o r, as w e ll as the n am e o f a g o d to w h o m the g ift w a s p r e s e n te d .314 A n
early K a s s ite k in g A g u m - k a k rim e sp eak s o f im p o rtin g e y e s to n e s fro m the
land o f M e lu h h a (In d u s V a lle y ), to h o n o r th e re c o v e ry o f th e c u lt statu es o f
M a rd u k an d Z a rp a n itu o f B a b y lo n f ro m the H ittites. T h e p ro b le m o f the te x t
is th at the m a n u s c rip t co m e s f ro m th e lib rary o f A s s u r b a n ip a l, an d it is
u n c e rta in w h e th e r th e te x t w as c o m p o s e d d u rin g th e K a s s ite p e rio d , esp e-
cially sin ce th e k in g in q u e s tio n is n o t k n o w n o u tsid e this d o c u m e n t.315 T h e
re fe re n c e to th e tra d e b e tw e e n M e lu h h a and M e s o p o ta m ia is in an y case v a lid ,
sin ce th e n e a r e s t s o u rc e o f ag ates w as in In d ia , the b e s t f o u n d at R a ta n p u r in
R a jp ip la , ca. 75 k m f ro m th e G u lf o f C a m b a y ( K h a m b h a t).316
It is o b v io u s th a t B e lili tears h e r n e c k la c e as an act o f g rie f, p e rh a p s also
in a n g e r, fo r the lo ss o f h e r b ro th e r. T h e te a rin g o f je w e lr y is also u n d e rs to o d
as an e x p re s s io n o f g rie f, s p e c ific a lly as a sign o f w o m e n ’s g rie f, by A.
D ra ffk o rn K ilm e r, w h o n otes th a t su ch a c u s to m is p r a c tic e d in m a n y c u ltu re s,
e.g ., in I n d ia .317
T h e la s t w o rd o f lin e 134 is le g ib le o n ly in the A s s u r re c e n s io n (C ), an d
th e re fo re the e x a c t m e a n in g o f B e l i l i ’s>act rem ain s s o m e w h a t u n clear. T h e
last w o rd is p o s s ib le to re a d lit-te, g e n itiv e o f litu / littu, “ c o w ,” or ri'm-te,
g e n itiv e o f rimtu, “ w ild c o w ” (lo g o g ra p h ic a lly w ritte n SUN). T h e latter is
fre q u e n tly u s e d as an e p ith e t o f a g o d d e s s , e s p e c ia lly In a n n a /Is ta r an d M u l-
lissu , b u t in th is c o n te x t it m u s t r e fe r to B elili h e rse lf. In C A D R , s.v. rimtu,
3 5 9 , the p a s s a g e is tra n sla te d a n d re n d e re d : “ the e y e s to n e s w h ic h d e c o ra te d
the w ild co w ( B e lili),” inati sa undalla pan rimte.
J. B o tte ro h as su g g e ste d th a t th e r e a d in g ri'm-te w o u ld allo w an in te rp re ta -
tion o f th e w o rd as remtu, “b o s o m , w o m b ,” w hich w o u ld m e a n th a t B elili
filled h e r b o s o m w ith e y e s to n e s. A c c o rd in g to B o tte ro , th e e x p e c te d sg. 3f.
p o ss. suff. /-sa/ ( “h e r b o s o m ” ) w a s o m itte d by scrib al e r r o r .318 S lad ek h as
f u rth e r s u g g e s te d th a t B elili p la c e s h e r je w e lr y on b o d y p arts w h ic h m ay re fe r
to s e x u a lity , birka - “ la p , g e n ita ls ,” an d remtu = “b o s o m .”319 T h e w o rd remtu
h as the m e a n in g “ w o m b ” fo r in s ta n c e in the o m en series Summa izbu but
, 3 2 0

the m e a n in g “b o s o m ” is o n ly c o n je c tu r a l (see C A D R , 25 9).

Line 136: B elili states th a t a fte r h e r b ro th e r has had h is a llo tte d tim e in the
N e th e r w o rld , w h ic h , a c c o rd in g to th e S u m e ria n v e rs io n , is h a l f a y e a r, he w ill
rise f ro m th e r e a lm o f death:

313 Bahrani 1995, 1638.

314 Lambert 1969b, 65-71; see also Howard-Carter 1986, 305-310.
315 n a 4 .i g i .m e $ Meluhha 5R 33 ii 39: C A D I-J, s.v . Inu, 158; cf. R aw linson et a l., 1909, 33 ii 39;
“A gum -K akrim e and the Return o f Marduk” in Foster 1996, 27 4 -2 7 8 .
316 Howard-Carter 1986, 306; cf. E n cy clo p ed ia B ritannica, 11th ed.
317 Draffkorn K ilm er 1971, 304, n. 25.
318 Bottero 1 971-72, 93, n. 1.
319 Sladek 1974, 2 50 and 2 6 2 , n. 2.
320 L eichty 1970, 171, 1. 77': b e iz-bu re-m a-as-su nu-uk-ku-pa-[at...] “If an anom aly’s w om b is
p erforated ...”

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When Tammuz rises (lit. to me), the lapis lazuli pipe and the carnelian ring
will rise with him (lit. to me).
T h e p ip e , or th e flu te ( e b b u b u [ GI.GID] = “f lu te ” / m a l i l u [ GI.GID] = “reed
flu te , p i p e ” ) m e n tio n e d by B e lili is m a d e o f lapis lazu li ( u q n u [NA4.ZA.GIN]),
i.e ., it is b lu e , a n d th e rin g ( s e m e r u [ HAR]) is m ad e o f c a rn e lia n ( s a m t u [ NA4.
G U G ]), i.e ., it is re d . T h e sa m e c o lo r s , red an d b lu e , o c c u r e a r lie r in the tex t,
w h e n T a m m u z is o r d e re d to be I s t a r ’s su b stitu te. B e fo re d e s c e n d in g to the
N e th e r w o r ld , he is to be b a th e d , a n o in te d , an d clo th ed w ith a red g a rm e n t
( s u b a t u [ TUG] /ttm w [H U S .A ]), a n d a llo w e d to ,p la y the lapis la z u li p ip e (see
th e c o m m e n t fo r lin es 1 2 6 -1 3 0 ).
J. B o tte ro has s u g g e s te d th a t th e m u s ic a l in s tru m e n t GI.GID sh o u ld p erh ap s
n o t be in te rp re te d h e r e as the “ f lu te ,” b e c a u s e the verb m a h a s u = “to hit,
s tr ik e ” d o es n o t m a k e s en se w h e n u s e d w ith w in d in s tr u m e n ts .321 In s te a d , he
tra n s la te s th e w o rd as a “b a g u e tt e ,” i.e., a “ ro d , s tic k ,” and su g g e sts it sho uld
b e u n d e r s to o d as o n e o f th e tw o sy m b o ls o f d iv in e p o w e r and j u s t i c e , n am ely
th e “ro d an d th e r in g .” T h e s e tw o o b je c ts are really a (co ile d ) m e a s u rin g line
an d a m e a s u rin g ro d , in S u m e ria n e s - g a n a and g i-(d is - ) n in d a re sp e c tiv e ly
(A k k . a slu a n d g in in d a n a k k u ) . In th e S u m e ria n v ersio n o f th e D e s c e n t, th ey
are m a d e o f lap is la z u li (z a -g in ) an d b e lo n g to I n a n n a ’s d iv in e p o w e rs. T h e
c a r n e lia n rin g (HAR) th at T a m m u z w ill b rin g up w ith h im is n o t th e sam e
“r in g ” as the d iv in e s y m b o l, th e c o ile d m e a s u rin g lin e , b u t th e s h ap e w o u ld
h a v e b e e n th e s a m e . In b o th v e r s io n s o f th e D e s c e n t, the rin g (HAR) o ccu rs
as p a rt o f th e g o d d e s s ’ attire: in the A k k a d ia n v e rsio n th ey are “the b an g les
o f I s t a r ’s w rists and a n k le ts o f h e r a n k le s ,” in the S u m e ria n v e rs io n it is the
“ g o ld e n r in g /b r a c e le t” th a t is r e m o v e d f ro m h e r h a n d . B o tte ro n o tes th a t gold
as a c o lo r is n e a r to r e d . 322 S ig n ific a n tly , in a m u ra l fro m the r o y a l p a la c e at
M a r i, w h ic h d e p ic ts th e in v e s titu r e o f th e k in g Z im rilim , th e tw o sym b ols
Is ta r h o ld s in h e r h a n d w ith th e in te n tio n o f g ra n tin g th e m to the k in g , are
p a in te d w ith th e tw o co lo rs in q u e s tio n : th e rin g re d an d the ro d b lu e .323 T his
w o u ld suit v ery w e ll w ith th e e n d in g o f D e s c e n t : T a m m u z w ill b rin g w ith h im
a re d rin g an d a b lu e s tic k /ro d w h e n he a s c e n d s f ro m the N e th e r w o rld . T h u s
it is p r o b a b le th a t h e, in fa c t, has th e sy m b o ls o f d iv in e ju s tic e w ith h im , w h ich
m u s t h a v e b e e n g iv e n to h im b y his w ife , Istar. N o te th at D u m u z i/T a m m u z
w as id e n tifie d w ith th e M e s o p o ta m ia n k in g , w h o w as e n title d to h o ld the
s y m b o ls o f d iv in e ju s tic e (cf. Z im r ilim ab o v e ).
Lines 137-138: S ee th e c o m m e n t fo r lin es 81-84.

321 A ccord ing to D raffkorn K ilm er ( 1 9 9 5 ,2 6 0 6 ) , the verb tuku!mahasu “to strike, beat, tap” is used for
p layin g percussion instrum ents and reed p ipes.
322 C f. C assin 1968, 105, n. 8, 12.
323 B ottero 1 9 7 1 -7 2 , 9 1 -9 2 , n . l ; for the m ural, see Parrot 1958, 53 -6 6 + Plate A . D esp ite the quality o f
the colors in Parrot’s b ook, B ottero’s observation on the colors has been proven correct through the recent
restoration o f the “In vestiture” (A O 19826; now at the L ou vre), w hich show s that the rod is blue and the
circle is red (personal com m unication o f B eatrice M uller, for w hich I am grateful; cf. M iiller 2 0 0 3 ,4 2 -4 3 ).

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Grammatical Commentary

2 T he idiom uzna sakanu (lit., “to place the ear”) m eans “to pay attention,
listen to .”
3 iskunm a: the enclilic particle -ma indicates repetition and has no lexical
m eaning here.
5 eribusu = ptc. pi. m. st. cstr. o f erebu, “to enter” + poss. suff. sg. 3m -su;
note that w hen used as a noun, the ptc. may have the plural ending o f nouns
( erib u ), as opposed to the adjectival plural of ptc. proper (erib utu ).
8 = epru, “dust” ; the suffix h i .A (from Sum. hi-a “m ixed”) was in
s a h a r . h i .a
N eo -A ssyrian orthography frequently used as a determ inative o f collective
nouns.
akalsunu (var. n i n d a .h i .a -sina ms E) = st. cstr. nom. of ak(a)lu, “bread,
fo o d ” + poss. suff. pi. 3m -sunu (var. pi. 3f -sina, mss D and E ) , f r o m akalu,
“to eat.”
9 immaru = pres. pi. 3m of a m a ru , “to see” (var. D: im m aram a, pres. pi. 3f
+ encl. ptcl. -ma).
10 gappi (C: agappi) = sg. gen., N A by-form of (a )ka p p u , “w ing, plum age.”
11 sabuh = stat. sg. 3m o f sab ah u, “to settle (said of dust)” ; var. C: isabbuh =
pres. sg. 3.
epru (var. C: s a h a r .m e s ): in N A orthography, the plural sign m e s was, like
Hi.a (see note on line 8), often attached to collective nouns w ithout im-
plying a gram m atical plural.
12 ina kasadlsa = ina “in ” + inf. gen. + poss. suff. sg. 3f -sa, lit. “in her
reach in g ,” an infinitive construction equivalent to a finite tem poral clause,
“ when she reached.”
12a p is a = N A st. cstr. sg. acc. o f p u, “m outh” + poss. suff. sg. 3 f -sa.
ipusu = pret. sg. 3 (ipus) of epesu, “to do” + anaptyctic vowel (-u) replacing
coordinative encl. ptcl. -ma, “and, also” ; a N eo-A ssyrianism ; so also in
lines 21C and 109C: ip-pu-su; com pare with lines 21 A, 66A , and 109A, B:
ipusm a iqabbi).
T he idiom p a epesu (lit., “to do the m o u th ”) is a poetic expression for “to
speak.”
13 a -m a -tum = nom .-acc. sg. (a N eo-A ssyrianism , see SAAS 13, 3.9.1) for SB
acc. sg. am ata(m ) “w ord ” ; cf. a -m a-tam (C). The final -m in in a-ma-tum
is orthographic only (used as a stylistic device) and was not pronounced.
izzakkar = pres. sg. 3c o f zakaru Gt, “to speak, to say” (< *iztakkar).
14 -me = after voc. and pron. “ h ey !” (CDA s.v. -me, 206; G A G § 123d).
p ita = im p. sg. m. o f p e tu , “to op en ” (pite) + dat. sg. l c -a[m], “for m e” .
15 luruba = prec. lu + pret. sg. l c (erub) + vent. -a(m ), from erebu, “to en ter”
16 tapatta = pres. sg. 2m o f p e tu , “to open” (NA form; SB tepette) + dat. sg.
l c -a[m].
erruba = pres. sg. 1 (erru b) 4‫ ־‬vent. -a(m).

