Pakistan

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Chapter 1: Geography ................................................................................................................................... 7

Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 7
Area ........................................................................................................................................................... 7
Geographic Regions .................................................................................................................................. 8
Northern Mountains .............................................................................................................................. 8
Submontane Plateaus ............................................................................................................................ 8
Indus River Plain................................................................................................................................... 9
Western Mountains ............................................................................................................................... 9
Balochistan Plateau ............................................................................................................................... 9
Deserts................................................................................................................................................. 10
Makran Coast ...................................................................................................................................... 10
Indus River Delta and Sindh Coast ..................................................................................................... 11
Climate .................................................................................................................................................... 11
Bodies of Water ...................................................................................................................................... 12
Arabian Sea ......................................................................................................................................... 12
Indus River .......................................................................................................................................... 12
Jhelum River ....................................................................................................................................... 13
Chenab River ...................................................................................................................................... 13
Ravi River ........................................................................................................................................... 14
Sutlej River ......................................................................................................................................... 14
Kabul River ......................................................................................................................................... 14
Major Cities ............................................................................................................................................ 15
Karachi ................................................................................................................................................ 15
Lahore ................................................................................................................................................. 16
Islamabad and Rawalpindi .................................................................................................................. 17
Faisalabad ........................................................................................................................................... 17
Peshawar ............................................................................................................................................. 18
Multan ................................................................................................................................................. 19
Environmental Concerns ......................................................................................................................... 19
Natural Hazards ...................................................................................................................................... 20
Earthquakes ......................................................................................................................................... 20
Floods.................................................................................................................................................. 20
Drought ............................................................................................................................................... 21
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Chapter 1: Assessment ................................................................................................................................ 22
Chapter 2: History ....................................................................................................................................... 23
Overview ................................................................................................................................................. 23
Early History ........................................................................................................................................... 24
The Indus Valley Civilizations ........................................................................................................... 24
Crossroads of Empires ........................................................................................................................ 24
Islamic Empires ...................................................................................................................................... 25
The Early Islamic Empires .................................................................................................................. 25
The Mughal Period ............................................................................................................................. 26
Colonial Era ............................................................................................................................................ 27
The British Enter the Indus River Plain .............................................................................................. 27
Colonial Rule ...................................................................................................................................... 28
The Beginnings of the Hindu–Muslim Split ....................................................................................... 29
Independence and Partition ................................................................................................................. 29
The Nation of Pakistan............................................................................................................................ 30
Post-Independence .............................................................................................................................. 30
A Country Divided .............................................................................................................................. 31
The Bangladesh Independence War .................................................................................................... 32
Bhutto and ul-Haq ............................................................................................................................... 32
Recent History ........................................................................................................................................ 33
Return to Democracy .......................................................................................................................... 33
Back to Military Control ..................................................................................................................... 34
The Aftermath of 9/11......................................................................................................................... 35
Recent Events...................................................................................................................................... 36
Chapter 3: Economy ................................................................................................................................... 38
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 38
Agriculture .............................................................................................................................................. 39
Industry ................................................................................................................................................... 40
Services ................................................................................................................................................... 41
Transportation ......................................................................................................................................... 41
Natural Resources ................................................................................................................................... 43
Energy ................................................................................................................................................. 43
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Mineral Resources .............................................................................................................................. 44
Trade ....................................................................................................................................................... 44
Exports ................................................................................................................................................ 45
Imports ................................................................................................................................................ 45
Tourism ................................................................................................................................................... 46
Banking and Finance............................................................................................................................... 46
Investment ............................................................................................................................................... 47
Standard of Living .................................................................................................................................. 47
Employment Trends ................................................................................................................................ 48
Public versus Private Sector.................................................................................................................... 49
