Grace Theological Journal 12.

1 (1992) 3-20

A SUMMARY EVALUATION OF OLD

TESTAMENT HEBREW LEXICA,
TRANSLATIONS, AND PHILOLOGY
IN LIGHT OF KEY DEVELOPMENTS
IN HEBREW LEXICOGRAPHIC AND
SEMITIC LINGUISTIC HISTORY

W. CREIGHTON MARLOWE

Any evaluation of an Old Testament lexicon or translation must

consider what quantity and quality of Hebraic and Semitic compara-
tive data were available when a particular volume or version was writ-
ten. First, major aT lexical developments are evaluated by surveying
their two main historical periods-from the first known lexicon in A.D.
913 to the present-in light of the most significant Semitic philological
advances. Then guidelines and suggestions are given for choosing
which lexica to purchase in light of the perspective gained from the
historical overview. Next, translations of the Bible-from the LXX of
ca. 250 B.C. to the present, through the same periods as the lexica-are
evaluated along similar lines; and again advice is offered for selecting
the best (primarily English) version of the Bible for personal, private,
and public use today. Finally, certain Semitic languages are evaluated
as to their individual, collective, and practical values for enabling the
translator and lexicographer to understand more accurately the pos-
sible meaning( s) of some Hebrew words. Included as an appendix is a
helpful chart displaying a time-line of the highlights in Hebrew lexico-
graphic and related linguistic history.

* * *
INTRODUCTION

O LD Testament lexica, translations, and philology are in a constant

state of development. The continuing and abundant advances in
linguistic knowledge make regular revision necessary. Consequently,
the final or perfect lexicon or Bible version has not been achieved.
4 GRACE THEOLOGICAL JOURNAL

Many agree that the recent discovery and decipherment of a lost Semi-
tic language at Ebla will not be the last such revelation coming from
the science of archaeology. Any evaluation of an Old Testament lexi-
con or translation must consider what quantity and quality of Hebraic
and Semitic comparative data were available when they were written.
The value of a Semitic language for Hebrew philology is judged in
light of its extent of textual information and the nature of its relation-
ship to Hebrew.

THE LEXICA EVALUATED

This evaluation, like those following, will be a general, summary

appraisal of the subject-lexica in this case-by periods. Each lexicon
will not be examined in depth; but the nature of the philological con-
text-affecting the potential of each to describe accurately the usage of
the entire Biblical Hebrew vocabulary-will be reviewed.

During the Formative Period (A.D. 913-1810)

Hebrew lexica written during this era greatly differed as to how
well the Hebrew language was understood when each was composed.
Lexicographers such as Saadiah, Ben Abraham, and Saruq worked
prior to the establishment of the rule of triradical roots during the last
half of the tenth century. Arabic was the major comparative source for
solving lexical problems throughout the period. Akkadian and Ugaritic
were totally unknown. The creation of Hebrew linguistics and phi-
lology took place in the eleventh and first half of the twelfth centuries.
Yet monoliteral roots were still recognized when Ibn Janach's dictio-
nary appeared in the 1040s. Not until ca. 1437-45 did the first Hebrew
concordance come on the scene. Christian lexicographers (1506-) such
as Reuchlin, Pagninus, Buxtorf, and Simonis depended on Jewish tra-
dition almost exclusively. For the most part, however, Jewish lexico-
graphic scholarship ceased from ca. 1500-1700. Christian dictionaries
were heir to few advances during these years. Lexica produced before
1753 were prior to Robert Lowth's revelation of the true nature (paral-
lelism) of Hebrew poetry. Lexica of the formative period of Hebrew
lexicography, in general, clearly were very inadequate by today's
standards; but the major works apparently were thorough and quite
extensive. The lexicographers were highly skilled linguists for their
day and very competent at handling difficult forms in light of their con-
texts. Present students of the Hebrew Bible can profit from these lexica
by observing the often insightful interpretations of medieval philolo-
gists working without the elaborate tools and Semitic data available
today.
 A SUMMARY EVALUATION 5

During the Scientific Period (A.D. 1810-)

Hebrew lexica of the scientific period of Hebrew lexicography
were developed during two distinct sub-periods: (1) the classical years
dominated by the lexicographic innovations and insights of Wilhelm
Gesenius; and (2) the modern years characterized by an unparalleled
recovery and development of Semitic linguistic aids, which included
the discovery and decipherment of Akkadian, Ugaritic, and Eblaite.

During the classical years (1810-71)

Hebrew lexica compiled during these years were all influenced-
as all subsequent lexica-by the scientific method that Gesenius
brought to lexicography. Most of the dictionaries were either revisions
or translations of Gesenius' works. Akkadian was discovered and deci-
phered during the last half of this period; but no lexicon incorporated
its data until 1871, which marked the beginning of a new stage in
Hebrew lexicography. Thus Arabic, at times abused, was still the
major comparative source for solving lexical difficulties. Those who
translated Gesenius, like Samuel P. Tregelles, gave few thoughts of
their own and, overall, tried to represent only Gesenius' lexicography.
Also following Gesenius, these lexica sought to place every Old Testa-
ment Hebrew word under a basic root, whether verified or theoretical.
For some lexically difficult words, unfortunate comparisons to Indo-
European languages were made in order to postulate a definition. Out-
side of the initial advances Gesenius brought to the science of lexicog-
raphy and the use of comparative information, few advances occurred
in Semitic linguistics. Moabite was discovered in 1868. The value of
these lexica following Gesenius have been indebted to his pioneering
efforts and now classical approach, which have made his lexica stan-
dard works. Although the lexica of the classical years are now out-
dated, they offer the results of Gesenius' genius for consideration,
especially for some lexical problems in the Old Testament.