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 IS T A R ’S DESC EN T A N D RESURRECTION

17 asabbir = pres. sg. 1 o f seberu, “ to break, sm ash,” Ass. form (SB asebber).
18 sippum m a = N A sg. nom .-acc. + encl. ptcl. -ma (= Bab. sip p a m m a ; the
m im ation is preserved before -ma).
usabalkat = NA pres. sg. 1 o f nabalkutu S “to overturn, overthrow ” (Bab.
u s b a la kk a t).
19 usella — pres. sg. 1 (u sella) o f elu S “to raise u p ” + vent. -a{m) (var. C:
elluni = pres. pi. 3m [ellu] o f elu = “to go u p ” + vent. -ni[m]).
20 eli (u g u ) = prep, “on, upon,” in com parative use, “more than” (see G A G §
68 a).
im a33idu = pres. pi. 3m o f madu (m a3ad u), “to be(com e) num erous” (var. D,
E: usam?ad = pres. sg. 1 o f m a 3adu S (sum ’udu), “to increase”)
21 p a su = SB st. cstr. sg. acc. o f pu, “m outh” + poss. suff. sg. 3m -su (cf. note
on line 12a).
22 r a b id = sg. f. gen. o f rabu “ great,” v. adj. o f rabu, “to be great, gro w ” (var.
C: ba’latu = “lady, m istress,” W Sem word; here the word m ay also be a
mistake or a by-form o f Ass. belatu [CAD B s.v. ba’latu, 45]; note that the
w ord has the divine determ inative (d) in front o f it.
23 iziz = imp. sg. m. o f i/uzuzzu, “to stand” .
tanaddassi = pres. sg. 2 f (ta naddi) of nadu, “to th ro w ” + vent. -a(m) + acc.
sg. 3f -si, referring to daltu “d o o r” .
23a q a 33i = NA imp. sg. f. o f q u 33u, “to await, wait fo r” .
lip ped = prec. lu + pret. sg. 3 (ip p e d ) of petu N, “to be opened” .
24 lullik = prec. lu + pret. sg. 1 (allik) o f alaku, “to g o ” .
zikirki (var. C: siqirki) = st. cstr. sg. acc. o f zikru (NA siqru), “nam e” +
poss. suff. sg. 2 f -ki; cf. zakaru = “to pronounce, utter, nam e” .
25 erum m a = pret. sg. 3 (e r u b ) o f erebu, “to enter” + encl. ptcl. -ma “and” .
26 annitu = sg. f. nom. of. dem . pron. annu “th is” (for A: annitum e see note
on line 14).
izzaz = pres. sg. 3 o f i/uzuzzu, “to stand” .
27 m ukiltu = ptc. sg. f. nom . o f kullu, “to hold” .
keppe = pi. gen ./acc. o f keppu, generally translated as “skipping rope,” but
see the com m entary for the translation “whip to p ” .
da liha t = ptc. sg. f. bound form o f dalahu, “to disturb, stir up, roil (w ater)” .
28 sam isa = NA inf. sg. m. suffixal form o f SB sem u “to hear,” gen. + poss.
suff. sg. 3f -sa.
29 niksu = “stum p o f a tree, cu t-o ff piece o f w ood” (nikis sg. m. bound form ;
cf. nakasu = “to cut, to fell”). ^
eriqu (var. A: eruqu A ss. form ): pret. pi. 3m o f (w )a ra q u , “to be(com e)
green, yellow , to turn p ale” (var. E: irqu stat. pi. 3m).
30 sa pa t = sg. nom . bound form o f saptu “lip, edge, rim ” (C: sabat Ass. form ).
islima = pret. pi. 3f o f salam u, “to becom e dark, turn black” .
saptasu = dual nom . o f saptu + poss. suff. sg. 3m -su (C: sabatusa Ass. pi.
nom . + poss. suff. sg. 3 f -sa).
31 ublanni = pret. sg. 3 o f (w )a b a lu , “to carry” (ubil) + acc. sg. l c -anni (<
ventive -am + -ni).
libbu (subj.) + (w )abalu = “to want, to desire, to yearn for, to d eterm in e”

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 C O M M ENTARY A N D A N A LY SIS

kabtassa (C: kabattasdm a) = sg. f. acc. bound form o f kabattu, “liver,

m ood, tem p er, m in d ” + poss. suff. sg. 3f -sa (+ encl. ptcl. -ma).
u sperdannim a = pret. sg. 3c o f supardu “to lighten, to m ake cheerful” (S
stem o f SB neperdu, Ass. n a p ardu ) + acc. sg. 1 -anni + encl. ptcl. -ma.
34 lubki = prec. sg. 1 o f baku, “to cry, w eep ” (< lu + abki). T he translation of
the passage is uncertain, as the verbal form is am biguous and could be
rendered eith er “ I w ould like to w eep ,” “let me w eep,” or “ should I w eep?”
ina m uhhi (ms C) “on, on top of, over, above, concerning” is an A ssyrianism
fo r SB eli, “over, up on ” .
35 sallupani = D stat. pi. 3 f o f salapu + Ass. subj. m arker -ni, an Assyrianism
fo r SB sallupa. The Ass. subj. m arker is actually -u...ni, but the -u is
dropped after a vowel except w hen the vowel is part of the root; see SAAS
1 3 ,3 .1 2 .4 .
36 tardu = stat. sg. 3m o f fa radu “to send aw ay” (tarid) + subj. -u.
37 p ita ssi = im p. sg. m. o f petu “to op en” (pite) + vent. -a(m) + dat. sg. 3f
-si(m).
38 uppissim a = imp. sg. m. o f epesu D “to treat” (uppis) + acc. sg. 3f -si
[sibilant + s o f pron. suff. > 5s] + encl. ptcl. -ma.
40 erbi = imp. sg. f o f erebu “to en ter” .
S. P arpola (oral com m unication) suggests that the sg. 2 f verbal forms
should in fact have a short final vow el l-il, e.g. erbi, because the form s take
the ventive ending -(a)m , and not -n i(m ) as the plural form s with a long
final vow el. F or the present edition, I have retained the long final vowel
and therefore the transcription has erbi.
liriski = prec. sg. 3 o f riasu “to rejoice” (lu + iris) + acc. sg. 2 f -ki.
41 lihdu = prec. sg. 3 o f hadu “to be jo y fu l, rejoice” (lu + ihdu).
65 usbi = pret. sg. 3 o f (w )asabu “to sit (dow n)” ; NA form due to syllable
m etathesis (usib > usbi), see SAAS 13, p. 38.
T he form has hitherto rem ained a crux. According to F oster 1996, 409, its
m eaning is unkn ow n . Sladek 1974, 256 n. 1, suggests that it could be a
scribal error for usib or alternatively a form o f the verb su b e}u, “to rush
u p o n ” (cf. von Soden, G A G 109j; Speiser A N E T 108:65, H eidel, Gilga-
m esh 124:65; B orger, B A L 116). He notes, how ever, that elenu does not
really co m plem ent su be’u. CA D E 85a (s.v. elenu 2'c) correctly translates
(with a question m ark ), “Istar gave the m atter no thought but sat down(?)
above h e r” (i.e., in the place o f honor due to Ereskigal), thus also Oppen-
heim , OrNS 19 (1950) 141 n. 2 and CA D A/2 389a, s.v. asabu lb .
69 susassi = im p. sg. m. o f asu S “to let go out” (susi) + vent. -a(m)- + acc. sg.
3 f -si. F or the restoration lishupu (prec. pi. 3m o f sahapu “to o verw helm ”)
cf., e.g., [li-s]a-hi-ip-si benna tesa ra'iba, “may (Ea) cover her with epilep-
sy, vertigo, and trem b ling ” (M aqlu V III 41). A nother possibility would be
liktumu (with the same m eaning), cf. CA D K 300f. s.v. katam u.
75 sasa = N A form for SB sdsi “to h er” (pers. pron. dat. sg. 3f), see SAAS 13
p. 44.
T he destroyed end o f the line could be tentatively restored [su (zum ri)-sa
su -sa -su -n u], “let them loose against her body” (susassunu = imp. sg. m.
o f asu S + vent. -a(m)- + N A acc.-dat. pi. 3m suff. -sunu).

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 IST A R ’S DESCENT A N D RESURRECTION

80 R estored from line 90 ( it - til a r - d a - t u m i-na a - h i - [ x ] - s a ), where there could

be space for one sign betw een hi and -sa. For the reading a - h i- s a (lit., “ on
her side” > “alone”) see CA D A/I 207, s.v. ahu “ side, arm .” B orger, BAL
I (1979), p. 100, how ever suggests reading a - h i - [ t i ( l ) ] - s d , “(in her) hiding,
secrecy ” .
81 Instead o f katmu (stat. pi. 3m of k ata m u “to cover”), one could also consider
restoring a rp u (stat. pi. 3m o f a r a p u / e r e p u = “ to cloud over, to darken”),
cf. [lummun] li b b a s u p a n u s u a r p u , “his heart w orried, his face grew d ark ,”
SAA Gilg. I 102.
82 m a l u “unkem pt, dirty h a ir” (pi. gen.-acc.) is derived from the verb lu‫ ״‬u (D
only) “ to sully, m ake d irty ” .
84 d l m a s u = dual nom. o f d i m t u “tear”+ poss. suff. sg. 3m -su.
91 T he word zikru is am biguous and can in principle mean either “w ord” (cf.
z a k a r u “to speak, u tter” ) or “man, m ale” (usually zi k a r u ) . Since, how ever,
A susu-nam ir was n o t a m an, but a sexless, effem inate as sin nu (see the
com m ent for lines 91-92), the m eaning “w ord” is certainly to be preferred
here. This makes the a s s i n n u a personification o f the word o f Ea, com -
parable to the G nostic l o g o s . See also S. Parpola, “The Esoteric M eaning
o f the N am e of G ilg a m e sh ,” C R R A I 43 (1998) 318-319, and SAA 9 p . XCII
n. 119, for zikru referring to Enkidu as “the word o f E a” (also = ha ssi nnu ,
“axe,” a pun for a s s i n n u ) in the Epic o f G ilgam esh.
94 l i p p e tu (var C: l i p p a tu , M A form ) = prec. pi. 3m o f p e t u / p a t u N “to be
o p en ed ” .
96 inuhu = pret. sg. 3 o f nahu “to be(com e) restful” + subj. -u.
i p p e r e d d u (var. C: i p p e r d u ) = pret. sg. 3 o f n e p e r d u N “to shine, becom e
c h eerful” + subj. -u.
97 t u m m e s i m a = imp. sg. m. o f tam u D “to adjure” + acc. sg. 3f -si- + encl.
ptcl. -ma.
97a b d n a t = bound form o f b a n i t u , “creatress” (< b a n i a t , see G A G , N om inal-
p aradigm a 4, p. 7*).
98 s u q q i = imp. sg. m. o f s a q u D “to raise u p ” .
99 li d -n u -n i = liddinuni, prec. pi. 3m o f n a d a n u / t a d a n u “to give” + - m (dat.
sg. lc suff.), with NA reduction or syncope o f the prestressed syllable
( l i d (i)n u n i ) , also attested in CT 53 24 r .15 and 969 r.15.
lult atti (var. C: la l ta tt i, M A . form ) = prec. sg. l c of sa tu Gtn, “to drink
(habitually)” (< lu + a l t a t t i ~ a s ta tt i)
101 t a m h a s = NA pret. sg. 3 f o f m a h a s u “to beat, to strike” ; var. C: im h a s is the
corresponding SB form .
t a s s u k a = NA pret. sg. 3 f o f n as d ku “to bite” + vent. -a(m); var. C: it t a s a k
= SB perf. sg. 3.
102 t e t e r s a n n i = perf. sg. 2m o f e r e s u = “to request” + acc. sg. 1 -anni.
103 luzir ka = prec. sg. 1 o f e z e r u “to curse” + acc. sg. 2m -ka.
103a lu s i m k a m a = prec. sg. 1 o f s i a m u “to fix, decree” + acc. sg. 2m -ka- + encl.
ptcl. -ma.
104 “seeder p lou gh ” ? the variant e - p i - e t in C can be taken as
g i s . a p i n = epi nnu
a defective syllabic spelling for the pi. o f epi nnu (= e p i n n e t = e-pi-<ne>-et