Business Outlook .................................................................................................................................... 50
Chapter 4: Society ....................................................................................................................................... 52
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 52
Ethnic Groups ......................................................................................................................................... 52
Punjabis ............................................................................................................................................... 53
Sindhis................................................................................................................................................. 53
Muhajirs .............................................................................................................................................. 54
Pashtuns .............................................................................................................................................. 54
Baluchis............................................................................................................................................... 55
Saraikis................................................................................................................................................ 55
Kashmiri.............................................................................................................................................. 56
Languages ............................................................................................................................................... 56
Urdu .................................................................................................................................................... 56
Punjabi ................................................................................................................................................ 57
Pashto .................................................................................................................................................. 57
Sindhi .................................................................................................................................................. 58
Saraiki ................................................................................................................................................. 58
Religion ................................................................................................................................................... 59
Islam.................................................................................................................................................... 59
Sunni and Shi‘a Islam ......................................................................................................................... 59
Islam in Pakistan ................................................................................................................................. 59
Cuisine .................................................................................................................................................... 60
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Traditional Dress..................................................................................................................................... 60
Women ................................................................................................................................................ 61
Men ..................................................................................................................................................... 61
Gender Issues .......................................................................................................................................... 61
Patriarchal Culture .............................................................................................................................. 61
Violence toward Women .................................................................................................................... 62
Bills of Protection for Women ............................................................................................................ 62
Arts.......................................................................................................................................................... 63
Ghazals................................................................................................................................................ 63
Storytelling.......................................................................................................................................... 63
Folklore ............................................................................................................................................... 63
Sports and Recreation ............................................................................................................................. 64
Cricket ................................................................................................................................................. 64
Field Hockey ....................................................................................................................................... 64
Gulli Danda ......................................................................................................................................... 64
Rugby .................................................................................................................................................. 65
Chapter 5: Security ..................................................................................................................................... 67
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 67
United States–Pakistan Relations............................................................................................................ 67
Relations with Neighboring Countries .................................................................................................... 68
India .................................................................................................................................................... 68
Iran ...................................................................................................................................................... 69
Afghanistan ......................................................................................................................................... 69
China ................................................................................................................................................... 70
Tajikistan............................................................................................................................................. 72
Law and Order ........................................................................................................................................ 72
Army ................................................................................................................................................... 72
Air Force ............................................................................................................................................. 73
Navy .................................................................................................................................................... 73
Police................................................................................................................................................... 73
Frontier Corps (FC)............................................................................................................................. 74
Intelligence Agencies .............................................................................................................................. 75
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Directorate for Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) ................................................................................. 75
Military Intelligence (MI) ................................................................................................................... 75
Intelligence Bureau (IB)...................................................................................................................... 75
Issues Affecting Internal Stability........................................................................................................... 76
Militant Groups ................................................................................................................................... 76
Islamist Groups ................................................................................................................................... 76
Sectarian Groups ................................................................................................................................. 77
Ethnic Nationalist Groups ................................................................................................................... 77
Water Security ........................................................................................................................................ 78
Looking Forward .................................................................................................................................... 79
Final Assessment ........................................................................................................................................ 82
Further Reading .......................................................................................................................................... 84
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Chapter 1: Geography
Introduction
Pakistan is located in the northwestern part of the Indian
subcontinent. It occupies an important geostrategic
position. It borders Iran and Afghanistan on the west,
China on the north, and India on the east.
Pakistan controls two important passes, the Khyber and

the Bolan, which have been traditional routes of invasion
between the Indian subcontinent and Central Asia. The
nation has access in the south to the Arabian Sea. Its land
size is 796,095 sq km (310,477 sq mi) with terrain and
climate ranging from glaciers to deserts, forests to plateaus, and mountains to plains.1 The terrain
and climate support diverse and unique flora and fauna, some of which are endangered.2
Pakistan‘s natural geography and geology make it vulnerable to frequent floods and earthquakes.
Ecological degradations from human activities include desertification, deforestation, soil erosion,
water and air pollution.
Area
Disputed for centuries, the borders of present-day
Pakistan have changed many times. Before 1947,
Pakistan and India made up one country, with the Durand
Line (still contested today) dividing Afghanistan from
what would become Pakistan after independence from
Britain.