During the modern years (1871-)

The modern years of Hebrew lexicography were marked by the
most rapid developments in Semitic philology. Many advances were
introduced into the lexica, as a result, which were never before pos-
sible. Since 1871 Akkadian and Ugaritic linguistic information has
become available; the former was discovered earlier but utilized since
the date given, while the latter was discovered in 1928-30 but not used
in a lexicon until 1953. Other linguistic developments since the last
third of the nineteenth century were the plethora of related Semitic lit-
erary finds and the recovery of the language and literature of ancient
6 GRACE THEOLOGICAL JOURNAL

Ebla. All of this has allowed lexicographers to identify homonyms

which lexicographers without this information were unable to recog-
nize or substantiate. One of Gesenius' major weaknesses was his fail-
ure to list many homonyms as separate entries because he equated
them with the same basic root. 1 The establishment of proper and
unforced homonymic roots is a challenge which had a far less chance
of success before the comparatiYe data from Semitic philology-since
the beginning of the twentieth century-were available. In this light
and for the American scholar, the lexica by Brown, Driver, and Briggs;
Kohler and Baumgartner; and Holladay2 should all be consulted at the
very least when a lexical question arises. These, naturally, differ in the
quantity and quality of their information.

Choosing a Lexicon
A question frequently asked by seminary students is: "Which lex-
icon is the one to purchase?" This immediately demonstrates their
great misunderstanding of the lexica they use and the history of lexico-
graphic development. Moises Silva wrote:

Lexicology takes priority in the exegetical process. We may pursue the

analogy and suggest that, although not every exegete need become a pro-
fessional textual critic, every exegete must have sufficient involvement in
that work to evaluate and assimilate the results of the "experts." Simi-
larly, all biblical interpreters need exposure to and experience in lexico-
graphic method if they would use the linguistic data in a responsible way.
In a survey of biblical scholars and students conducted in the late
1960s, some respondents commented on the need for "a better under-
standing of the nature, use, and limitations of a lexicon" on the part of
dictionary users.58 The point ... is still valid today. This requisite under-
standing, however, can only be developed on the basis of a solid grasp of
the theoretical foundations of lexicology.3

IE. F. Miller, The Influence of Gesenius on Hebrew Lexicography (New York: Co-
lumbia University Press, 1927; reprinted, New York: AMS, 1966) 49-50.
2See F. Brown, S. R. Driver, and C. A. Briggs, eds., A Hebrew and English Lexicon
of the Old Testament (Oxford: Clarendon, 1907); L. H. Kohler and W. Baumgartner, eds.,
Lexicon in Veteris Testamenti Libros (2d ed.; Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1958); L. H. Kohler
et aI., Hebraischen und aramaischen Lexikon zum Alten Testament (3d ed.; 2 vols.; Lei-
den: E. J. Brill, 1967-); and W. L. Holladay, ed., A Concise Hebrew and Aramaic Lexi-
con of the Old Testament (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1971; reprinted, Grand Rapids: William B.
Eerdmans, n.d.).
3M. Silva, Biblical Words & Their Meaning: An Introduction to Lexical Semantics
(Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1983) 31-32, citing J. E. Gates, An Analysis of the Lexico-
graphic Resources Used by American Biblical Scholars Today (Missoula, Montana:
SBLDS, 1972) 134.
 A SUMMARY EVALUATION 7

The serious exegete of the Old Testament cannot rely on just one
lexicon. A number of them have varying degrees of value for the stu-
dent of Hebrew today. The most valuable are those which have been
compiled within the context of modern Semitic philology; that is, the
ones which were able to utilize Akkadian or, better yet, Akkadian and
Ugaritic when the study of these languages reached a state of maturity.
Because of its early date, the lexicon by Brown, Driver, and Briggs is
sometimes inaccurate in its use of Akkadian. 4 Even at the present date
the Chicago Assyrian Dictionary5 (hereafter CAD) remains incom-
plete. Still, Brown-Driver-Briggs (or BDB by its popular acronym)
preserves an updated version of Gesenius' lexicography. Kohler and
Baumgartner's first lexicon, along with its supplement volume, offers
the lexical description of Hebrew vocabulary that is heir to the fifty
years of Semitic linguistic advances following BDB. Yet it cannot be
followed blindly or uncritically in every application of Akkadian or
U garitic. 6 Much has been learned in the quarter-century since they
were published. The recently completed Hebrew portion (four vols.) of
a new German Hebrew-Aramaic lexicon (edited initially by Kohler-
Baumgartner and continued by Kutscher-Hartmann, et al.; see n. 2,
p. 6) promises to be the most philologically complete and correct lexi-
con to date; but the rapid rate at which such data are presently being
made available will eventually make any current lexicon somewhat
outdated. This is especially true of the earlier volumes because of the
large number of years involved in writing a Hebrew lexicon. The first