98
 CO M M EN TARY A N D A N A LY SIS

= g i s . a p i n . m e s ) , but also as the pi. o f e p i t u “w om an baker” ( e p e t ), the ptc.

f. of ep u “to b ak e,” in w hich case one would have to translate “bread o f the
c ity ’s (w om an) b ak ers.” Dailey (2000, p. 161, n. 16) suggests that the
variant “c ity ’s bak ers” instead o f the “c ity ’s ploughs” may be due to
m ishearing by oral tradition.
112 n A 4 . p a . m e s is
a pseu do -log og ram to be read as ia A-a r a ti, pi. of a ja r tu ~
“ (cow rie-)shell.” The syllabic spelling IA- e - r e - t e (= ij er et e)
ij ar tu ~ j a r t u
in C presum es an Ass. by-form *ijertu.
114 s u l u h s i m a (C: s u ll i’s i m a ) = imp. sg. m. o f s a la h u ( s a l a ’u D) “to sprinkle”
+ acc. sg. 3f -si- + encl. ptcl. -ma.
118b i d d a n a k k a = i d d a n (pres. sg. 3 o f Ass. ta d an u “to give,” as opposed to
in a d d in , pres. sg. 3 o f Bab. n a d a n u “to give”) + NA acc./dat. sg. 2m suff.
-(a k) ka .
t i r r a s s i = imp. sg. m. o f tar u D + vent. - a ( m ) - + acc. sg. 3 f -si.

120 In m anuscript C the first signs are destroyed, and the first legible sign is lu,
follow ed by the sign o f separation. I assume that the sign lu, which
apparently also occurs in the follow ing line, is a badly copied sign of
repetition, k i . m i n (= “ditto ”).
126 C om pare line 118b.
t a d d i n a k k a m m a = pret. sg. 3 f o f t a d a n u “to give” + acc. / dat. sg. 2m
- ( ak )k a - + encl. ptcl. -ma; cf. note on line 118b above.
128 r a m m i k = NA imp. sg. m. o f r a m a k u D “to wash” (SB r u m m i k ).
p u s s i s = imp. sg. m. of p a s a s u D “to anoint” ; for the reading p [ u s ] - s i - i s see
von Soden, Z A 58 (1963) 193.
130 li n a }>d = prec. pi. 3f o f n u }>u “to am use,” cf. nu’u t u ^ a ^ t u “jo ke, j e s t” (CAD
N / l 255b s.v. n a m u tu and C A D E 239b s.v. e p i s n u ’uti. [SP]
133 t a s m e = Ass. pret. sg. 3 f of se mu (Ass. s a m u ) “to hear” .
134 u n d a l l a [< u m t a l l a ] = perf. pi. 3f m a lu D “to fill u p ” (with the M B/NB/SB
change m t > n d ) . It is also possible to read u n -t a l- la - a (with the M A/NA
change m t > nt ).
135 It is assum ed that Belili is here speaking to N am tar, who is under orders to
bring som eone on Is ta r’s behalf to the N etherw orld.
138 li l u n i m m a = prec. pi. 3m o f elu = “to go up, rise” + vent. -ni(m) + encl. ptcl.
-ma.

99
 GLOSSARY AND INDICES

Logograms and Their Readings

A.MES - ‫ י‬me; AD ‫ י־‬abu; AGA ‫ ״־‬agu

BA.US - ‫ ״‬mitu; BAD ‫ *־־‬duru . _
dDUMU.zi ‫ *־‬Dum uzi ; dERES.K1.GAL ‫ *־‬Ereskigal ; dE.A ‫ *־־‬L a ; d+lNN1N -* 75Mr; dNAM.TAR * N am taru;
dNlN—Ki - du.DAR, dl5 ‫ *־־‬/.s7ar; d30 -> Sin
DINGIR ‫ י־‬iltu, ilu; DUMU.MI - martu
fi -* bitu; E.GAL ‫ *־־‬ekallu
GABA ‫־‬- irtu; GAL -* rabu; GARZA -» parsu; gi.gi'd ‫ »־־‬malilu; g i.n a -* kinu; GIG - mursu; gim - kima;
GIR, G1R.2 -+ sepu; G1S.AP1N ‫ ♦־־‬epinnu‫׳‬, G1S.DAL ‫ *־־‬tallu', G1S.GU.ZA ‫ *־־‬kussu; GIS.IG ‫ *־־־‬daltu‫׳‬, GIS.MI ‫ *־־‬sillu,
GIS.SAG.KUL - sikkuru ; g is.sin ig -* binu; GURUS - etlu; GU -» kisadu; g u .d u 8.a .k i ‫ *־‬Kutu; g u 4 ‫ ׳‬alpu
HAR -* semeru; HUS.A -* russu ^ _
IG ‫ ״־־‬daltu ; 1G1 -‫ *־‬panu; 1G1.2 ‫ * ־‬inu; IM ‫ *־־‬tuppu; i-DUG.GA -* samnu tabu; l d u 8 -‫ ך‬atu
KA ‫ *־־‬pu; k a s k a l ‫ »־־‬harranu; k a s ‫ *־־־‬sikaru‫׳‬, KA ‫ *־־‬babu‫׳‬, Ki -* ersetu; ki.m in sanis; KI.SIKIL -‫ »־‬ardatu,
KUG.GI ‫ *״־‬hurasu; k u r ‫ *־־‬matu; k u r.n u .G I, k u r .n u .g i4, k ur.nu.G 14.a ‫ ♦־־־‬kurnugu, k u ‫ *״־‬akalu
LUGAL -» sarru; l l i . e r ‫ * ־‬bakka’u; l u .i . d u 8 ‫ *־‬atu ; LU.TUR - sehru
MAN ‫ *־‬sarru‫׳‬, Mi'.ANSE -‫ ♦־‬atanu; Ml'.ER ‫ ״־־‬bakkitw, Mf.HUB ‫ »־־‬atanu; Mf.Kl.SiKlL -‫ *־‬ardatu‫׳‬, MU -* nis,
zakaru, zikru; MUL - kakkabu; MURUB4 - qablu; MUSEN - issuru
n a m . t a r ‫ *־־‬Namtaru; n a 4 ‫ *־־‬abnu; n a 4.g u g ‫ *־־‬samtu; n a 4.i.dib ‫ *־‬askuppatu; n a 4.igi.2 ‫ *־־‬inu, n a 4.
n u n u z ‫ *־־‬erimmatu; n a 4.pa ‫ *־־‬aiartu; NA4.za.G1N -* uqnu; NIN * beltu; n in d a ‫ *־־‬kusapu, n in d a .H I.a ‫*־־‬
aklu
PI.2 ‫ *־־‬uznu
SAG -* resu; SAG.DU ‫ *־־‬qaqqadu; s a h a r , s a h a r .h i . a -* epru; s i l a ‫ *־־‬suqu; s u -* zumru; s u k k a l -*
sukkallu v
SA - libbu; sA .tO r - sassuru; s u , SU.2 qatu; Suk - kurummatu; SU - kissatu
TA -* istu; TULA ‫ *־־‬balatu; TU ‫ ♦־־‬aladu; TUG subatu
UD - umu; UGU - eli; un .m es - nisi; u r u - alu; UR pem u, sunu; u s -» mitu
1 -‫ י‬isten; 2 -* sanu; 3 -* salsu; 4 -* rebu; 5 ‫ *־‬hamsu; 6 -* sessu; 7 -» sebu