On the eve of independence, the colonial authorities

partitioned India, creating Pakistan with east and west
wings flanking India. East Pakistan gained independence
in 1971 and became Bangladesh. West Pakistan then became Pakistan, which now includes four
provinces and the Pakistani-controlled area of the disputed Jammu–Kashmir region along its
northeastern border. Pakistan‘s provinces largely follow the country‘s geographic and ethnic
patterns. Comprising the mountainous western and northern parts of the country, the Balochistan
and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa provinces are the historical homelands of ethnic Baluchis and
Pashtuns, respectively. The provinces of Punjab and Sindh, on the other hand, occupy primarily
river plains.3
1
Central Intelligence Agency, ―Pakistan,‖ in The World Factbook, 6 April 2011,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/pk.html
2
Ali Aldosari, ―Flora and Fauna of Afghanistan and Pakistan,‖ in Middle East, Western Asia, and Northern Africa
(New York: Marshall Cavendish, 2007), 308–311.
3
Anatol Lieven, Pakistan: A Hard Country (New York: Public Affairs, 2011).
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Geographic Regions
Northern Mountains
The northern part of Pakistan, including virtually all the
areas of Jammu and Kashmir controlled by Pakistan,
consists of mountainous terrain interspersed with river
valleys. The highest mountains lie along the northern
border, including the Karakoram Range to the northwest
and the Hindu Kush to the northeast. Prominent peaks
include Tirich Mir at 7,708 m (25,282 ft), the highest
peak in the Hindu Kush; K2 at 8,611 m (28,244 ft), the
highest Karakoram peak and the world‘s second-highest mountain; and Nanga Parbat at 8,126 m
(26,653 ft), the only peak over 8,000 m (26,240 ft) in the Western Himalayas.4, 5
In the southern part of this region, the mountains decrease in height. Most of the river valleys are
in this area, including the tourist destinations of Swat Valley and the Kaghan Valley. The rivers
and streams that run through these valleys all ultimately feed into the Indus River farther
downstream.6
In October 2005, a violent earthquake of magnitude 7.6 struck the Kaghan Valley. Over 75,000
people were killed in one of the world‘s deadliest earthquakes. Some Kaghan Valley towns and
cities, such as Balakot, were so completely destroyed that officials have decided that the towns
will not be rebuilt at their old sites.7, 8
Submontane Plateaus
Between the northern and western mountains, surrounded by low hills, are a series of plateaus.
The largest of these is the Potwar Plateau, which is separated from the Indus River Plain by the
narrow Salt Range that runs east–west, north of the Jhelum River. The Potwar Plateau receives
more rainfall in the northwest regions than the arid south, but the soil is generally not suited for
cultivation.9 In the northeastern part of the Potwar Plateau are the cities of Rawalpindi and
Islamabad, Pakistan‘s capital. The plateau region continues west and north from the Potwar
Plateau to areas on the western side of the Indus River. These plateaus include the Vale of
Peshawar, known as the gateway to the famed Khyber Pass, and regions to its south in the
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province.10
4
Yasmeen Niaz Mohiuddin, Pakistan: A Global Studies Handbook (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2007), 6–10.
5
Maurice Isserman and Stewart Angas Weaver, Fallen Giants: A History of Himalayan Mountaineering from the
Age of Empire to the Age of Extremes (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008), 500 n37.