4This is not to indicate they erroneously used the information but that the data at
hand was sometimes faulty by today's standards; that is, some of the Akkadian lexical
data they consulted is now outdated. An example is the suggestion of l,lllu as a cognate
(s.v.l,lfil) to support the meaning "dance," to which CAD gives no related definition.
5I. J. Gelt et aI., eds., The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the Uni-
versity of Chicago (Chicago: Oriental Institute, 1956-).
6L. Kohler, Lexicon in Veteris Testamenti Libros s.v. "zrb"; CAD s.v. "~arapu";
Holladay, A Concise Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon s.v. "zrb"; and L. Kohler et aI., He-
braisches und aramaisches Lexikon s.v. "zrb." Even though this lexicon was published
fifty years later than BDB, it is now over twenty years since its first edition; so its weak-
nesses must be seen in the same light as that of BDB. An example is its explanation of
zrb, a hapax in Job 6:17, as meaning "to press" in light of the Akkadian cognate zurubu.
More recently, however, the CAD has established the proper cognate as ~arapu, "to
burn" (1961); and a decade later, Holladay's concise abridgement of the lexica based on
the editorship of Kohler and Baumgartner gave the meaning "dry up." However, the
third edition of the Kohler-Baumgartner lexicon (later edited by E. Y. Kutscher and
B. Hartmann et aI.) arrived at the translation "scorch, burn" based on the Hebrew cog-
nate ~rb. Unlike the second edition, the Syriac and Akkadian zrb "to press" was ques-
tioned but shown to be a solution offered by some. Most modern English versions-the
NEB a notable exception-have adopted an idea related to "a time of heat or burning";
cf. NIV, RSV, NASB, JB.
8 GRACE THEOLOGICAL JOURNAL

two volumes of this latest Old Testament lexicon begun by Kohler and
Baumgartner appeared in print during a nineteen-year period (1967-
86); while volumes three and four were published, respectively, in
1983 and 1990. William Holladay's abridged Hebrew lexicon (pub-
lished in 1971) was able to make use of manuscript material for this
third edition of Kohler-Baumgartner through the letter samek; but such
a concise work in English cannot substitute fully for the parent Ger-
man production. Where Holladay could not rely on published or
unpublished portions of that lexical project (letters cayin through taw),
the same advantages obviously were not inherited and thus not incor-
porated. A comprehensive, up-to-date Hebrew lexicon in English is
still lacking among the existing and fully-published Old Testament
Hebrew lexica. The student must ask: "What lexica should be owned?"
No one lexicon is sufficient, or probably ever can be, for Hebrew exe-
gesis. The careful student must, and the wise student will, consult a
variety of the most complete and current lexica available. 7 Presently,
the American student or scholar should at least consult the lexica by
Gesenius-Tregelles; Brown, Driver, and Briggs; Holladay; and Kohler-
Baumgartner.

7See J. Barr, "Hebrew Lexicography," and P. Fronzaroli, "Problems of a Semitic

Etymological Dictionary" in Studies on Semitic Lexicography (Florence: Instituto di
Linguistica e di Lingue Orientali, 1973) 1-24, 103-26, for a detailed examination and
examples of the potential and problems of the latest lexica.
Also the reader should be made aware of other lexica in production, especially one
in English which will replace BDB and has reported good progress since work began in
September 1988. This lexicon, The Dictionary of Classical Hebrew, unlike previous
works and as its name implies, will seek to incorporate all the biblical and extra-biblical
remains of the Classical Hebrew language. The director and chief editor of the project is
Professor David J. A. Clines, University of Sheffield, with co-editors J. W. Rogerson and
P. R. Davies. Also unlike BDB and other older lexica, the words will appear in alphabet-
ical order. A special feature is the inclusion of syntagmatic information. The project is
being carried out under the auspices of the Society for Old Testament Studies.
Fascicules and the first volume of the third edition of Kohler-Baumgartner appeared
in 1967. The lengthy production schedule created a further delay in that it became neces-
sary to complete the project under the new general editorship of E. Y. Kutscher and
B. Hartmann.
Other lexica underway include, most importantly, another remake (the eighteenth
edition) of Gesenius' Handworterbuch, of which the first volume, prepared by R. Meyer
and H. Donner, has appeared. Two features will make this a very valuable addition to the
field of Hebrew lexicography and set it apart from the other German and especially the
English lexica discussed above. Even more than the aforementioned German work and in
contradistinction to the "new BDB," in true Gesenius style this dictionary will contain
an abundance of references to cognate Semitic languages and to scholarly word studies
in bibliographic entries. Like the other German but unlike the latest and novel English
approach, it remains strictly a dictionary of the remains of Classical Hebrew in the Old
Testament; however, its treatment of the Ben Sira and Qumran materials is more exten-
sive than that in any previously published Hebrew lexica. See D. J. A. Clines, editor, and
 A SUMMARY EVALUATION 9

THE TRANS LA TIONS EVALUATED

As with the lexica the value of any translation of the Hebrew Old
Testament is partly determined by the quality of the linguistic tools-
in this case mainly the lexica themselves-used by the translators.
Since accurate translation is dependent on sound exegesis, which in
turn is dependent on the best lexica, what was generally noted about
the linguistic and lexicographic climate of the periods of Hebrew lexi-
cography applies to the potential of any versions produced within the
same periods. The following will focus on a few representative OT
translations of each period and suggest why extreme views regarding
the priority of anyone translation be abandoned.