101
 Glossary
a b d lu “to b rin g ” : ub-l a-an-ni 31 A ; ub-la-an-ni-
m a 31C
a b n u “s to n e ” : n a 4 5 4 A , 5 5 A , 121 A , B , C
a b u “fa th e r” : A[D-5a] 27 C ; a d - s u 83A
a g a p p u “w in g , p lu m a g e ” : a - g a p - p i IOC; a-kap-
p u 10E; gap-[pi] 10A ; see also k a p p u
a g u “ cro w n , tia ra ” : a-gu-u 125A , B ; a g a 4 2 A ,
43A
a h a tu “ s is te r” : a-ha-at -ki 26C ; a-ha-t a-ki 26A
a h u “b ro th e r” : a-hi 135A , B; a-hi -sa 133A ; a-
h\ i- sd 133B
a h u B “ arm ; sid e” : a-hi 7 1 A ; a-hi -s a 9 0 A ; a-hi-
sd] 8 0 A , C; a-hi ]-sd 7 1 A
a j a r t u “ (c o w rie -)sh e ll” : n a 4.p a.m es 116A ; n a 4.
pa.[m es] 1 12B , 116B ; n a 4.[p ]a.m es 1 12A ; ia-e-re-
te 1 1 2 C ; ia-e-re-[te] 116C
a k a lu “to e a t, co n su m e” : a-kal 33A ; e-ka-la 33C ;
ik-ka-lu 19D; ik-kal-[lu 19C; k u .m e s 19A
ak ap p u see a g a p p u
a k lu “b re a d , fo o d ” : a-kal -ka 104A ; a-kal-[s]i-i-
na 8C ; a-kal-si-na 8D ; a-kal-su-nu 8A ; n i n d a -
m.A-[ si- n] a 8; n in d a .m e s 3 3 A , C , 104A ; n in d a .
[m es 33B
ak su p p a tu see a s k u p p a tu
a l a d u “to g iv e b irth ” : TU 5 4 A , 5 5 A , 12 1 A , B , C
a l a k t u “ro a d , w a y , c o u rse , tra ffic ; th o se w ho
g o )” : a-l ak-t a-s a 6 A , D; a-l ak-t a-su 6D ; a-lak]-ta-
[x] 6C
a la k u “ to go; (v e n t.) to c o m e ” : al -ka 9 3 A , 103A ;
al -kam 103C ; a-lik 3 7 A ,C , 6 8 A , 1 1 1 A ,B ,C ; a-l[ik
6 8 C ; [a-li]k 37B ; a-lik-ma 118C ; il-la-ka 8 4 A , C;
il-lik 3 9 A , B , 83A , 115A , C ; [il]-lik 39C ; [i]l-lik
1 15B; lu-ul-lik 24A
a lik u “ g o e r, p a sse n g e r” : a-li-ku-tu-su M A 5;
a-li-ku-u-tu-sa M A 11
a lp u “ o x ” : g u 4 77A , 87A
a lu “ city , to w n , v illa g e ” : u r u 1 04A , C , 105A , C
a m a r u “to see , b e h o ld ” : i m- ma -r a 9D ; im]-ma-
ra 9C ; im-ma-ra-ma 9D ; im-ma-ru 9A ; i-mur-si-
ma 6 4 A ; l i-mur-ka-ma 9 5 A , C
a m a tu “ w o rd , m a tte r” : a -m a- ta 1 10A , B ; a-ma-
t[a] 67A ; a -[ ma- ta 91 C ; a -m a - t a m 13C ; a-ma-t um
13A
a m m tn i “w h y ? w h at fo r? ” : a m - m e - n i 4 3 A , B ,
4 6 A , 4 9 A , 5 2 A , 5 5 A , 5 8 A , 61A ; a [ m - m e - n i 46B
a n a “to ” : ana 12C , 3 5 C , 8 3 C , 9 5 C , 9 7 C , 9 8 C ,
103C , 1 0 4 C , 118C {ana) M A 6; [ana 24 C ; a-na
1 A ,4 A ,D ,5 A ,D ,6 A ,D ,7 A ,D , 12A , 1 3 A ,C ,2 2 A ,
C , 2 4 A ; 3 4 A , 35 A , B , 3 6 A , C , 4 1 C , 6 3 A , 6 7 A ,
7 5 A , 7 7 A , C , 85A , C , 8 6 A , 87A ; 9 3 C , 9 4 C , 9 8 A ,
1 1 0 A ,B ,C , 1 2 6 A .B , 127A , a - [ n a 7 1 A ,7 2 A ,7 3 A ,
7 6 A ; [a-na 2 5 A , 7 0 A , 118C ; [a-na] 2 5 C ; [a-n]a
127B
a n a k u “I” : a-na-ku 15A , C , 16A , 3 2 A , C
a n h is “ w e a rily ” : an-his 83A
103
a n n u “th is ” : an-nu-u 2 6 C , 32C ; an-ni-ta 2 8 A ,
C , 100A , C ; [an-n]i-t[u 32B ; an-ni-tu-me-e 2 6 A ,
32A
a p p u “n o s e ” : ap-pa- su 81 A , C
a p s u “ ab y ss, (c o sm ic) u n d e rg ro u n d w a te r” : ap-
si-i 27C
a r a d u “to d esc en d , go d o w n ” : u-ri d 85A ; u-ri-
du 6 3 A , 85C , 86A ; u-ri-du] 76A
a r a q u “to b e(com e) g re e n , to tu rn p a le ” : e-ri-qu
2 9 C ; e-ru-[qu 29A ; P-ir-qu 29E
a r d a t u “ y o u n g w o m an , g irl” : ar-da-t u 78C ; a[r-
da-tu 80C ; ar-da-t um 7 8 A , 8 8 A , 9 0 A ; a[r-da-tum
8 0A ; k i.s ik il.m e s 35C ; m i.k i.s ik il.m e s 35A
a r k i “ a fte r” : ar-ki 7 6 A , C
a r u B “to be p reg n an t; (S) to im p re g n a te ” : u-sd-
r a 7 8 A , 87 A , 88A ; u-sa-ra] 77A ; u-sa-ra-a 78C
a s k u p p a tu “ th re sh o ld , sla b , d o o r sill” : ak-su-pa-
te 112C ; ak-su-pa-ti 116C ; ak-su-pa-tu 107C ; as-
kup-pa-tu 107A ; n a 4.i.d ib .m es 112A , B , 116A ;
[ n ] a 4.i.d ib .m es 116B
a s s in n u “ she-m an, effem in ate m a n , m an -w o m a n ,
tra n sv e stite ” : l i j .as-sin-nu 9 2 A
a§u “to co m e ou t, go o u t, em erg e; (S) to b rin g
o u t, re le a s e ” : a-su-u 5 C , D ; a-s[u-u] 5A ; su-sa-a
1 1 3 A , B; s u-sa-as-si 6 9 A; s u-s a-ma 113C ; su-sa-
su-nu] 75A ; su-sa-[x 6 9 C ; u-sa-a M A 8; u-se-sa-a
1 1 7 A , B; u-se-sa- ma 117C ; u-se- si -si -ma 119A ,
B , 1 2 0 A ,B , 1 2 iA , B , 122A , B , 123A , B , 124A ; B ,
1 2 5 A ,B , u-se-su-si-ma 119C
a s a b u “to sit do w n , sit, d w ell; (S) to e n th ro n e ,
s e ttle ” : as-ba 9D ; as -b[a] 9C ; [a i ] - b a 9; as -[ bu ]
9A ; a -s i - b a t M A 2, 4; su-sib 1 13A , C; su-[sib]
113B ; us-bi 6 5 A ; u-se-sib 117A , C; u-se-[sib]
117B
a s ib u “in h a b ita n t” : a-si-bu-su 7D
a s r u “p la c e , site; (in st. c o n str.) w h e re ” : a -s a r
8 A ,D
a t a n u “ sh e -d o n k ey , m a re ” : m i'.an se 7 7 A , 87A ;
m I.hEb 77C
a tu “ g a te -g u a rd ” : L d u 8 13C , 25C ; i.[d u 8] 39C ;
l.DVs-me-e 14C; LU.i.DUg 13A , 2 1 A , 2 5 A , 37A , B ,
C , 3 9 A , B , 4 3 A , 4 6 A , 49A ; 5 2 A , 5 5 A , 5 8 A , 61A ,
l u . 'l [ d u 8 43 B ; l u .[ i.d ] u 8 21C ; [ l u .i.d ] u 8 43C ; l u .i .
DU s-me-e 14A
b a b u “g a te , d o o rw a y ” : b a- ab -k a 14A ; ba-ab-
k[a] 37A ; b a- ab- ka- ma 15A; ba-ab-[su] 39A ; ba-
a -b a - a m 16C; ba-a- bi 13A; b a-a -bu 16A ; kA 12A ,
C , 13C , 14C , 3 7 C , 3 9 C , 4 2 A , B , C , 4 5 A , B , 4 8 A ,
5 1 A , 5 4 A; 57A , 60A , 9 3 A , C , 9 4 A , 119A , B ,
1 2 0 A , B , 1 21A , B , 12 2 A , B , 1 23A , B , 124A , B ,
12 5 A , B , k ] a 119C ; [k a ] 26C ; k a -ma 15C; kA].
. m es 118C
b a k k a !u “ m o u rn er, w e e p e r, w a ile r” : l u .e r .m e s
13 7 A , B
b a k k itu “ w a ilin g w o m an ” : m i'.er.m es 137A
 IS T A R ’S DESCENT A N D RESURRECTION
baku “ to w e ep , cry , w a il, m o u rn ” : i-ba[k-ki]
83A ; lu-ub-ki 3 4 A , C , 35 A , C , 36A ; [lu-ub]-ki
35B ; [lu-u]b-ki 34B
balapi “life ” : t i . l a 1 14A , B , C , 118A , B , C
baltu “ d ig n ity , p rid e; sh am e” : bal]-te 119C ; bal-
ti 6 0 A , 61 A , 1 19A , B
baltu “liv in g ” : bal-tu-ti 19A , 20 A , D ; ba]l-tu-
[t]i 19C; [bal-t]u-t[i\ 20C ; bal-tu-u-ti 19D
banitu “c re a tre s s” : ba-a-na-at 97C
banu “ to c re a te ” : ib-ni] 91C ; ib-ni-ma 92A ; ib-
ta-ni 9 1 A
beltu “ lad y , m istre ss” : be-el-ti 23A , 4 0 A , 4 4 A ,
4 7 A , 5 0 A , 5 3 A , 5 6 A , 5 9 A , 62A , 7 6 A , 99A ; M A 1,
3, be-el-t[i 4 0 B ; be-e[l-ti 4 4 B ; n in 23C ; NlN-n'
9 9 C ; [N1]N-fi 4 0 C ; see also Balatu
blnu “ ta m a ris k ” : bi-i-ni 29C ; Gi§.bi-[n]i 29A ;
g ]i3 .s in ig 29
birku “ k n e e , la p ” : bir-k[a-a-sa] 132B ; b[ir-ka-
a-sa] 132A
bltu “h o u s e ” : E 4 A , D , 5A , D , 7A , D
bubutu “h u n g e r; fo o d , s u ste n a n c e ” : bu-bu-us ]-
si-na 8; bu-bu-us-si-na-ma 8D ; bu-bu-us-su-nu 8A
burtu “ (y o u n g ) c o w ” : bur-te 77C ; bur-ti 7 7 A ,
87A
dalahu “to d is tu rb , stir, ro il (w a te r)” : da-li-ha-
at 27C
dalhu “m ix ed u p , tu rb id , b lu rry , m u d d y ” : dal-
hu-te 33C
daltu “d o o r” : dal-tum 17A , D; GIS.IG 11 A , C;
G13.IG.MES 18A; GIS.IG .MES] 18D; [GIS].IG.MES 18C;
1G 23C
dim tu “ te a r” : di-ma-a-[su\ 84A
dudittu “ d re s s-p in , b ro o c h ” : du-di-na-te 51 A ,
5 2 A , 122A , B
duru “ city w a ll” : bAd 106A , C
d i . l i (read in g an d m ng. u n k n o w n ): d i . l i 111C ;
DI.L[1 115C
6 “ n o !” : e 9 9 A , C
6du “ sin g le , s o lita ry ,, lo n e, o n ly ” : e-du 135A ;
[‫י‬e -du ] 135B
ekallu “p a la c e ” : E.GAL 4 1 A , B , 111A , B , 115B ,
C , 139B ; e .[ g a l ] 115A ; E.GAL-/a 111C
ekletu “ d a rk n e ss” : ek-le-ti 4 D ; ek-le-tu M A 8
elenu “ a b o v e , o v e r” : e-le-nu-us-sa 65A
eli “o n , u p o n , o v e r, m ore th a n ” : el 2 0 C , 20E ;
UGU 2 0 A , 20D
ellu “ p u re , h o ly ” : el-lu-ti 128A , B
elu “ to go u p , co m e u p , rise , ascen d ; (S ) to b rin g
u p , ra is e ” : el-la-an-ni 136A , 137A ; el-la-an-ni ]
136B ; el-la-an]-ni 137B ; el-la-a]n-ni 136B ; [e]l-
- lu-u-ni 19C; e-la-a 136C ; i-la-a 85A ; li-lu-nim-ma
138A; [l]i-lu-ni-ma 138C ; u-[sel\-el-ma 19; u-sel-
lam-ma 19D; u-se-el-la-a 19A
em qu “w ise ” : em-qi 91A ; em -qi 91C
epfesu “ to d o , m a k e , p erfo rm ; (D ) to tre a t” : ip-
pu-su 2 1 C , 109C ; ip-pu-u-su 12C; i-pu-us-ma
2 1 A , 6 6 A , 10 9 A , B; up-pi-is-si-ma 38A ; u[p-pi-
i]s-si-ma 38B ; [up]-pi-si 38C
epinnu “ (se ed er) p lo u g h ” : e-pi-(ne-)et 104C ;
GIS.APIN.MES 104 A
epru “ d u st” : ep-ri M A 7; ep-ru 8D , 11 A ; SAHAR.
HI .a 8 A; SAHAR .ME§ 11C
erfebu “to e n ter; (S ) to m ake e n te r, b rin g in,
in tro d u c e ” : er-bi 4 0 A , B , 4 4 A , B , 4 7 A , 5 0 A , 5 3 A ,
5 6 A , 5 9 A , 62A ; [er]-bi 4 0 C ; er-ru-ba 16A ; e-ri-
bu-su 5D ; e]-ri-bu-su 5C ; e-ri-bu-su 5 A , D , 7A ;
104
e-ru-ub 25C ; e-ru-um-ma 2 5 A; lu-ru-ba 15A ; lu-
ru-ub 15C ; u-se-rib-si-ma 42A , B , 4 5 A , 4 8 A , 51 A ,
5 4 A , 5 7 A , 60A
ereq u see ardqu
eresu “to request, w ish” : e-re-se 102C; e-re-si
102A; te-tar-[s]a-ni-ma 102C; te-ter-sa-an-ni 102A
erim m atu “b e a d ” : n a 4.n u n u z .m e s 4 8 A , 4 9 A ,
123A , B
eristu “ re q u e st, d e m a n d ” : e-ris-ta 102C ; e-ris-
turn 102A
er§etu “ e a rth ” : Ki-ti 85C ; KI-tim 85A
eru see aru B
e§enu “ to sm ell” : [ lis-si-nu ] 138C ; li-is-$i-nu
138A
etlu “ y o u n g m a n ” : et-lu 89A ; et-lu] 7 8 A ; et-l[u
79A ; et-[lu] 78C ; [e]t-lu 88A ; g u [ r u s 7 9 C ; g u r u s ,
m es 3 4 A , C
e^u “d a rk , d im ” : e-te-e 4A
ejutu “ d a rk n e ss” : e-tu-ti 9A , C , D
e z e b u “to le a v e , d isreg a rd ; (D ) to re je c t” : e-zi-bu
34A ; uz-zu-bu 34C
ezeru “ to c u rse ” : lu-zir-ka 103A
gabbu “ a ll” : gab-bi-sa-m a 75A
gappu see agappu
gisrinnu “ scales, balance; part o f a door, b o lt(?)” :
gis-ri-na-am-ma 18C
h a ’iru “ h u sb a n d , lo v e r” : ha-mir 127A , B; [h\a-
mi-ri-si-na 35C ; LU.ha-i-ri-si-tt[a 35A
habalu “ to d e p riv e , b e re a v e ” : ta-hab-bil-an-[ni ]
135A ; ta-hab-bil-[an-ni] 135B
habannatu (a container): d u g .ha-ba-na-at 105A;
[h]a-ba-na-at 105C
