Verification of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

CHAPTER 1

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 Verification of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Abstract:
In electrical engineering, we obtain maximum average power from a source with some
internal impedance when the connected load impedance equals the complex conjugate of the
internal source impedance. This is known by the maximum power transfer theorem. Applying
this theorem means that the best we can do is to distribute the source power equally between
the source internal impedance and the load impedance; i.e. the efficiency is 50%. Efficiency
takes into account the ratio of the dissipated power in the load divided by the source power, on
the other hand the maximum power transfer considers only the magnitude of the dissipated
power. If we increase the resistance of the load more than the internal resistance of the source
then we will achieve better efficiency, however the magnitude of the dissipated power will be
less since the total resistance in the circuit increased.
The limited usefulness of the maximum power transfer theorem in practice is argued.
Inappropriately, the utility and value of the maximum power transfer theorem are often
elevated to be religious icons of electrical engineering. While the theorem appears to be useful,
often in real circuits the load impedance is not set equal to the complex conjugate of the
equivalent impedance of the connecting source. When the load impedance happens to be equal
to the complex conjugate of the source impedance, other practical reasons for this type of
impedance matching exists, other than effecting maximum power transfer.

Introduction:
Moritz von Jacobi published the maximum power (transfer) theorem around 1840; it is
also referred to as "Jacobi's law”
The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem is not so much a means of analysis as it is an
aid to system design. Simply stated, the maximum amount of power will be dissipated by a
load resistance when that load resistance is equal to the Thevenin/Norton resistance of the
network supplying the power. If the load resistance is lower or higher than the Thevenin/Norton
resistance of the source network, its dissipated power will be less than maximum.
This is essentially what is aimed for in radio transmitter design , where the antenna or
transmission line “impedance” is matched to final power amplifier “impedance” for maximum
radio frequency power output. Impedance, the overall opposition to AC and DC current, is very
similar to resistance, and must be equal between source and load for the greatest amount of
power to be transferred to the load. A load impedance that is too high will result in low power
output. A load impedance that is too low will not only result in low power output, but possibly
overheating of the amplifier due to the power dissipated in its internal (Thevenin or Norton)
impedance.
Maximum power transfer theorem states that the maximum load power is achieved
when the load impedance equals the complex conjugate of the internal impedance of the source,
this is achieved at the expense of reduced efficiency. In 1880 the assumption that the best we
can do is 50% efficiency was shown to be false by Thomas Edison who realized that the
maximum efficiency was not the same as maximum power transfer. However, the theorem
finds the load which will receive the maximum power from the source without considering the
input power of the source. The input power of the source varies as we change the load. The

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 Verification of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

maximum power that we obtain at the load in the case of the maximum power transfer is
associated with high input power compared to the other situations! Efficiency on the other hand
considers both the magnitude of the load power and the source input power.
The theorem results in maximum power transfer, and not maximum efficiency. If
the resistance of the load is made larger than the resistance of the source, then efficiency is
higher, since a higher percentage of the source power is transferred to the load, but
the magnitude of the load power is lower since the total circuit resistance goes up.
If the load resistance is smaller than the source resistance, then most of the power ends
up being dissipated in the source, and although the total power dissipated is higher, due to a
lower total resistance, it turns out that the amount dissipated in the load is reduced

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 Verification of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

CHAPTER 2

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 Verification of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Principle of Maximum Power Transfer :

The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem states that the maximum amount of power will
be dissipated by a load resistance if it is equal to the internal resistance of the network supplying
power. The theorem can be extended to alternating current circuits that include reactance, and
states that maximum power transfer occurs when the load impedance is equal to the complex
conjugate of the source impedance.
The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem does not satisfy the goal of maximum
efficiency.

Fig(1): Circuit Diagram for Maximum Power Transfer

However, when we connect a load resistance, RL across the output terminals of the
power source, the impedance of the load will vary from an open-circuit state to a short-circuit
state resulting in the power being absorbed by the load becoming dependent on the impedance
of the actual power source. Then for the load resistance to absorb the maximum power possible
it has to be “Matched” to the impedance of the power source and this forms the basis
of Maximum Power Transfer.
The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem is another useful circuit analysis method to
ensure that the maximum amount of power will be dissipated in the load resistance when the
value of the load resistance is exactly equal to the resistance of the power source. The
relationship between the load impedance and the internal impedance of the energy source will
give the power in the load.