During the Preparatory Period (before A.D. 913)

No known Hebrew lexicon was created during this era. Three
major translation projects of the Hebrew Scriptures were: (l) the Greek
version of ca. 250 B.C. (the LXX, or Septuagint); (2) the Syriac version
of possibly A.D. 40-70 (the Peshitta); and (3) the Latin version of
A.D. 390-405 (the Vulgate). Each of these clearly was written before
any science of Hebrew linguistics or philology in the modern sense
developed. On the other hand, they were composed at a time which
possibly preserved lexical knowledge of Hebrew that was lost to later
generations. The exact nature and value of these versions is a subject
that is highly complex and technical and has been extensively debated.
The concern here is merely to point out the apparent Semitic linguistic
context in which their translators worked. In this case little is known
specifically, but all these translations show that often the translators
were not willing or able to render adequately the Hebrew text before
them. 8 Yet these versions remain very valuable for exegesis because
they sometimes preserve a reading preferable to that in the Masoretic
text or proposed by a lexicon. As the examples that are charted at the
end of the next major evaluative section (p. 14) would show in some
instances when investigated as regards their translation history, some-
times an ancient version contains the rendering not followed by subse-
quent versions and lexicographers but recovered and substantiated by
data from modern Semitic philology.

J. W. Rogerson and P. R. Davies, co-editors, "The Dictionary of Classical Hebrew:

Newsletter 1" (University of Sheffield, July 1988) 1-2, and Clines, "Newsletter 2" (De-
cember 1988) 1-2, for the basis of much of and further elaboration on the information
contained in this endnote.
8See E. Wtirthwein, The Text of the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: William B.
Eerdmans, 1979) 47-83; and S. P. Brock, "The Phenomenon of Biblical Translation in
Antiquity" in Studies in the Septuagint (New York: KTAV, 1974) 541-71.
10 GRACE THEOLOGICAL JOURNAL

The Syriac Bible, or Peshitta, requires special consideration at

this point in regard to a modern theory about its value. George M.
Lamsa sought to popularize the view that the Syriac Bible represents
the original language and idioms of biblical revelation, rather than
Hebrew and Greek. In 1957 his English translation of the Peshitta9 was
published. His claim was that Aramaic was the more natural language
of discourse for the biblical writers. However, the Aramaic they spoke
was western Aramaic, whereas Syriac is eastern Aramaic. Syriac is not
the Aramaic of the Old Testament. Besides, evidence of written or oral
Aramaic originals of the Hebrew Bible is speculative. As indicated
above, the Syriac Bible sometimes might contain the more original
reading; but Lamsa has sought not to revise but to replace the Hebrew
text with a much later Syriac text. Unless his presupposition is
accepted, his novel renderings usually are unnecessary because the
Hebrew is clear and contextually valid. He is often helpful with hapax
legomena and other difficult words. As an example of the former, the
Peshitta has "venom" where the Hebrew has "wine" in Deut 32:33; but
the context favors the Hebrew meaning.

During the Formative Period (A.D. 913-1810)

During this initial stage of lexicographic growth, important trans-
lations appeared such as: (1) the Arabic version of ca. A.D. 1000; (2)
the German version by Luther in ca. 1532; and (3) the Authorized, or
King James, English Version of 1611. The theoretical common Semitic
vocabulary stock available to the translators of the LXX, if it existed
then, was a long-lost resource by the time of the Christian era. Chris-
tian Hebraists of the Middle Ages were dependent on Jewish tradition;
and Arabic dominated comparative linguistics. Knowledge of the
Hebrew language had waned among Christian scholars because of dis-
interest until the sixteenth century, when Jewish Hebraic studies
declined.
Before 1500 the understanding of Hebrew was incomplete and at
times incorrect on basic matters; but from 1500-1810-with the loss
of Jewish scholarship leading the way-few advances were made. This
state of Hebraic knowledge was reflected by the lexica and transla-
tions. The Old Testament was not translated as often as the New, and
some translators were guided by literary as much as-possibly in a
few cases more than-exegetical purposes. The versions of this period
are not valuable as witnesses to the original text; but they are helpful
in a supporting role, when a reading is suggested by stronger evidence.