hadu “to be g la d , jo y fu l, to re jo ic e ” : li-ih-du
41 A , 9 5 A; [li-ih-d]u 4 1 C
halziqqu “w a te rsk in ” : hal-zi-iq-qi 9 8 C , 99C ;
k u s .hal-zi-qi 98A ; KUS.hal-zi-qu 99A
h am iru see h a’iru
hansu “ fifth ” : [5]-su 123B ; 5-su 5 4 A , 123A
harranu “ro a d , w a y , jo u rn e y ” : har-ra-ni 6A ;
KASKAL 6D
hirtu “ w ife , sp o u s e ” : hi-re-ti 34C ; ui.hi-[x 34A ;
ML[x 35B
hura$u “ g o ld ” : k u g .g i 1 13B , C , 1 17A , B; KUG.
G[1] 113A ; [KUGl.Gl 117C
hussu see russu
iaertu see ajartu
ijertu see ajartu
ikkillu “ scream , c ry , w a il” : ik-kil 133A ; i[k-kil
133B
iltu “ g o d d e ss” : DlNGlR-tam M A 1
ilu “ g o d ” : DINGIR.MES 97A , C; d in g ir.m e [ s ] 81 a
imfiru “ d o n k e y , ass” : a n s e 7 7 A , C , 87A
ina “in ” : ina 9 A , D , 12A , 3 6 A , C , 4 1 A , 6 4 A ,
7 8 A , 88A , 91A , 9 9 A , 100A , 113B ; 114B , 117A ,
B , 1 3 6 A ,B , M A 7; [ina 114A ; i-na 9 C , 12C , 2 6 C ,
2 8 C , 3 4 C , 3 5 C , 7 8 C , 7 9 A , 8 0 A , C , 83A , 8 4 A , 89A ;
9 0 A , 9 1 C , 9 3 A , 9 4 A , 9 9 C , 100C , 1 1 3 A ,C , 117C ,
i-n[a 2 8 A , 95A ; i-[na 74A
inu “eye; e y e -sto n e ” : 1G1.2 70A ; lGl.2]-sd 70A ;
n a 4JGl.MES-re 134A ; N[A4.1G1.2.MES-te 134B ; [ n ] a 4.
1G1.2.ME§-te 132A ; [ n a 4.igi.2.m e]s-?c 132 b
in§abtu “earring” : in-sa-ba-te 45A , 46A , 124A , B
iptiru “ra n so m (m o n ey )” : ip-ti-ri-sa 118C
‫י‬ iqnu “ lap is la z u li” : n a 4.z a .g in 129B , 136A , B;
n a 4.z [a .g in 129A
irtu “b re a st” : GABA-ia 52A ; GABA-sa 51 A , 122A ;
 G LO SSA RY
G[ABA5‫־‬fl] 122B
i$$ttru “ b ird ” : is-su-ri 10A ; is-s]u-ru 10; m uSen
10D ; m uSen .meS 10C
isten “o n e; firs t” : [1 -en 119C ; [1 -en] 119B ; 1-en
4 2 A , B , 119A ; [i]s-te-na 42C
istu “ fro m ; a fte r” : t a 3 5 A , 68A ; see also ultu
istu ullanum m a “ as soon a s ” : is-tu ul-la-nu-um-
ma 6 3 A ; see also ultu ullanum m a
itti “ w ith ” : it-ti 32A , C; it-ti-su 136A , 137A ;
it-ti-[su 137B ; i[t-ti-su 136B
itu lu see nalu
izru “c u rs e ” : iz-ra 103A
izu zz u see uzuzzu
kabattu “ m in d , m o o d ” : kab-ta-as-sa 96A ; kab-
t[a-as-sa 3 1 A ; kab-ta-a[s-su ] 130B ; kab-t]a-(as)-
su 130C ; [kab-ta-as-su\ 130A ; ka-b[at-t]a-sa-ma
31C ; ka-bat-ta-su 96C
kakkabu “ s ta r” : m u l M A 8
kappu “w in g ” : kap-pi 10D ; see also agappu
karru “k n o b ” : k]a-ar-ra 18C
karru B “ m o u rn in g g a rm e n t” : kar-ru 82A
kasa “y o u ” : ka-a-sa 94C
kasddu “to re a c h , a rriv e ” : ka-sa-di-i-sa 12C;
ka-sa-di-sa 12A
katUmu “to c o v e r” : kat-mu] A 81,
keppu “ w h ip to p ” : kep-pe-e 21 A , C
ki “ as, lik e ” : ki-i 2 9 C , 30A
klam “ so , th u s ” : ki-a-am 4 4 A , 4 7 A , 5 0 A , 53A ,
5 6 a 59A 62A
kim a “a s, lik e ” : gim 10A , D , 30; [gi]m 29; ki-ma
10C , 2 9 A , 3 0 C , 3 3 A , C , 3 8 A , C
klnu “firm , tru e ” : g l n a 111A , C , 115A ; g i.n a ]
115C ; g i.[n a ] 115B ; g [ i.n a ] 11 IB
kisadu “ n e c k ” : Gt)-ia 4 9 A ; GU-sd 4 8 A , 123A ;
g [u -M ] 123B
kissatu “ w o rld , u n iv e rse ” : Su 139A
kullu “ to h o ld ; to ste e r” : mu-kil-tu 2 7 A ; mu-ki-
il-tu 27C
k u lu ’u (a n em a sc u la te d d e v o te e o f Istar): ku-lu-
>a-[a] 92C
kum m u “ c e ll, in n e rm o st ro o m , p riv a te ro o m ” :
kum-mi-su ] 7 9 A ; kum-[m]i-su 89A
kunlnu “ tro u g h (m ad e o f b u tu m e n -c o a te d
re e d s )” : ku-ni-i-ni 30C ; ku-ni-ni 3 0 A ; ku-[ni-n]i 30
kurnugu “ n e th e rw o rld ” : k u r . n u .g i 12C , 41 A ,
93C ; k u r .n u .g [ i 4 1 B ; k ] u r .n u .g [ i ] 4 1 C ; k u r . n u .
g i4 6 3 a , 7 6 A , 86A ; k u r . n u .g i 4.a I A , 12A , 9 3 A ,
94A
kurum m atu “ fo o d a llo c a tio n , ra tio n ” : S uK -ar-
ka 104C
kussu “th ro n e , se a t” : g i s .g u .z a 113A , B , C ,
1 17A , B , C
la “ n o t” : la 5 A , D , 6 A , D , 9 D , 16A , 2 3 A , 36A ,
102A , C , 103C , 118C ; 1 26A , B , 135A , B , M A 5,
6 , 1 1 ; l[a 1 A; la-a 5 C , 6 C , 16C , 2 3 C , 36C
la ’u “b a b y , in fa n t” : la-a-H 36C ; see also laku
labasu “ to d re ss, c lo th e ” : lab-sa-ma 10D ; lab-
su-ma 10A ; la-bis 82A ; lu-ub-bis-su 1 2 9 A , B ; lab-
bis 82C
Iablru “ a n c ie n t, o ld ” : la-a-be-ru-u-ti 38C ; la-bi-
ru-t[i ] 38A
laku “b a b y , in fa n t” : la-ke-e 3 6 A , B ; see also
la ’u
lequ “to ta k e ” : il-qa-as-si 118A ; il-qa-as-[si] ‫י‬
118B ; [i]l-qa-si 118C ; [i]l-q 1-si-ma 118C ; li-qa-
as-si 1 14A , B ; [li-q]a-as-[si 68A ; li-q]i-si-ma
105
118C
letu “ch e e k ” : le-et-ka 108A ; le-[et-ka] 108B
libbu “ h e a rt” : sk-ba-sa 31C ; sk-ba-sa 31A ,
9 6 A ; s a -bi 7 3 A , 9 9 A , C ; SA-bi-sa] 73A ; SA-bi-su
9 1 A , C; s]k-bu-su 96C
littu “ co w ” : lit-te 134C
10 “ let, m ay , b e it” : lu 104A , 105A , 107A , B;
lu-u 104C , 105C , 106A , B , C , 107C
m3 “th u s ” : ma-a 99 C ; [ma]-a 1 18C
m a ’adu “ to b e(co m e) m u c h , n u m ero u s; (S) to
m ak e n u m ero u s, in c re a se ” : i-ma-H-du 2 0 A , C ; u-
sam -ad 20; u-sam-[a]-du 20D
maha$u “to strik e, h it, b e a t; to play a m usical
in stru m e n t” : a-mah-ha-as 17A , 18A ; a-mah-[ha-
as 17D ; a-ma-has 18C ; im-ha-as 101C , 115A , B;
im-ta-has 1 15C; lim-has 129B \lim -ha-su 108 A , B;
ma-ha-as 111A , B , C; tam-ha-as 101 A , 133A , B
m ahru “ fro n t, p re se n c e ; b e fo re ” : mah-r[i-ia]
114B ; mah]-ri-ia 114A ; m ah-ri\-ia-ma 68A ; ma-
har TIC
m alaku “to a d v ise , c o u n se l; (N ) to tak e co u n sel,
re a so n ” : im-ma-lik 65A
malilu “reed flute, p ip e” : g i.g Id 1 2 9 A ,B , 136A ,B
maltxtu see m astltu
m alu “to b e full; (D ) to f ill” : ma-la-a 132A , B;
un-dal-la-a 1 3 4 A ,B
m alu B “ (pi.) u n k em p t, m a tte d , d irty h a ir” : ma-
le-e 82A ; ma-l[e-e 82C
m anzazu “ stan d , sta tio n , p o s itio n ” : man-za-zu-
ka 106A ; ma-za-zu-ka 106C
m artu “ d a u g h te r” : dum u.m ! 2 A , 3A
m astltu “ d rin k ” : mal-ti-it-ka 105C ; ma-al-ti-it-
ka 105 A
m asu “to fo rg e t” : ma-se-e 103C
m atu “ lan d , c o u n try ” : k u r 139A
me “ w a te r” : a.m eS 32C , 3 3 C , 9 9 A , C , 1 14A , B ,
C , 1 18A , B , C , 128A ; [A.MES] 128B
m lna “w h y ? ” : mi-i-na-a 31C ; mi-na-a 31A
m lnu “ n u m b e r” : m[i]-i-na 31C
m itu “ d e a d ” : ba.uS .m eS 138A ; ba.0S .m e[S
138B ; me-tu-te 20C ; m[e-tu\-tu 138C ; mi-tu-su
M A 7; mi-tu-ti 19A , 20A ; OS.meS 19D , 20D ; u s .
MES-ma 19C
m uhhu “to p , u p p er p a rt” : u g u 11 A , 34C , 35C ,
7 7 C ; [UGU 11C
m u k iltu see kullu
m u r$ u “ d ise a se , illn e ss ” : g ig 7 0 A , C , 7 1 A , C ,
7 2 A , C , 73A , 7 4 A , C ; g[ig.m eS 69A
m u p “ to re m o v e ” : um-ta-si 4 2 A , 4 5 A , 4 8A ,
5 1 A , 54A , 5 7 A , 60A
m U sa b u “ d w e llin g ” : mu-sab 4D ; mu-sa-ba-ka
107C ; mu-sa-bu-u-ka 107A ; mu-sa-[x 107B
n a b a lk u tu “(S) to overturn, overthrow , displace” :
us-ba-lak-ka-ta 18C; u-sab-la-kat 18D; u-sa-bal-kat
18A
nad an u see tadanu
nadu “to th ro w , c a s t” : ta-na-da-as-si 2 3 A
nahu “to re s t, re le n t b ec o m e re s tfu l” : i-nu-uh-hu
96A
n a lu “to lie ” : it-til 7 9 A , 8 9 A , 90A ; [it]-til 80A ;
[i]t-til 7 9 C , 80C
n a m a r u “ to b ea m , ra d ia te , b e(co m e) b rig h t” :
im-mer-su 96C
n a p a r d u “to shine; to b e(co m e) p le a se d , ch eer-
fu l” : ip-per-du 96C ; ip-pe-red-du-u 96A ; li-per-du
9 5 C ; us-per-da-an-ni-m‘a 31C
 IS T A R ’S DESCENT A N D RESURRECTION
n a p f lr u “ ra n so m ” : nap-ti-ri-sa 126A , B
n a s a k u “to b ite ” : it-ta-sa-ak 101C ; tas-su-ka
101A
n a s u “to lift, c a rry , w e a r” : na-si] 8 2 C ; na-d[s-si]
82A
n azaru see e z e ru
n ep erd u see n a p a r d u
n ik s u “ cu ttin g , c u t-o ff p ie c e ” : ni-kis 29A; ni-ki-
is 2 9C ; ni-k[i-is 29
n is i “ p e o p le ” : un.m es-5m M A 6
n ls “by (th e life o f)” : ne-es 97C
n u ” u “ (D ) to a m u se , d iv e rt, p le a s e ” : li-na-’a-a
130B ; l]i-na-}a-a 130A
n a r u “ lig h t” : nu-ra 7; nu-ru M A 6; nu-u-ra 7D ,
9D ; nu-[u-ra] 7A ; nu-u-ru 9A
p a n u “fro n t, p re sen ce ; (p i.) fa ce” : ig i 83 C ; igi-
ka 9 5C ; lGl-5d 118C ; pa-an 83A , 8 4 A , 134A ; pa-
a]n 134C; p[a-an 134B ; pa-ni-ka 4 1 C , 9 3 A , 94A ;
pa-[ni-ka] 93C ; p]a-ni-ka 95A ; pa-ni-ki 4 1 A ; pa-
ni-sa 64A ; pa-nu-s[a] 29 C ; pa-nu-su 81 A ; pa-nu-
us 29
p a r$ u “ fu n c tio n , o rd in an c e; cu lt, rite , ritu a l” :
GARZA.MES 3 8 A ; GARZA.MES-sd 4 4 A , 4 7 A , 50A ,
5 3 A , 5 6 A , 5 9 A , 6 2 A ; par-si-ka 38C
p a s a s u “ to a n o in t” : pus]-si-is 128C ; p[us-si-is]
128B
patu see p e tu
p e m u “ th ig h ” : pe-en-sa 101C ; UR-sa 101A ; see
also s u n u
p e tu “to o p en ; (N ) to b e o p e n e d ” : ip-ta-as-se
39C ; ip-ta-as-si 39A ; ip-te-ma M A 10; lip-pa-tu-u
9 4C ; lip-pe-tu-u 9 4 A ; l[i-pe-ti] 23C ; pi-i-ta-a 14C;
pi-ta-a 14A , 1 5 A ,C ; pi-ta-as-si 3 7 A ,C ; ta-pat-ta-
a 16A; ta-pa-ta-a 16C
p u “m o u th ” : KA-i-su 2 1 C , 109C ; pa-a-sa 66A ,
109A , B; pa-a-su 21A ; pi-i-sa 12C
q a b lu “ m id d le (p a rts), lo in s, w a ist” : m u r u b 4.
m e §-ia 55A ; m u r u b 4.m es-M 5 4 A , 121A ; m u r ] u b 4.
MES-M 121C ; MU[RUB4.MES-5d] 121B
q a b u “ to say , te ll” : iq-ta-bi 25C ; i-qab-bi 12C ,
2 1 A , 6 6 A , 109A , C ; i-[qab-bi] 109B
q a d a d u “ to b o w (d o w n ), in clin e ; (D ) to b e n d
d o w n ” : qu-ud-du-ud 81A
q a q q a d u “ h e a d ” : SAG.DU 7 4 A , C; SAG.DU-ia
4 3 A ; s a g .DU-5<2 4 2 A ; s a g .d u -M J 74A ; s a g .[ d u -
sd] 125B ; S [a g .d u -M ] 125A
q a q q a r u “ g ro u n d , soil e a rth , N e th e rw o rld ” :
qaq-qa-ri 1A; qaq-qi-ri M A 3; q[aq]-q 1-ri M A 1
q a t u “h a n d ” : su.M ES-5a 120C ; SU.2-ia 58A ; SU.
2-sa 5 7A , 12 0 A , B
q e r b is “ n e a rb y , in sid e ” : qer-bi-is 23C
q e r b u “in s id e , in te rio r” : qer-bi M A 4; [q]er-bi
MA 2
q u ” u “to w a it” : qa-’i-i 23C
q u d d u d u see q a d a d u
q u t r i n n u “ in cen se (o ffe rin g )” : qut-ri-in 138A ;
qut-ri-na 138C