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 Verification of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Component Required:
Resistor:
The resistor is a passive electrical component to create resistance in the flow of electric
current. In almost all electrical networks and electronic circuits they can be found. The
resistance is measured in ohms. An ohm is the resistance that occurs when a current of one
ampere passes through a resistor with a one volt drop across its terminals. The current is
proportional to the voltage across the terminal ends. The value of the resistance of the resistor
can be measured directly from the resistor colour code

Fig(2):Resistor Colour Code

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 Verification of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Transformer (230/9 V) :
Transformers are capable of either increasing or decreasing the voltage and current
levels of their supply, without modifying its frequency, or the amount of electrical power being
transferred Electrical power transformer is a static device which transforms electrical energy
from one circuit to another without any direct electrical connection and with the help of mutual
induction between two windings. It transforms power from one circuit to another without
changing its frequency but may be in different voltage level.
The working principle of transformer is very simple. It depends upon Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction. Actually, mutual induction between two or more winding is
responsible for transformation action in an electrical transformer.

Fig(3): Transformer

Connecting Leads:
Connecting wires allows an electrical current to travel from one point on a circuit to
another, because electricity needs a medium through which to move.
Wire comes in solid core, stranded, or braided forms. Although usually circular in
cross-section, wire can be made in square, hexagonal, flattened rectangular, or other cross-
sections, either for decorative purposes, or for technical purposes such as high-efficiency voice
coils in loudspeakers. Edge-wound coil springs, such as the Slinky toy, are made of special
flattened wire.

Fig(4): Connecting Wire

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 Verification of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Capacitor (420 uP) :

A capacitor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that stores electrical energy
in an electric field. Capacitor is an electronic component that stores electric charge. The
capacitor is made of 2 close conductors (usually plates) that are separated by a dielectric
material. The plates accumulate electric charge when connected to power source. One plate
accumulates positive charge and the other plate accumulates negative charge.
The capacitance is the amount of electric charge that is stored in the capacitor at voltage
of 1 Volt. The capacitance is measured in units of Farad (F).The capacitor disconnects current
in direct current (DC) circuits and short circuit in alternating current (AC) circuits.

Fig(5): Capacitor

IC 7809:
7809 Voltage regulator is a type of self-contained fixed linear voltage regulator
integrated circuit. The IC belongs to 78xx voltage regulator family which is commonly used as
the regulated power supply in electronic circuits. The 7809 voltage regulator IC is ease-of-use
and available in very low cost. The last two digits of 7809 indicates the output voltage that is
voltage.

Fig(6): IC 7809

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 Verification of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Male and Female Probe:

Male-ended and female-ended connectors. An electrical connector, is an electro-
mechanical device used to join electrical terminations and create an electrical circuit.

Fig(7): Male and Female Probe

ON- OFF Toggle switch:

A single pole single throw (SPST) switch is the simplest and most common type of
toggle switch. These switches allow simple on and off operation for a single circuit.

Fig(8):On Off Toggle Switch

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 Verification of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

PCB Board and Wooden Board:

A printed circuit board (PCB) mechanically supports and electrically connects
electronic components using conductive tracks, pads and other features etched from copper
sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate.
And wooden board cum box is used to protect the circuit from external physical disturbance.

PN Junction Diode:
A PN Junction Diode is one of the simplest semiconductor devices around, and which
has the characteristic of passing current in only one direction only. However, unlike a resistor,
a diode does not behave linearly with respect to the applied voltage as the diode has an
exponential current-voltage ( I-V ) relationship and therefore we cannot described its
operation by simply using an equation such as Ohm’s law.
If a suitable positive voltage (forward bias) is applied between the two ends of the PN
junction, it can supply free electrons and holes with the extra energy they require to cross the
junction as the width of the depletion layer around the PN junction is decreased

Fig(9): PN Junction Diode

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 Verification of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

CHAPTER 3

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 Verification of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Proof of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:

The maximum power transfer theorem ensures the value of the load resistance , at which
the maximum power is transferred to the load.
Consider the below DC two terminal network (left side circuit) , to which the condition
for maximum power is determined , by obtaining the expression of power absorbed by load
with use of mesh or nodal current methods and then derivating the resulting expression with
respect to load resistance RL.
But this is quite a complex procedure. But in previous articles we have seen that the
complex part of the network can be replaced with a Thevenin’s equivalent as shown below.