9See G. M. Lamsa, The Holy Bible: From Ancient Eastern Manuscripts (16th ed.;
Philadelphia: A. J. Holman, 1957) v-viii.
 A SUMMARY EVALUATION 11

The translators of this period were greatly influenced by and dependent

on former translations, especially the LXX and Vulgate and especially
for rare and difficult Hebrew words. The Authorized Version is the
outstanding example.
A number of comments are necessary concerning the Authorized
Version (A V hereafter) in particular because of its long history of pop-
ularity and in light of a current problem stemming from an untenable
claim about its value as a Bible version. Like all translators, the King
James committee members were products of their lexicographic cli-
mate, which by today's standards and Semitic linguistic situation was
severely limited. Many of the best English Hebraists of that day, how-
ever, were involved in the translation process. At the same time, their
purpose should not be forgotten. In the" Address to the Reader" -left
out of most modern printings of the A V -the translators stated their
purpose and policies. They let it be known that their purpose was not
"to make a new translation but a traditional one,,,l0 that is, in the tra-
dition of the Vulgate and previous English versions with which Euro-
peans were familiar. So their purpose was more literary than linguistic.
At the same time, their Semitic linguistic climate was limited, pre-
scientific in the modern sense, and lacking the aids of modern phi-
lology. The reason the A V failed to put the great amount of OT poetry
in poetic stanzas was that it was made more than a century before
Lowth revealed the nature of Hebrew poetry. The translators may have
sensed a little about the feature of parallelism in Hebrew, but their
work shows it was not fully appreciated until after Lowth. As demon-
strated by the chart on p. 18, the King James translators could not ade-
quately deal with many hapax legomena because they lacked the
advances in Semitic philology available now. Because such discover-
ies have been so late, the numerous lexical changes needed in the OT
were much less noticeable. Thus new translations were rarely called
for, and the AV remained popular for over three hundred years.
A current problem is that the A V has remained popular and is the
most popular English version today because of its beauty and tradition
in spite of its lack of accuracy and clarity. The same twentieth-century
person who would never read a seventeenth-century book wants a
seventeenth-century version of the Bible. Coupled with this is the cur-
rent claim by many-of whom some have scholarly credentials-that
the King James Version is the perfect written Word of God in English
.for all time. This has come in the period of Hebrew lexicography when
the need for new translations and their constant revision is undeniable in
light of the evidence from linguistic and philological study related to the
biblical languages. No argument is being made against those who wish

ION. Frye, The Great Code (San Diego: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1982) xiii.
12 GRACE THEOLOGICAL JOURNAL

to follow the Textus Receptus, 11 but those who so choose must seek the
best translation of that New Testament and the Masoretic text. In 1611
the A V was it, but not now.

During the Scientific Period (A.D. 1810-)

The rest of this discussion of translations will focus on English
Versions. As indicated, no great need was felt for new Bible transla-
tions until the modern years of Hebrew lexicography (1871-). Numer-
ous English versions have appeared during the twentieth century; and
as many philological advances have progressively occurred, so have
the translations progressively improved as to the accuracy of solving
lexical problems in the Old Testament. The more recent versions stand
out in this area; but such changes have been incorporated very slowly
and conservatively.

Choosing a Translation
The use of data from Semitic philology affects the accuracy feature
of good translation; however, the best translation- must have beauty and
clarity as well. Thus one should use a translation that has taken into
account the most recent linguistic findings-not necessarily the most
recent proposals, uncritically-and is readable, yet written in the best
style its language offers for the age in which the translation is done. The
reader is most interested in what the Bible says so he can interpret what
it means; consequently, the lexical aspect is primary to the value of a
translation. The best translations, however, are not those which have been

IlNeither does the author accept the Textus Receptus as the most authentic repre-
sentation of the original Greek New Testament text, but the issue concerns the choosing
of the best English translation no matter which tradition of textual transmission is fol-
lowed. Siding with the TR does not necessitate staying with the A V/KJV as the final
word in translating the TR. Also this debate has no bearing on the OT text, where the
Masoretic text is accepted by most translators as the primary textual witness to the origi-
nal Hebrew Scriptures. Witnesses to other textual traditions (the Septuagint, Samaritan
Pentateuch, and the Qumran documents-which latter recension reflects the two others
named and the MT) are consulted for variant readings by all who employ the science of
textual criticism; but those who believe the AV possesses a special sacred quality as an
English version look to no other OT text than the MT as being fundamentally the "TR"
of the Hebrew Bible. Thus they must deal with the same basic issue in relation to the OT
as noted above with the NT, but without clouding the discussion by accusing their oppo-
nents of using the wrong Hebrew or OT text. Those who postulate the primacy of the AV
of 1611 based on a preference for the TR must still explain the supposed supreme accu-
racy of that translation for the OT in light of an abundantly increasing accurate knowl-
edge of Hebrew grammar and lexicography since that time, coming from the many
comparatively recent developments and advances in Semitic linguistics and comparative
and cognate studies.
 A SUMMARY EVALUATION 13