r a ’a b u “ to ra g e, b e(co m e) angry; to tre m b le
(fro m em o tio n )” : ir-’u-ub 64A
r a b u “ fo u rth ” : [4]-u 122B ; 4-u 5 1 A , 122A
r a b u B “g re a t, b ig ” : GAL-a 4 2 A , 4 3 A , 103A ;
GAL-MES 2 7 A , 8 1 A , 9 7 A , C; GAL.[MES] 2 7 C ; g a l -ti
22A ; GAL-turn M A 3; g a l-/m [w ] M A 1; ra-ba-a
125A , B
r a m a k u “ to w a sh , b a th e ” : ra-am-mi-ik 128A , B
re s u “h e a d ” : re-si-ka-ma 98C ; SAG.MES-^a 98A
106
r i a s u “ to re jo ic e ” : li-ris-ki 4 0 A , C
r u s s u “(g lo w in g ) red ” : h u s .a 129A; H U js.A 129B
s a h a p u “ to o v e rw h e lm ” : li-is-hu-pu ] 6 9A sah-
hu-pu M A 7
s a l a ’u “ to sp rin k le ” : is-lu-u’-si-ma 118C ; su-ul-
li-V-si-ma 114C
s a la h u “to sp rin k le ” : is-luh-si-ma 118A , B ; su-
luh-si-ma 1 1 4 A ,B
s a m tu “ c a rn e lia n ” : n a 4.g u g 136A , B ; n ] a 4.g u g
136C
s a q a r u “ to m e n tio n ” : iz-za-qa-ra 2 2 C ; see also
z a k a ru .
se b u “ se v e n th ” : [7]-u 125B; l-u 125A ; l-u 60A
s ik k u r u “ d o o r b o lt, lo c k ” : g i s . s a g . k u l 11 A;
sik-ku-ri 11C; sik-ku-ru 17A , D
s ip p u “ d o o rja m b ” : si-ip-pa 18C , D ; si-ip-pu-ma
18A
s i q r u “ n am e” : si-qir-ki 24C
s u k k a llu “vizier, m inister” : s u k k a l 81 A; s u k k a l -
sa 1 IOC; SUKKAL-M 67A , 110A, B
s u n u “ lo in , la p , th ig h ” : UR 35A , C
sflq u “ stre e t” : s[u-qi\ 78C ; s i l a 7 8 A , 88A
§ a la m u “ to b e(co m e) b la c k ” : is-li-ma 30C ; is-li-
[ma 30A ; i[s-l]i-ma 30
s a m u “ th irsty ; to th irs t” : sa-mu-u 108A , B; see
also z u m m u
$ a tu “e te rn ity ” : sa-a-ti 103C
§ e h ru “ sm all; ch ild ” : l u . t u r 3 6 A , B
§ e h r u tu “ (tim e o f) y o u th ” : se-eh-ru-[ti-sa] 127B;
se-eh-[ru-ti-sa ] 127A
§illu “ sh ad e , sh a d o w , p ro te c tio n ” : GIS.mi 106A;
[GjlS.Mi 106C ; si-il-li 106D
s u b a tu “ c lo th , g a rm e n t” : su-bat 10A , D , 6 0 A ,
61 A , 119A , B; su-ba-at 10C; TUG 129A ; [ t u g
1 1 9 C ,1 2 9 B
s a “ th at; w hat; w h o , w hich; o f ’: sa 5 A , 6 A , 7A ,
13C , 2 7 C , 34A , C , 35A , C , 36 A , C , 4 2 A , 4 3 A ,
4 4 A ; 4 5 A , 4 6 A , 4 7 A , 50A , 5 3 A , 5 6 A , 5 9 A , 6 2A ,
102C , 1 1 2 A ,B , 1 1 6 A ,B , 121C , 139B , [sa] 119C ;
sd 5 D , 6D , 7D , 2 3 C , 27A , 4 8 A , 4 9 A , 51 A , 5 2A ,
5 4 A , 5 5 A , 60A ; 61 A , 1 19A , B , 1 2 1 A ,B , 1 2 2 A ,B ,
123A , B , 124A , B , 125A , B , 133A , B , 134A , M A
5 ; r a ] 134B
s a b a h u “ to settle (said o f d u st)” : i-sa-bu-uh 11C;
sa-bu-uh 11A
s a b a r u “to b re a k , sm ash ” : a-sab-bir 17A , 18C;
a-sab-bir] 17D ; a-sab-[bir 18D
s a h a f u “to tak e o ff, p u ll o ff, d e ta c h ” : a-sa-[ha-
at 18C
s a h a tu B “ to le a p , ju m p o n , fly a t, m o u n t” :
i-sah-hi-it 87A ; i-sah-hi-i[t 77A
s a k a n u “ to p u t, p la c e , set” : [is-kun] 2A ; is-kun-
ma 3A ; sa-km M A 6; su-kun 9 3 A , C , 9 8 A , C;
u-sa-as-km M A 10
s a k r u “ d ru n k , d ru n k a rd ” : sak-ru 108A ; [sak]-ru
108B
s a la p u “ (D ) to p u ll o u t, te a r aw ay ” : sal-lu-pa-ni
35C
s a ls u “ th ird ” : [3 -sd 121C ; [3 -sd] 121B ; 3-sd
121 A ; 3-su 48A
s a m h a tu “p ro s titu te ” : M[f .sam]-ha-[te 130A ;
[Mi\.s]am-ha-te 130B
s a m n u $ ab u “ sw ee t o il” : i—d u g . g a 128B ; i -
d (jg .[g a 128A
sam u see s e m u
s a m u “to d e s tin e , to d e te rm in e (d e s tin ie s )” : lu-
 G LO SSA R Y
sim-ka 103C; [l]u-sim-ka-ma 103C
s a n is “d itto ” : k i].m in 121C ; k Ji.m in 120C
s a n u “ a n o th e r, se c o n d ” : 2 -a 4 5 A , B , 120A ; [2-a
1 2 0 C ;J2 -a ] 120B
s a n u B “ to ch a n g e; (D ) to re p e a t, re p o rt” : lu-sa-
na-a 24C ; lu-sa-an-ni 24A
s a p tu “ lip , e d g e , rim ” : sap-ta-su 30; sap-ti 30;
sa-ba-at 30C ; sa-ba-tu-s[a] 30C ; sa-pat 30A
s a q u “to be h ig h ; (D ) to ra ise u p , lift u p ” : su-qi
9 8 A ; [s]u-u[q]-qi 98C ; u-saq-[qa-a] 131B
s a r r a t u “ q u e e n , la d y ” : sar-ra-ti 24A
s a r r u “k in g ” : l u g a l 84A ; m a n 9 1 C , 139A
s a s s u r u “w o m b; m o th er g o d d e s s ” : s A .tO r 97C
s a s a “ h e r” : sa-a-sa 75A ; sa-sa-ma 126A , B
s a tu “ to d rin k ” : a-sat-ta-a 33C ; a-sat-ti 32C ;
a-sat-t[i 33A ; lal-ta-ti 99C ; lu-ul-ta-ti 99A
s e m e ru “rin g , tore, bracelet, an k let” : h a r 136A;
( h a r ) 136B; h a r.m e S 57A , 58A ; se-mer 120A , B , C
s e m u “to h e a r, lis te n ” : sa-mi-i-[sa] 28C ; sa-mi-
sa 100C ; se-mi-sa 100A ; se-mi-sa] 28A ; tas-me
133A , B
s e p u “ fo o t” : GiR.MES5‫־‬d 120C ; g ir .2 72A ; g[1r.2
7 2 C ; GlR.2‫־‬ia 58A ; GlR.2-5a 5 7 A , 120A ; GlR.2]-5a
7 2 A ; Gl[R.2-5d] 120B
s e r r u “sm all c h ild , in fa n t” : ser-ri 36C
se ssu “six th ” : [6]-M 124B ; 6-su 5 7 A , 124A
siam u see s a m u
s ib b u “b elt, g irdle” : sib-bu 54 A , 55A , 121A , B , C
s i k a r u “b e e r” : k a s .m e s 3 3 A , C
s lm tu “fa te , d e s tin y ” : sim-ti 103C ; [n a m ] 97C
s u b tu “ sea t, a b o d e , d w e llin g ” : su-bat 4 A , D
s u h a r r a t u “ sile n c e , d e a d ly h u s h ” : su-har-ra-a-
tu 11C
s u k u t t u “je w e lry , d e c o ra tio n ” : su-kut-ta 133A ,
B; su-kut-ta-sa 131B ; su-kut-ta-[x 131A
s u m m a “if ” : sum-ma 16A , 126A ; [sum-m]a
118C , 126B ; [su]-um-ma 16C
sum u see z i k r u
su s i “ six ty ” : su-si 6 9 A
ta b a k u “ to p o u r” : tab-ka-at 11C
ta b a l u “ to carry aw ay , re m o v e ” : it-ta-bal 4 2 A ,
4 5 A , 4 8 A , 51 A , 5 4 A , 5 7 A , 60A ; ta-at-bal 4 3 A ,
4 6 A , 4 9 A , 5 2 A , 5 5 A , 5 8 A , 61A
t a d a n u “to g iv e ” : id-da-[na-ka 118C ; lid-nu-ni
99 A ; lid-nu-ni-ma 99C ; ta-ad-di-nak-kam -m a
126A , B
t a i a r u “ re tu rn in g ” : ta-a-a-rat 6D ; ta-a-a-[rat]
107
6A ; ta-a-a-r[u] M A 5; ti-ia-a-[rat] 6C
ta llu “ c ro ssb a r” : g i ] s . d a l 11C
ta m u “to sw ear; (D ) to a d ju re ” : tum-me-si-ma
9 7 A ; [tu]m-mi-su-ma 97C
t a r u “to return, com e back; (D) to return (tr.),b rin g
b ac k , send b ack ” : ta-a-ri ] IA ; tir-r[a-si ] 126B; ti]r-
ra-si 118C; [tir-ra-si] 126A; ut-te-er-si 119A, B ,
120A , B , 121A , B, 122A , B , 123A , B , 124A , B;
1 2 5 A ,B , ut-tir-[se 120C; [ut-tir-se 121C; [ut-tir]-se
119C
t a r a d u “to d riv e o ff, d riv e a w a y ” : tar-du 36C ;
tar-[dju ] 36A
ti d d u “c la y ” : ti-id-da 33C ; ti-id-di 8D ; ti-id-du
8D ; ti-id-[du] 8C ; ti-i[d-du] 8A
tu p p u “ ta b le t” : im 33A
u “ an d ” : u 11A , 5 7 A , 5 8 A , 120A , B , 137A ; u]
120C ; u 9D , 11C , 36C , 108A , B
u b a n u “fin g e r” : u-ba-an-sa 101A , C
u l “n o t” : ul 9 A , 6 5 A , 7 7 A , 7 8 C , 8 5 A , 87 A , 88A ,
M A 8; [ul 78A
ullanum m a see istu u lla n u m m a , u ltu u lla n u m m a
u ltu “ from ; a fte r” : ul-tu 96A ; [ul-tu 96C ; see
also is tu
u ltu u lla n u m m a “ as so o n a s” : ul-tu ul-la-nu-
um- ma 8 6 A; see also is tu u lla n u m m a
u m u “day; tim e ” : UD-me 136A , B; UD-mi-su
3 6 C ; ud.m es-sm 36A
u z n u “ear, a tte n tio n ” : p i.2-ia 4 6 A ; pi.2.m es-M
4 5 A ; PL2-s[d] 124A; p[1.2-sa] 124B ; uz-na 9 8 A , C;
u-za-an-sa M A 10; u-zu-un-sa 2 A , M A 10; u-zu-
u[n-sa] 3A
u z u z z u “ to stand; to h o ld , sto p ” : iz-za-a[z] 26C ;
i-ziz-zi 23C ; i-zi-zi 23A
z a ’a n u “ (D) to ad o rn , d e c o ra te ” : u-za-H-i-na
11 6 A ,B ; u-za-in 1 16C; za-’i-i-na 1 12A , B; zu-H-in
112C
z a k a r u “ to sp eak , say , p ro n o u n c e , c a ll” : iz-zak-
kar 13A , 67A , 1 10A; iz-z[ak-kar] 11 OB; iz-zak-ka-
ra 2 2 A , 25A ; MU‫־‬d r 13C; [M]U‫־‬d [r] 21 C ; MU-ra
110C
z i k r u “nam e; u tte ra n c e , w o rd , lo g o s; m an,
m a le ” : MU-ki 24A ; z[i]k-ru 9 1 A
z u m m u “to be d ep riv e d o f, m iss, la c k ” : zu-u]m-
mu-u 7; zu-um-mu-u 7 A , D; see also § am u
z u m r u “b o d y ” : s u - s a 119C ; S [u - s d ] 133A , B;
[S U -s a 75A ; zu-um-ri-ia 61A ; zu-um-ri-sa 6 0A ,
1 19A ; zu-[um-ri-sa] 119B
 IS T A R ’S DESCENT A N D RESURRECTION
Index of Names
A$(usu)-nam er: (*)a s-na-m e-er 102C ; [1] a y -
na-me-er 103C ; 1as-na-m e-er 92C ; la ]s-na-m e-er
93C ; 1E-su-na-m ir 9 2 A , 93A ; 1E-su -n a -m ir 103A
A ssur-bani-apli (A ssu rb a n ip a l, k in g o f A ssy r-
ia): 1a n . s A r - d C j - a 139A ; 1A tN .sA R -D ti-A 139B
K utu (C u th a, city in B ab y lo n ia): g u . d u 8.a .k i
40A ; ku-tu-u 40 C
m at A ssur “ A s s y ria ” : k u r - a n . s a r . k i 139a
A nunnakkl (d e sig n a tio n o f the in fe rn a l gods):
da-nun-na-ki 3 2 C , 1 13A , B , C , 1 17A , C ; [da]-nun-
na-ki 117B
B alatu (“ L a d y ,” an a p p e lla tiv e o f Ista r): dba-la-
te 2 2 C ; see also bfiltu:
B elet er§eti (“L ady o f the E a rth ,” an a p p e lla tiv e
o f E re sk ig a l): dNlN-Kl-U‘m 4 4 A , 4 7 A , 5 0 A , 53A ,
5 6 A , 5 9 A , 62A
B elili (a nam e o f h eav en ly Istar): dbe-li-li 131 A ,
B ,1 3 3 A , B
D um uzi (T am m u z): dDUMU.z1 127A , B , 136A ;
d[DUMU.ZI 136B
108
Ea (c rea tio n god): d]fi.A 84C ; dE.A 2 7 C , 8 4A ,
9 1A ; [d6].A 91C
E reskigal (q u een o f th e n e th erw o rld ): dERES.K1.
GAL 2 8 C , 6 4 A , 6 6 A , 9 5 A , 100A , C , 109A , C ;
dERES.KI.GA]L 25A ; dERES.KI.[GA]L 2 8 A ; dERES.[KI.
GAL] 25C ; dE[RES.K]LGAL 24A ; [DERES.KI.GAL
109B ; [dERES].KI.GAL 95C
Irkallu “ N e th e rw o rld , H e ll” : dir-kal-la 4 D ; &ir-
[kal-la] 4A ; dir]-kal-[la ] 4C ; ir-kal-li M A 2 , 4 , 5
Istar (g o d d e ss o f love): d+1NNlN 2 A , 12A , 6 5 A ,
6 9 A , 114A , B ; d+lN N l[N] 26C ; Hs-tar 2 2 A , 2 6 A ,
6 3 A ,7 6 A , 8 5 A , 8 6 A , 1 18A ; [di]s-tar 1 18B ; du.D A R
12C , 7 6 C , 114C , 118C ; d(u ).D [A R ] 2 2 C ; d[u ].D [A R
118C ; [du.D A R] 85C ; dl5 M A 2 , 4
N am taru (“ F a te ,” an u n d e rw o rld g o d ): dNAM.
TAR 6 7 A .6 8 A , 1 1 0 A , B , C , 1 1 1 A , B , C , 1 1 5 A. B ,
C , 118C ; NAM.TAR 118C
P apsukkal (I s ta r’s m essen g e r): *1p a p .s u k k a l
81A 83C
S in (m o o n god): d30 2 A , 3A , 8 3 A , M A 9
SIGN LIST
 SIG N LIST