Fig(10): Equivalent Circuit For Maximum Power Circuit

The original two terminal circuit is replaced with a Thevenin’s equivalent circuit across
the variable load resistance. The current through the load for any value of load resistance is:

Form the above expression the power delivered depends on the values of RTH and RL.
However the Thevenin’s equivalent is constant, the power delivered from this equivalent
source to the load entirely depends on the load resistance RL. To find the exact value of RL,
we apply differentiation to PL with respect to RL and equating it to zero as:

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 Verification of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Therefore, this is the condition of matching the load where the maximum power transfer
occurs when the load resistance is equal to the Thevenin’s resistance of the circuit. By
substituting the Rth = RL in equation 1 we get

The maximum power delivered to the load is,

Total power transferred from source is

PT = IL2 (RTH + RL)

= 2 IL2 RL …………….(2)

Hence , the maximum power transfer theorem expresses the state at which maximum
power is delivered to the load , that is , when the load resistance is equal to the Thevenin’s
equivalent resistance of the circuit. Below figure shows a curve of power delivered to the load
with respect to the load resistance.

Note that the power delivered is zero when the load resistance is zero as there is no
voltage drop across the load during this condition. Also, the power will be maximum, when the
load resistance is equal to the internal resistance of the circuit (or Thevenin’s equivalent
resistance). Again, the power is zero as the load resistance reaches to infinity as there is no
current flow through the load.

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 Verification of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Fig(11): Graph of Efficiency of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Power Transfer Efficiency:

We must remember that this theorem results maximum power transfer but not a
maximum efficiency. If the load resistance is smaller than source resistance, power dissipated
at the load is reduced while most of the power is dissipated at the source then the efficiency
becomes lower. Consider the total power delivered from source equation (equation 2), in which
the power is dissipated in the equivalent Thevenin’s resistance RTH by the voltage source VTH.

Therefore, the efficiency under the condition of maximum power transfer is

Efficiency = Output / Input × 100

= IL2 RL / 2 IL2 RL × 100

= 50 %

Hence, at the condition of maximum power transfer, the efficiency is 50%, that means
a half percentage of generated power is delivered to the load and at other conditions small
percentage of power is delivered to the load , as indicated in efficiency verses maximum power
transfer the curves below.

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 Verification of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Fig: Curve of Power Transfer Efficiency

For some applications, it is desirable to transfer maximum power to the load than
achieving high efficiency such as in amplifiers and communication circuits.

On the other hand, it is desirable to achieve higher efficiency than maximised power
transfer in case of power transmission systems where a large load resistance (much larger value
than internal source resistance) is placed across the load. Even though the efficiency is high the
power delivered will be less in those cases.

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit externally as shown in fig

2. Connect the Ammeter and Voltmeter as shown in fig.
3. Switch on the main supply.
4. Switch on the toggle switch.
5. Measure the voltage of voltage source.
6. Measure the resistance of resistor connected in circuit.
7. Measure the current through resistor or voltage across register.
8. Calculate the power dissipated in each resistor.
9. Draw the Power Vs Load Resistance curve as shown in fig.

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 Verification of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

CHAPTER 4

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 Verification of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Circuit Diagram for Conversion of 230 V AC to 9 Volt DC:

Fig (12): Circuit Diagram For Conversion of 230 V AC to 9 Volt DC

The circuit is built in stages with every stage aimed for a specific purpose. For stepping down
the 230 V AC, a 9V - 0 -9V transformer is taken. The terminals of the secondary coil of the
transformer are connected with a full-bridge rectifier and a wire is drawn from the center tape
of the transformer to serve as common ground. The full bridge rectifier is built by connecting
four 1N4007 diodes to each other designated as D1, D2, D3 and D4 in the schematics. The
cathode of D1 and anode of D2 is connected to one of the secondary coil and cathodes of D3
and anode of D4 is connected to the other terminal of the coil. The cathodes of D2 and D4 are
connected from which one terminal is taken out from output of rectifier and anodes of D1 and
D3 are connected from which other terminal is taken out from output from full-wave rectifier.

The capacitors of 470 uF (shown as C1 and C2 in schematics) are connected between

the output terminals of a full-wave rectifier for smoothing purpose. For voltage regulation LM-
7809 IC is connected in parallel to the smoothing capacitors. The output is drawn from the
voltage output terminals of the regulator ICs. The capacitors of 470 uF and 12 pF (shown as
C1 and C2 in schematics) are connected to the output terminals of the power circuit to
compensate transient currents.