influenced the most by Semitic comparative linguistics but those which

have accepted the most certain results of the lexical light from cognate
studies. An example of the former is The Anchor Bible commentary and
translation, which frequently treats the Old Testament as more of a
Ugaritic than a Hebrew document. An example of the latter is the NIV.
A translation should never be chosen on the basis of tradition
alone. Accuracy is the foremost but not the only guide. The Bible
reader finds differences in translations because of differences in per-
spective and knowledge when each was written. For example, the AV
has "spider" in Prov 30:28 where the NIV has "lizard." Both may be,
and one has to be, incorrect. Of the two, the A V was written long
before the meaning of the Hebrew behind these renderings was
answered by available evidence from linguistic discoveries.
As for the clarity of translations, the A V is full of words from the
seventeenth century like "cockatrice" in Isa 59:5 ("vipers" in the NIV)
and "reins" in Ps 139:13 (literally, "kidneys"; "inmost being" in the
NIV), which almost no one who speaks modern English understands.
The question "Which translation is best?" has the same problem as the
similar query with the lexica. No serious Bible student can limit him-
self to just one translation for study. No perfect translation exists; they
all have a number of strengths and weaknesses. The A V excels in the
beauty of classical English prose; and even extreme renderings-those
that abuse, refuse, or are unable to use data from Semitic philology-
need to be consulted at times. In light of the criteria established above,
the most important English Old Testament versions are the Jerusalem
Bible, New English Bible, New American Bible, and the New Interna-
tional Version. Those which should be regularly consulted for study
are, at least, the ones just mentioned plus the Septuagint, Vulgate, New
American Standard Bible, Revised (or New Revised) Standard Ver-
sion, The Anchor Bible Commentary, and the Berkeley Translation.
The average English Bible reader who has an Authorized (King James)
Version should at least obtain aNew International (or some modern
version) and a New King James Version.

THE LANGUAGE EVALUATED

Semitic languages originated before the periods of Old Testament

Hebrew lexicography began. The value of one of these languages or
dialects for clarifying an obscure word or passage in Hebrew is deter-
mined by its affinity with the Hebrew language. U garitic, therefore, has
become very important to aT scholars because both it and Hebrew
reflect the speech of Canaan. The value of the Semitic languages for
aT study is a topic of much technical debate. Such cannot be reviewed
14 GRACE THEOLOGICAL JOURNAL

in full here, nor can each language be described and critiqued in detail.
The reader is referred to the relevant literature,12 of which some of the
more important titles are named in the note just indicated.

Assessing their Collective Value

A statement by Edward Ullendorff will suffice to support this writ-
er's position and present purposes:

Hebrew is a Semitic language. This trite statement implies that many as-
pects of Hebrew can be properly evaluated only against the background of
the ensemble of Semitics. The principal Semitic languages include Akka-
dian ... in Mesopotamia, Ugaritic, Amorite, Phoenician ... Hebrew-
Moabite , and Aramaic in the ... [Syrian and Palestinian] area, Arabic and
South-Arabian in central and south-west Arabia. and Ethiopic in the horn
of Africa. The closeness and relationship of the classical Semitic lan-
guages to each other and their essential unity (this would not be true of the
developed forms of many modern Semitic tongues) had been recognized
by Muslim and Jewish grammarians as early as the tenth century. 13

Assessing their Individual Value

Unfortunately, the lexicographers of the Middle Ages were
unaware of the most ancient Semitic linguistic data which are available
today; but each of the languages has the potential of solving a lexical
problem that none of the others can. All are indispensable, but some
(Akkadian and Ugaritic) are more reliable and frequently employed
because of their extensive materials and closer historical and linguistic
relationship to Hebrew. At one time or another the value of these for
an improved translation of the Old Testament has been extremely
exaggerated. Like Arabic and Akkadian before it, a pan-Ugaritic
school of thought is in vogue now among the disciples of Mitchell
Dahood, who have taken Hebrew-Ugaritic philology to the extreme of
treating Hebrew as if it were U garitic. Dahood popularized U garitol-
ogy by re-writing Hebrew linguistics in terms of U garitic grammar and
lexicography. Scholarship is correct to reject this extreme; but some-
times the extremist uncovers things no one with a conservative
approach is likely to see. Where the Hebrew text is clear and contextu-
ally valid, unless other factors dictate it, the exegete need not resort to
parallel passages and etymological cognates with different meanings in

12See E. Y. Kutscher, A History of the Hebrew Language (Leiden: E. J. Brill,

1982) 46-53; E. Ullendorff, "Old Testament Languages" in Is Biblical Hebrew a Lan-
guage? (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1977) 29-35; and Fronzaroli, Studies on Semitic
Lexicography 1-, among a multitude of similar studies which vary widely in value.
\3Ullendorff, "Old Testament Languages" 31.
 A SUMMARY EVALUATION 15

the other Semitic languages. Dahood and his followers have abused
U garitic in this manner.
Cultural backgrounds and a number of lexical and grammatical
problems in the Hebrew Bible, however, are indebted solely to the dis-
coveries at Ugarit for their illumination. Hebrew is not to be equated
with Ugaritic or any other Semitic tongue, but neither was the Old Tes-
tament written in a literary vacuum. The ancient Semitic languages and
dialects together offer the possibility of filling the gaps left in the
present understanding of Hebrew.