001 ina 13 060b pus 1

002 ►*‫־־‬ hal 2 061 mu 5

MU 2
005 ba 16
BA 1 062 qa 6

006 zu 8 063c kat 2

007 ‫ז ^י‬ su 4 068 2m ru 11

KUS 2
069 bat 5
009 bal 20 be 13
til 4
012 has 1
US 1
kut 2
qut 1 070 - ‫ז‬ na 70
tar 7 NA 2
tar 1
072 *‫י?ר‬ zir 1
S IL A 2
KUL 1
TAR 7
073 ti 35
013 an 17
d TI 2
45
AN 2 075 V- nu 13
D IN G IR 2 NU 8

015 ka 25 077 kun 4

035 nak 1 078 HWf bak 1

hu 3
038 URU 2
079 NAM 8
053 sah 2
080 HPT* ik 3
055 la 26
IG 3
LA 2
083 rat 1
056 A P IN 1
084 zi 5
057 ►01 mah 4
ZI 2
MAH 1
085 GI 7
058 tu 11
TU 3 086 HT.I dal 3
re 2
059 le 3
ri 20
li 18
DAL 1
060 PA P 1
087 ►w nun 3

111
 IS T A R ’S DESCENT A N D RESURRECTION

087a ‫ח » י‬ TU R l 144 DUMU 4

TUR 1
088 kab 3
HUB 1 145 ad 1
at 11
090 H[ kat 1
at 1
094 tim 8 AD 2

099 *a en 3 147 ‫ ^־‬1 se 1

si 15
103 d+IN N IN 5
148 in 4
104 sa 2
151 LUGAL 1
106 GU 4
152 sar 2
112 ‫זז ל‬ si 3
153 . ^ BAD 1
114 -4AI DA R 1
167 gab 1
115 ris 2
gap 1
sak 1
qab 4
saq 1
du 8 14
SAG 7
GABA 3
124 tab 1
16
170 am
126 sum 3
172 bil 1
128 sj ab 3 hum 2
ap 2
190 zik 1
129 nap 1
2
191 ►
—►‫־‬-> qu
131 as 5
203 UR 1
S3I
as 6
az 1 205 tt‫ח‬ il 7