The power circuit operates in stages with each stage serving a specific purpose. The circuit
operates in the following stages –

1. AC to AC conversion

The voltage of Main Supplies (Electricity fed by the intermediate transformer after stepping
down line voltage from generating station) is approximately 220-230V AC which further needs
to be stepped down to 9V level. To reduce the 220V AC to 9V AC, a step-down transformer
with center taping is used. The use of center tap transformer allows utilizing both positive and
negative polarities of the voltage at the input. The circuit takes some drop in the output voltage
due to resistive loss. Therefore a transformer of high voltage rating greater than the required 9
V needs to be taken. The most suitable step-down transformer that meets the mentioned voltage
and current requirements is 9V-0-9V This transformer step downs the main line voltage to +/-
9V AC, as shown in the below image.

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 Verification of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Fig(13): Transformer Of 230/9 V AC

2. AC to DC conversion – Full Wave Rectification:

The stepped down AC voltage needs to be converted to DC voltage through rectification.
The rectification is the process of converting AC voltage to DC voltage. There are two ways to
convert an AC signal to the DC one. One is half wave rectification and another is full wave
rectification. In this circuit, a full-wave bridge rectifier is used for converting the 24V AC to
24V DC. The full wave rectification is more efficient than half wave rectification since it
provides complete use of both the negative and positive sides of AC signal. In full wave bridge
rectifier configuration, four diodes are connected in such a way that current flows through them
in only one direction resulting in a DC signal at the output. During full wave rectification, at a
time two diodes become forward biased and another two diodes get reverse biased.

Fig(14):Rectification Unit (Bridge Rectifier)

During the positive half cycle of the supply, diodes D2 and D3 conduct in series, while
diodes D1 and D4 are reverse biased and the current, flows through the output terminal passing
through D2, output terminal and the D3. During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes
D1 and D4 conduct in series, but diodes D3 and D2 are reverse biased and the current flows

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 Verification of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

through D1, output terminal and the D4. The direction of current both ways through the output
terminal in both conditions remain the same.

The 1N4007 diodes are chosen to build the full wave rectifier because they have the
maximum (average) forward current rating of 1 A and in reverse biased condition, they can
sustain peak inverse voltage up to 1000V. That is why 1N4007 diodes are used in this project
for full wave rectification.

3. Smoothing:

Smoothing is the process of filtering the DC signal by using a capacitor. The

output of the full-wave rectifier is not a steady DC voltage. The output of the rectifier
has double the frequency of main supplies but it contains ripples. Therefore, it needs to
be smoothed by connecting a capacitor in parallel to the output of full wave rectifier.
The capacitor charges and discharges during a cycle giving a steady DC voltage as the
output. So, 470 uF capacitors (shown as C1 and C2 in schematics) of high value are
connected to the output of rectifier circuit. As the DC which is to be rectified by the
rectifier circuit has many AC spikes and unwanted ripples, so to reduce these spikes
capacitor is used. This capacitor acts as a filtering capacitor which bypasses all the AC
through it to ground. At the output, the mean DC voltage left is smoother and ripple
free.

4. Voltage Regulation :

For providing a regulated +/-9V at the output, an LM-7809 IC is used. These

ICs are capable of providing current up to 1A. The 7809 IC is a positive voltage
regulator which gives stable +9V at the output with a positive input supply of 12V. For
getting a negative voltage at the output a negative voltage regulator 7909 is used. It
provides a -9V at the output on an input of -12V. The 7809 IC provides an output
voltage in the range of 8.6V to 9.4V with the input voltage range of 11.5V to 24V while
7909 IC provides an output voltage in the range of -8.6V to -9.4V with the input voltage
range of -11.5V to -23V. The common ground is provided by the center tap terminal of
the transformer. Both of the regulator ICs are capable of load regulation themselves.
They provide regulated and stabilized the voltage at the output irrespective of the
fluctuation in the input voltage and load current.

5. Compensating Transient Currents:

At the output terminals of the power circuit, 470 uF capacitor and 12 pF ( shown
as C1 and C2 in schematics) are connected in parallel. These capacitors help in fast
response to load transients. Whenever the output load current changes then there is an
initial shortage of current, which can be fulfilled by this output capacitor.