Assessing their Practical Value

The serious student of Hebrew need not master all the Semitic
languages, but he must at least be able to interact critically with the
philological literature-this means the lexica if nothing else-related
to his efforts at Old Testament exegesis. Accordingly, an introduction
to comparative Semitics should be required of all seminary students. In
addition to Hebrew and Aramaic, anyone who wishes to interpret and
translate the Hebrew Old Testament should at least be familiar with the
language and literature of U garit.

Using the Semitic Cognate Lexical Data:

Examples of their Translational Value
The following chart provides examples of OT Hebrew words
whose traditional translations have been confirmed or changed as a
result of comparisons with cognate Semitic lexical data. The new ren-
derings are not universally accepted, especially among evangelical
exegetes; but their existence in the conservative NIV demonstrates they
are clear instances where the translators are convinced that the context
and linguistic evidence are best served by relying on the usage of cog-
nate roots in Arabic, Akkadian, and Ugaritic, especially, among other
Semitic languages. 14

14A question mark (?) in the chart means that it is not clear how that version (either
A V or NIV) so marked handled the translation of the Hebrew term in question.
-The triradicals Qkr, st C , and skh were new roots proposed and substantiated by their
contexts and cognate data for inclusion in OT Hebrew vocabulary. The meaning pre-
served by Ugaritic for the latter term has been accepted by recent lexica, but its form re-
~ains entered as skh. The terms dy, crb, and br were proposed homographs of otherwise
well-known terms. At least one modem lexicon has added another root, crb, for "clouds."
Recent lexica have recognized a new homographic term: br, "field," in Biblical Hebrew.
As yet dy has not been included in the lexica published and available to this writer (see
chart on p. 14) as a newly discovered Hebrew homograph; but its meaning supported by
an Arabic cognate has influenced some English translators. The remaining roots were
never debated as to the need for emendation. Their radicals are clear; but their usage has
been difficult to determine, since each is either a hapax (all but two of them) or a word
16 GRACE THEOLOGICAL JOURNAL

Hebrew Term Semitic Cognate and

Transliterated Lexical Solution AV NIV

dy Arabic dwy, "noise" ? "blast"

sph Arabic sara, "sweep bare" "high place" "bare hill"
I.zkr Arabic I.zakara, "to wrong someone" "make strange" "attack"
zrb Akkadian ~arapu , "to burn" "wax warm" ?
brm Akkadian birmu, "multicolored trim" "rich" "multi-colored
rugs"
kip Akkadian kalappu, "ax" "hammers" "axes"
stC Ugaritic [tc, "fear" "dismayed" "dismayed"
crb Ugaritic crp "heavens" "clouds"
skh Ugaritic !kh, "ship" "pictures" "vessel"
br Aramaic br, "field" "corn" "wilds"
gb J Ethiopic gb J , "to gather (water),' "pit" "cistern"

CONCLUSION

In summary fashion this paper provided a linguistic basis for eval-

uating and selecting lexica and Bible translations for personal use. The
developmental periods of Hebrew lexicography and corresponding
advances in Semitic languages were employed as a framework for this
evaluative overview. In addition Semitic philology itself was assessed
as to its practicality and necessity. It was demonstrated that the most
recent OT lexica and versions are generally the most accurate tools.
Comparative Semitic studies were shown to be a necessary pursuit for
the exegete to be able to use the best linguistic tools and produce the
most reliable interpretations and translations.

appearing very infrequently in the QT. These are instances where new meanings were es-
tablished for familiar roots when the appropriate Semitic comparative lexical data be-
came available. Most modern English versions recently published and the most recent
Hebrew lexica have accepted the translations of these terms substantiated and preserved
by Arabic, Akkadian, and/or Ethiopic. Readers unaware should note that among Semitic
phonemes, Hebrew s and Arabic s, Hebrew z and Akkadian ~, and Hebrew sand U garitic
t are interchangeable consonants.
 A SUMMARY EVALUATION 17

APPENDIX
TIME-LINE OF HIGHLIGHTS IN LEXICOGRAPHIC AND
LINGUISTIC HISTO Ry 15

Dates Be/AD Lexicographic History Linguistic History

THE PREPARATORY PERIOD OF ANCIENT LEXICOGRAPHY
(BEFORE A.D. 913)

ca. 3100-450 Sumerian, Eblaite, Akkadian,

Hittite, and Persian word lists
ca. 1500-425 Recording of OT
Hebrew language
ca. 458-323 First Aramaic OT
paraphrases (Targums)
ca. 250 Septuagint Pentateuch
(Greek OT version)
ca. 10 First Latin dictionary
BC
AD
ca. 40-70 Syriac OT
ca. 130-70 other Greek versions
of the OT
ca. 180-430 First major advances in
Greek lexicography
ca. 150-400 Old Latin versions
ca. 250-500 Coptic, Ethiopic versions
ca. 386-405 Jerome's Latin Vulgate
700s Beginning of Arabic lexical First Arabic grammars
analysis and Bible versions
ca. 875-900 Paltoi's Talmudic lexicon