133 k A 20 206 SI du 14
kup 1
134 anr um 15
DU 5
139 m ta 44
207 ►
— turn 8
TA 2
208 ANSE 3
142 i 34
1 2 211 si US 6

142a ia 10 212 SI is 12
SAHAR 1
143 kam 1

112
 SIGN LIST

>
214 ►
‫>־־‬ bi 22 319 GA 1
KA S 1
321 m luh 2
228 kep 1 SU K K A L 4

229 na 4 15 322 m kal 4

lab 1
230 bb qaq 1
rib 7
DU 1
: G U RU S 1
231 ni 33
324 B in E 9
i 14
326 g i4 7
232 ►SB er 16
ir 2 328 BBT ra 17

295 pa 16 330 LU 17
PA 2
332 zak 5
295b GARZA 8
334 et 1
295k sab 2 et 4
sap 1 id 2
it 15
296 B gis 1
it 2
is 3
is 3 335 b ji da 8
iz 7
3 37 BM m urub 4 3
GIS 9
✓V
339 s as 9
297 gu 4 2
342 B ma 64
298 BJ al 3
343 Bh GAL 18
306 dr 1
ub 5 346 bis 1
up 1 bis 1
qer 1
308 e 19
347 m mer 1
309 DU G 1
mir 4
312 m un 3 AGA 2

314 m lak 1 349 ^ ‫־‬t bur 2

red 1
353 BT sa 32
rid 1
3 54 su 17
318 BIT- sam 1
SU+2 3
u 42

113
 IS T A R ’S DESCENT A N D RESURRECTION

355 lip 1 398 eh 1

ih 2
366 sat 2
uh 2
GIN 2
KU R 10 399 em 1

V‫׳‬
im 3
367 se 19
IM 1

371 bu 12
bir
400 3
pu 6
G ID 2 401 har 3
mur 2
372 *H i us 1
HAR 3
uz 1
402 HUS 1
375 ter 1
tir 2 411 < u 9
u 1
376 *‫ז‬ te 19
412 UGU 3
377 * ‫זו ד‬ kar 4
420 <Zz lid 1
381 ‫ד‬ his 1
lit 1
tarn 2
ud 2 425 kis 1

ut 7
i S: mi 8
427
UD 2
MI 1

382 *Of E 3
433 nim 1

383 ‫ ד‬- pe 5
turn
434 ‫►*־‬Mj 1
pi 6
‫ ד‬- ‫זז‬ PI+2 3 441 ul 15

384 JTfT sA 7 444 >^‫זז‬ G IR + 2 5

393 *‫ד‬ per 1 446 <® A G IG 6

394 NUNUZ 3 449 lim 2

si 41
396 hi 9
IG I 2
ti 1
>1-‫זז‬ IGI+2 3
DUG 1
HI 1 451 ar 5

SA R 2
455 u 2

397 >a 1
6
457 <w di
n 4
te 1
’u 1
ti 2

114
 SIGN LIST

461 ke 1 555 SU
ki 26
556 & ‫ז‬ ERES
qi 1
N IN
KI 19
559 gu
468 KUG 2
qu
469 <v pat 2 GU

471 « man 1 564 el

MAN 2 SIK IL

472 <« 30 3 570 ‫זז‬ 2

sin 1
575 IH lik
480 ‫ז‬ 1 7 tas
ana 1
579 ‫ץז‬ a
483 a hab 1 A
kil 1 ER

532 ‫ז‬- me 13 586 ff sa

mi 1 za
sib 5 ZA

533 M ES 48 589 w ha

535 ep 1 591 fra r GUG

ib 2
592 n sik
ip 5
593 ‫זזז‬ 3
536 m ku 5
ub 1 595 TO tu
TUG 1 TT T
597 T 4
537 w lu 21
v
sa
/

DIB 2 N IN D A
TTT
538 m qi 4 598a ‫זז‬ 5
V X TTT
545 1 SU 20 598b ‫זזז‬ 6
su 1 TTT
598c TTT
T 7
554 1- sal 1
MI 8

115
STATE ARCHIVES OF ASSYRIA
1. THE CORRESPONDENCE OF SARGON II, PART I: Letters from Assyria and the West,
Edited by Simo Parpola, 1987
2. NEO-ASSYRIAN TREATIES AND LOYALTY OATHS, Edited by Simo Parpola and
Kazuko Watanabe, 1988
3. COURT POETRY AND LITERARY MISCELLANEA, Edited by Alasdair Livingstone,
1989
4. QUERIES TO THE SUNGOD: Divination and Politics in Sargonid Assyria, Edited by
Ivan Starr, 1990
5. THE C O R R E S P O N D E N C E OF SARGON II, PA R T II: Letters fro m the Northern and
Northeastern Provinces, Edited by Giovanni B. Lanfranchi and Simo Parpola, 1990
6. LEGAL TR A N SA C TIO N S OF THE RO Y A L CO U RT OF N IN E V E H , PA RT I: Tig-
lath-Pileser III through Esarhaddon, Edited by Theodore Kwasman and Simo Parpola,
1991
7. IMPERIAL ADMINISTRATIVE RECORDS, PART I: Palace and Temple Administra-
tion, Edited by F. M. Fales and J. N. Postgate, 1992
8. ASTROLOGICAL REPORTS TO ASSYRIAN KINGS, Edited by Hermann Hunger, 1992
9. ASSYRIAN PROPHECIES, Edited by Simo Parpola, 1997
10. LETTERS FROM ASSYRIAN AND BABYLONIAN SCHOLARS, Edited by Simo Par-
pola, 1993
11. IMPERIAL ADMINISTRATIVE RECORDS, PART II: Provincial and Military Adminis-
tration, Edited by F. M. Fales and J. N. Postgate, 1995
12. GRANTS, DECREES AND GIFTS OF THE NEO-AS SYRIAN PERIOD, Edited by L.
Kataja and R. Whiting, 1995
13. LETTERS FROM PRIESTS TO THE KINGS ESARHADDON AND ASSURBANIPAL,
Edited by Steven W. Cole and Peter Machinist, 1998
14. LEGAL TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL COURT OF NINEVEH, PART II: Assurba-
nipal through Sin-sarru-iskun, Raija Mattila, 2002
15. THE CORRESPONDENCE OF SARGON II, PART III: Letters fro m Babylonia and the
Eastern Provinces, Andreas Fuchs and Simo Parpola, 2002
16. THE POLITICAL CORRESPONDENCE OF ESARHADDON, Mikko Luukko and Greta
Van Buylaere, 2002
17. THE BABYLONIAN CORRESPONDENCE OF SARGON AND SENNACHERIB, Man-
fried Dietrich, 2003
18. THE BABYLONIAN CORRESPONDENCE OF ESARHADDON and Letters to Assurba-
nipal and Sin-sarru-iskun fro m Northern and Central Babylonia, Frances Reynolds, 2003
St a t e A r c h iv e s o f A s s y r ia S t u d ie s
1. Neuassyrische Glyptik des 8.-7. J h .v . Chr. unter besonderer Beriicksichtigung der Siege-
lungen a u fT a feln und TonverschlUsse, by Suzanne Herbordt, 1992
2. The Eponyms o f the Assyrian Empire 910-612 B C , by Alan Millard, 1994
3. The Use o f Numbers and Quantifications in the Assyrian Royal Inscriptions, by Marco De
Odorico, 1995
4. Nippur in Late Assyrian Times c. 755-612 BC, by Steven W. Cole, 1996
5. Neo-Assyrian Judicial Procedures, by Remko Jas, 1996
6. Die neuassyrischen Privatrechtsurkunden als Quelle fiir Mensch und Umwelt, by Karen
Radner, 1997
7. References to Prophecy in Neo-Assyrian Sources, by Martti Nissinen, 1998
8. Die Annalen des Jahres 711 v . Chr. nach Prismenfragmenten aus Ninive und Assur, by
Andreas Fuchs, 1998
9. The Role o f Naqia/Zakutu in Sargonid Politics, by Sarah C. Melville, 1999
10. Herrschaftswissen in Mesopotamien: Formen der Kommunikation zwischen Gott und
Konig im 2. und 1. Jahrtausend v.Chr., by Beate Pongratz-Leisten, 1999
11. The K in g ’s Magnates: A Study o f the Highest Officials o f the Neo-As Syrian Empire, by
Raija Mattila, 2000
12. A Survey o f Neo-Elamite History, by Matthew W. Waters, 2000
13. A Sketch o f Neo-Assyrian Grammar, by Jaakko Hameen-Anttila, 2000
14. The God Ninurta in the Mythology and Royal Ideology o f Ancient Mesopotamia , by Amar
Annus, 2002
15. The Sumerian Sacred Marriage in the Light o f Comparative Evidence, by Pirjo Lapinkivi,
2004
16. Grammatical Variation in Neo-Assyrian, by Mikko Luukko, 2004
17. La Magie Neo-assyrienne en Contexte: recherches sur le metier d ’exorciste et le concept
d ’asiputu, par Cynthia Jean, 2006
18. Voyages et voyageurs a I ’epoque neo-assyrienne, par Sabrina Favaro, 2007
19. Secrecy and the Gods: Secret Knowledge in Ancient Mesopotamia and Biblical Israel, by
Alan Lenzi, 2008

STATE ARCHIVES OF ASSYRIA CUNEIFORM TEXTS

1. The Standard Babylonian Epic o f Gilgamesh, by Simo Parpola, 1997
2. The Standard Babylonian Etana Epic, by Jamie R. Novotny, 2001
3. The Standard Babylonian Anzu Epic, by Amar Annus, 2001
4. The Standard Babylonian Creation Myth Enuma Elis, by Phillipe Talon, 2005
5. Canonical Utukku Lemnutu Incantations, by M. J. Geller, 2007
6. The Neo-Assryian Myth o f Is ta r ’s Descent and Resurrection, by Pirjo Lapinkivi, 2010
STATE ARCHIVES OF ASSYRIA LITERARY TEXTS
1. The Induction o f the Cult Image in Ancient Mesopotamia: The Mesopotamian Mis P!
Ritual, by Christopher Walker and Michael Dick, 2001

m elam m u Sy m p o s ia
1. The Heirs o f Assyria. Proceedings o f the Opening Symposium o f The Assyrian and
Babylonian Intellectual Heritage Project Held in Tvarminne, Finland, October 8-11,
1998, edited by Sanna Aro and R. M. Whiting, 2000
2. Mythology and Mythologies: Methodological Approaches to Inter cultural Influences.
Proceedings o f the Second Annual Symposium o f The Assyrian and Babylonian Intellectual
Heritage Project H eld in Paris, France, October 4-7,1999, edited by R. M. Whiting, 2001

THE PROSOPOGRAPHY OF THE NEO-ASSYRIAN EMPIRE

1. A-G, edited by Karen Radner, 1998/99
2. H-N, edited by Heather D. Baker, 2000/2001
3/1. P-S, edited by Heather D. Baker, 2002

O t h e r T it l e s
A ssyria 1995. Proceedings o f the 10th Annivesary Symposium o f The Neo-Assyrian Text
Corpus Project, Helsinki, September 7-11, 1995, edited by S. Parpola and R. M. Whiting,
1997
N i n e v e h , 612 BC: The Glory and Fall o f the Assyrian Empire. Catalogue o f the 10th
Anniversary Exhibition o f the Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project, edited by Raija Mattila,
1995
The Mechanics o f Empire: The Northern Frontier o f Assyria as a Case Study in Imperial
Dynamics, by Bradley J. Parker, 2001
Sex and Gender in the Ancient Near East. Proceedings o f the 47th Rencontre Assyriolgique
Internationale, Helsinki, July 2-6, 2001. Compte rendu, Rencontre Assyriologique Inter-
nationale 47, edited by S. Parpola and R. M. Whiting, 2002
Assyrian-English-Assyrian Dictionary, edited by S. Parpola and R. M. W hiting, 2007