6
A. Z. Hilali, US–Pakistan Relationship: Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2005), 207.
7
BBC News, ―In Depth: South Asia Quake,‖ 11 May 2007,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/south_asia/2005/south_asia_quake/default.stm
8
9
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, ―Pakistan: The Submontane Plateau,‖ 2010,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/438805/Pakistan
10
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, ―Pakistan: The Submontane Plateau,‖ 2010,
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Indus River Plain
Most of the population of Punjab and Sindh provinces
lives in the Indus River Plain, which is the agricultural
heart of Pakistan. The northern portion of the Plain, often
referred to as the Punjab Plain, is marked by the
confluence of four large tributaries of the Indus River:
the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, and Sutlej rivers. The regions
between the rivers are known as doabs. Three of the
doabs (Rechna, Chaj, and Bari) are some of the most
productive agricultural lands in Pakistan, because of the
extensive irrigation systems that have been developed there. Several of Pakistan‘s largest cities,
such as Lahore, Faisalabad, Gujranwala, and Multan, are also in the three doabs. The
westernmost doab, the Sindh Sagar, lies between the Indus and Jhelum rivers and is mostly
desert.11
The southern Indus River Plain, or Sindh Plain, begins just south of where the Indus River is
joined by the Panjnad River. The Plain in this region narrows between mountains to the west and
deserts to the east. The Indus River in the southern portion is much wider, carries more silt, and
is more prone to flooding. The river‘s delta region covers a wide portion of the southern coast
because of several channel changes over time.12, 13
Western Mountains
South and west of the northern mountains lay numerous lower ranges that border Afghanistan to
the west and the Indus River Plain to the east. The Khyber Pass, used for centuries by traders and
invaders as a passage into the Indus River Plain and northern India beyond, is situated in a
northeastern spur of this range.14
Balochistan Plateau
Much of Balochistan Province lies within the Balochistan
Plateau. This region is extremely arid, particularly in the
northwestern areas. The Plateau contains numerous
parallel mountain ridges that run southwest–northeast in
the south and north–south in the east. The Bolan Pass in
the Central Brahui Range provides the main access to
Quetta, the area‘s only large city and the capital of
Balochistan. North of Quetta lays the Khojak Pass, the
only official entry point into Afghanistan along its long border with Balochistan.
11
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, ―Pakistan: The Indus River Plain,‖ 2011,
12
International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, ―The Lower Indus River: Balancing
Development and Maintenance of Wetland Ecosystems and Dependent Livelihoods,‖ 2003,
http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/indus.pdf
13
14
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, ―Khyber Pass,‖ 2011,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/317182/Khyber-Pass
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The Kharan Basin in the western part of the Balochistan Plateau is primarily desert and
extremely inhospitable. The few rivers that exist are short-lived and do not drain outside the
Basin. It is in this region that Pakistan has carried out its underground nuclear tests.15, 16
Deserts
Much of southern Pakistan is arid, receiving between 10–
25 cm (4–10 in) of rain each year. Only the presence of
the Indus River and the numerous canals branching from
it has allowed substantial agriculture to take place within
the lower Punjab and Sindh Plains.17, 18
Some dry areas have infertile soils, however, and cannot

be irrigated. One such area is the Thar Desert, which
occupies the western side of Sindh Province and the
southeastern portion of Punjab Province.19 It also extends into adjacent portions of India. The
portion within Punjab Province is known locally as the Cholistan Desert.
Farther north, in the Sind Sagar Doab between the Indus and Jhelum rivers, lays the Thal Desert.
Hard work has reclaimed some of the Thal Desert through irrigation, but the remainder supports
only grazing lands.20 To the west, much of the northwestern portion of the Balochistan Plateau is
also considered desert land and is one of the most sparsely populated areas in Pakistan.21
Makran Coast
Pakistan‘s portion of the Makran Coast extends from the Iranian border in the west to near
Karachi in the east. This region lies beyond the monsoon areas and receives little rainfall. A
handful of fishing villages with natural ports dot the coastline; otherwise, the region is mostly
uninhabited. One of these port villages, Ormara, hosts the Jinnah Naval Base, which opened in
June 2000.22 This base serves not only as a naval port but as the testing grounds for Pakistan‘s
missile delivery systems for conventional and nuclear weapons, including the Shaheen series
missiles.23, 24 Farther west, the government opened a new deepwater port in the village of
15
Federation of American Scientists, ―Wazir Khan Khosa: Kharan Desert,‖ 6 July 2000,
http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/pakistan/facility/kharan.htm
16
17
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, ―Thar Desert,‖ 2011,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/590028/Thar-Desert
18
World Water Assessment Programme, The United Nations World Water Development Report 3: Water in a
Changing World (Paris: UNESCO, 2009), 31.