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 Verification of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

CHAPTER 5

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 Verification of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Circuit Diagram for Maximum Power Transfer Theorem (Problem):

Fig(15): Circuit For Problem Statement

Here, for the particular problem we have the following value

Voltage Source (Vs):9 V

Internal Resistance of Source (Rs):2.20K Ω

Load Resistance (RL):

1. 1.00 kΩ
2. 2.21 kΩ
3. 8.17 kΩ
4. 5.57 kΩ
5. 4.58 kΩ

Formula used to calculate the maximum power through load resistance is:

𝑽𝒕𝒉𝟐
Pmax=
𝟒𝑹𝒊

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 Verification of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Observation Table:

Sr Load Theoretical Value Practical Value

No Resistance
Current(IL) Power(I2*R) Voltage(VL) Power(V2/R)
(K Ω)
(mAmpere) (mWatt) (mVolt) (mWatt)

1 1.00 2.81 7.89 2.76 7.87

2 2.21 2.04 9.20 4.52 9.24

3 8.17 0.86 6.15 7.08 6.13

4 5.57 1.15 7.47 6.43 7.42

5 4.58 1.32 8.07 6.06 8.01

From the observation table we conclude that the maximum power transferred to the
load resistance is 9.24 × 10-3 Watt. When the value of resistance is equal to the source resistance
that is 2.21 KΩ (RS=RL).

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 Verification of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

CHAPTER 6

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Application of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:

1. Transformer Impedance Matching

One very useful application of impedance matching in order to provide maximum

power transfer between the source and the load is in the output stages of amplifier circuits.
Signal transformers are used to match the loudspeakers higher or lower impedance value to the
amplifiers output impedance to obtain maximum sound power output. These audio signal
transformers are called “matching transformers” and couple the load to the amplifiers output
as shown below.

Fig(16): Transformer Impedance Matching

The maximum power transfer can be obtained even if the output impedance is not the
same as the load impedance. This can be done using a suitable “turns ratio” on the transformer
with the corresponding ratio of load impedance, ZLOAD to output impedance, ZOUT matches that
of the ratio of the transformers primary turns to secondary turns as a resistance on one side of
the transformer becomes a different value on the other.

If the load impedance, ZLOAD is purely resistive and the source impedance is purely
resistive, ZOUT then the equation for finding the maximum power transfer is given as

Where: NP is the number of primary turns and NS the number of secondary turns on the
transformer. Then by varying the value of the transformers turns ratio the output impedance
can be “matched” to the source impedance to achieve maximum power transfer.

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2. Amplifier and Speaker:

In communication system, maximum power transfer is always sought. For example in

public address system, the circuit is adjusted for maximum power transfer by making load
resistance (speaker) equal to the source resistance (amplifier). When source and load have the
same resistance, they are said to be matched.

3. In Automobile Sector:

In car engines, the power delivered to the starter motor of the car will depend
upon the effective resistance of the motor and the internal resistance of the battery. If
the two resistances are equal, maximum power will be transferred to the motor to turn
to the engine.

Another maximum power transfer system is the starting of a car engine. The
power delivered to the starter motor of the car will depend upon the effective resistance
of the motor and internal resistance of the battery. If the two resistance are equal ( in
case when battery is fully charged, maximum power will be transferred to the motor to
turn on the engine. This is particularly desirable in winter when every watt that can be
extracted from the battery is needed by the starter motor to turn on the cold engine. If
the battery is weak, its internal resistance is high and the car does not start.

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CHAPTER 7

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Conclusion:

From the observation table we conclude that the maximum power transferred to the
load resistance is 9.24 × 10-3 Watt. When the value of resistance is equal to the source
resistance that is 2.21 KΩ (RS=RL) for the given problem condition.

Hence the maximum amount of power will be dissipated by a load resistance if it is

equal to the internal resistance of the network supplying power.

References:

Books:

1) A. Chakrabarti, Circuit Theory (Analysis and Synthesis). Fifth Edition : 2006, Dhanpat Rai and Co.

2) A. Bruce Carlson, Circuits. First Reprint :2002, Thomson Asia Pte Ltd.

3) Parker Smith, Problems in Electrical Engineering. Ninth Edition :2003 , M/s Constable and
Company, London.

4) A Text Book of "Electrical Technology" : BL Theraja & AK Theraja

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Expenditure :

Sr Component Price Total

No

1 Resistor 6×3₹ 18

2 Diode 4×4₹ 16

3 IC 7809 1 × 15 ₹ 15

4 Transformer 1 × 35 ₹ 35

5 Capacitor 2×8₹ 16

6 Female Probe 12 × 10 ₹ 120

7 Wooden Box 1 × 200 ₹ 200

8 Connecting Wire 15 Ft × 4 ₹ 60

9 Soldering Wire 2 Ft × 30 ₹ 60

10 PCB 1 × 50 ₹ 50

Total 590 ₹

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