THE FORMATIVE PERIOD OF HEBREW LEXICOGRAPHY

(A.D. 913-1810)
The Jewish Era (913-1550)

ca. 913 First-known Hebrew lexicon

(Saadiah Gaon)
ca. 945-1010 Triliteral root theory
established
1040s First complete lexical and grammatical descriptions of
Hebrew (Jonah ibn Janach)

15See W. C. Marlowe, "The Development of Old Testament Hebrew Lexicogra-

phy" (Dissertation: Mid-America Baptist Theological Seminary, 1985) for a more com-
plete and comprehensive chronological survey and chart of the highlights in the growth
of the OT lexicon in light of Semitic lexicographic and linguistic history.
18 GRACE THEOLOGICAL JOURNAL

Dates AD Lexicographic History Linguistic History

ca. 1080-1100 First monograph on
Hebrew homonyms
(Judah ibn BalCam)
ca. 1150-1250 Centers of Judaism shift from Arabic to Christian
environment
ca. 1200 Complete description of
OT Hebrew with
Arabic references
(David Kimchi)

End of the "Golden Era" of Hebrew medieval philology

ca. 1270-90 First dictionary of OT synonyms

(Isaac Bedersi)
ca. 1437-45 First Hebrew concordance
ca. 1450 Printing press invented
1488 First printed Hebrew Bible
ca. 1500-50 The lead in Hebrew studies shifts from Jewish to Christian
hands almost exclusively
150611523 First Hebrew lexicon by a Latin linguistics begin to
Christian (J. Reuch1in) be applied to Hebrew
ca. 1532 Martin Luther's German
translation of Bible

The Christian Era (1550-1810)

1607 J. Buxtorf's Hebrew lexicon

1611 The Authorized, or King
James, English version
1612 First lexicon by a Christian to
compare Hebrew with other
Semitic languages (V. Schindler)
1750 Hebrew established as one of many Semitic languages and
Hebrew-Arabic studies placed on a scientific basis
(A. Schultens)
175211753 J. Simonis' OT lexicon R. Lowth's work
reminding western
scholars of the true
nature of Hebrew
poetry (parallelism)
1799 Rosetta Stone found
 A SUMMARY EVALUATION 19

THE SCIENTIFIC PERIOD OF HEBREW LEXICOGRAPHY (A.D. 1810-)

The Classical years (/810-7/)

Dates AD Lexicographic History Linguistic History

1810-34 Gesenius' lexical and grammatical contributions to OT
Hebrew and Semitic philology
1820-22 Egyptian deciphered
1836-55 Robinson's translation of
Gesenius' manual Hebrew
lexicon into English
1837-50 Akkadian deciphered
Sumerian discovered
1846-57 Tregelles' translation of Gesenius'
1833 manual lexicon into English
1868 Moabite discovered

The Modern years (1871-)

1871 Davies' Hebrew lexicon uses

Akkadian lexical data
1872-99 Gilgamesh Epic
translated
1879-1901 Syriac thesaurus published
1880 Siloam inscription
discovered
1886-1903 lastrow's Targumic lexicon
1887 Tell el-Amarna letters
discovered
1896 Delitzsch's Assyrian handbook
1901 Hammurabi's code found
1906-7 Hittite library found
1906 Brown, Driver, and Briggs' Elephantine papyri
Hebrew lexicon of the OT found
1907 Dillmann's Ethiopic lexicon
1920s-30s Nuzi tablets excavated
1929-30 Ugaritic deciphered
1933/1935 Mari tablets and Lachish
letters discovered
1937 Mandelkern's OT Hebrew
concordance
1947-65 Three editions of
Gordon's U garitic
handbook
1953 Kohler-Baumgartner's Hebrew
lexicon adds Ugaritic data
1956- The Chicago Assyrian Dictionary
1956 Young's Ugaritic
concordance
20 GRACE THEOLOGICAL JOURNAL

1958 Second edition of Kohler- Lisowsky's OT Hebrew

Baumgartner's Hebrew lexicon concordance
1959- Von Soden's Akkadian handbook
1963 Herdner's corpus of
U garitic texts
1964- Excavations at Ebla
1967- Work begun on the third edition of
Kohler-Baumgartner's OT Hebrew
lexicon (vol. 1)
1967 Aistleitner's U garitic dictionary
1968- Eblaite deciphered
1971 Holladay's English and abridged
lexicon based on Kohler-
Baumgartner (3rd ed.)
1974-83 Vols. 2-3, third ed. of Kohler-
Baumgartner's OT Hebrew
lexicon completed
1988- Work begun on The Dictionary of
Classical Hebrew (ed. Clines)
18th edition of Gesenius'
Handworterbuch (ed. Meyer and
Donner; vol. 1)
1989/90- A vailable: one vol. Gesenius Murtonen's Hebrew in its
(18th); three vols. Kohler- West Semitic Setting,
Baumgartner (3rd) 3 vols.
1990/91 Third edition of Kohler-
Baumgartner's OT Hebrew
lexicon completed (vol. 4;
Aramaic portion, vol. 5,
wanting) Part one (Aleph)
of The Dictionary of Classical
Hebrew (ed. Clines) completed.