19
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, ―Thar Desert,‖ 2011,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/590028/Thar-Desert
20
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, ―Pakistan: The Desert Areas,‖ 2011,
21
Yasmeen Niaz Mohiuddin, Pakistan: A Global Studies Handbook (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2007), 13.
22
R. S. N. Singh, The Military Factor in Pakistan (New Delhi: Lancer, 2008), 387.
23
Michael Kort, Weapons of Mass Destruction (New York: Facts on File, 2010), 104–105.
24
Vijay Sakhuja, ―Pakistan‘s Naval Strategy: Past and Future,‖ Strategic Analysis 26, no. 4 (2002): 493–507.
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Gwadar in 2008.25 A paved two-lane road now runs from Karachi to Gwadar, significantly
reducing the isolation of the coastal region.26
Indus River Delta and Sindh Coast

From the southeastern outskirts of Karachi to the coastal border with India is a low-lying coastal
region comprising mud flats, mangrove swamps, and creeks that meander through the Indus
River Delta and adjoining areas.27 Unlike the Makran Coast, which rises relatively abruptly from
the Arabian Sea, the continental shelf along Sindh Province is broad with a gentle slope.
Climate
All of Pakistan lies within the North Temperate Zone, but
meteorological and topographical variations provide a
diversity of climate types. Much of the country is arid or
semiarid. A relatively small region in the north, just south
of the Himalaya foothills, exceeds 50 cm (20 in) in
average annual precipitation—usually considered the
minimum for dry farming.28 From this area southward,
rainfall drops off significantly, and only regions in the
western mountains and the far southwestern corner of the
country receive an average annual precipitation of 25 cm (10 inches) or more.29
Winter is short, running from December through February. Spring typically lasts from March
through May. This is followed by the southwest monsoon season from June through September,
bringing much-needed rain to the country. Finally, October through November is the equivalent
of fall, and the monsoon retreats.30, 31
Except for the high mountain areas, much of Pakistan is quite warm from late spring through
early fall. The monsoon season brings increased cloud cover even if no rain falls, so
temperatures are moderated somewhat. But the higher humidity during this period still leads to
uncomfortable weather conditions.32
To the north, in the Indus River Plain, average temperatures are lower than in southern Pakistan,
although daily high temperatures may still average over 40˚C (104˚F) during the hottest summer
25
Saleem Shahid, ―Gwadar Port Becomes Fully Functional,‖ Dawn, 22 December 2008,
http://archives.dawn.com/2008/12/22/top2.htm
26
Murtaza Baig, ―Balochistan Mega Projects: Musharraf Unveils Development Plans,‖ Pakistan Times, 17
December 2004, http://pakistantimes.net/2004/12/17/top.htm
27
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, ―Fishery and Aquaculture Country Profile—Pakistan,‖
01 February 2009, http://www.fao.org/fishery/countrysector/FI-CP_PK/en
28
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, ―Pakistan: Climate,‖ 2007
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/438805/Pakistan/
29
Pakistan Information, ―Mean Annual Rainfall,‖ n.d., http://www.pakistaninformation.com/pakrainfallmap.html
30
BBC Weather, ―Country Guide: Pakistan,‖ n.d.,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/weather/hi/country_guides/newsid_9384000/9384207.stm
31
Peter Blood, ed. ―Geoegraphy: Climate,‖ in Pakistan: A Country Study (Washington, DC: Government Printing
Office, Library of Congress, 1994), http://countrystudies.us/pakistan/25.htm
32
BBC Weather, ―Country Guide: Pakistan,‖ n.d.,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/weather/hi/country_guides/newsid_9384000/9384207.stm
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months. Only in the high regions of northern Pakistan are temperatures moderate from April
through October.
Bodies of Water
Arabian Sea
This northwestern arm of the Indian Ocean covers
3,862,000 sq km (1,506,180 sq mi). It represents the
primary sea route between Europe and the Indian
subcontinent. Asia and Africa border its northern,
eastern, and western sides. It is connected to the Persian
Gulf via the Gulf of Oman.33 Pakistan enjoys a long
coastline of 1,046 km (649 mi) along the sea.34 The
strategic location of the Arabian Sea has greatly contributed to Pakistan‘s economic and military
development, international trade, and the wars with India.35
Indus River
Except for some areas along the Makran Coast and in the Balochistan Plateau, all rivers and
streams in Pakistan eventually flow into the Indus. One of the world‘s longest rivers at 2,900 km
(1,800 mi), it originates in the high altitudes of the Tibetan Plateau in China. It flows northwest
through the Indian- and Pakistani-controlled portions of Jammu and Kashmir, before turning
southward and entering the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province.
As the Indus descends from the high northern mountains, it reaches the reservoir at Tarbela Dam,
the largest earth-filled dam in the world. The generators at Tarbela produce the majority of
Pakistan‘s hydroelectricity. After a few more turns, the Indus finishes its route at the Arabian
Sea.36
The upper Indus River is too tumultuous for navigation. The lower Indus is navigable by small
boats, but because the country‘s railroad system is more efficient, the river is seldom used. The
Indus River‘s primary value is for Indus Valley crop irrigation and hydroelectric power
generation.37, 38
33
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, ―Arabian Sea,‖ 2011
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/31653/Arabian-Sea
34
Central Intelligence Agency, ―Pakistan,‖ in The World Factbook, 6 April 2011,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/countrytemplate_pk.html
35
Bharat Verma, G. M. Hiranandani, and B. K. Pandey, Indian Armed Forces (New Delhi: Lancer Publishers &
Distributors, 2008), 84.
36
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, ―Indus River,‖ 2011
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/286872/Indus-River
37
Zubair Tahir and Zaigham Habib, ―Land and Water Productivity: Trends Across Punjab Canal Commands,‖
(working paper, International Water Management Institute, Pakistan Country Series Number 3, Colombo, 2001):
31–32.
38
Sally Morgan, Natural Resources (Mankato, MN: Smart Apple Media, 2009), 35.
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Jhelum River
The Jhelum River is the westernmost of the Punjab rivers
that feed into the Indus. Its headwaters are in the Indian
portion of Jammu and Kashmir, and it is the principal
river flowing through the Vale of Kashmir. It flows
through Muzaffarabad, the largest city of Pakistani Azad
Kashmir, before turning south to descend toward the
Punjab Plain. For much of this stretch it forms the border
between Azad Kashmir and the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
Province. North of Jhelum, the largest city along the
river, the river flows into the Mangla Dam reservoir, the second largest dam in Pakistan.39, 40
Several link canals below Mangla Dam feed Jhelum water into the Chenab River. These canals
are part of a massive water redistribution system that transfers water from the Indus, Jhelum, and
Chenab Rivers into the eastern Punjab rivers.
One ongoing dispute between India and Pakistan is the Wullar Barrage, a controversial water
project that India began constructing in 1984 on the Indian portion of the Jhelum. India
suspended work in 1987 when Pakistan claimed that the project violated terms of the Indus
Waters Treaty. Since then, ongoing talks have established a dialog, but have not drawn any
solutions.41, 42
Chenab River
The Chenab River originates in the Himalayas of India. It flows through the Indian portion of
Jammu and Kashmir, entering Pakistan near the city of Sialkot. From there it flows southwest
through the Punjab Plains as it links with the Jhelum and Ravi Rivers. In the southern Punjab
Plain the river is joined by the Sutlej, at which point the combined river becomes known as the
Panjnad.
The Chenab has been at the center of an ongoing water-development dispute between India and
Pakistan. But in this case, a neutral expert (called in by the World Bank to mediate) seemingly
settled the status of the project (Baglihar Dam in the Indian portion of Jammu and Kashmir) in
February 2007.43
39
U.S. Water News Online, ―Water Levels in Pakistani Dams Drop to Low Levels,‖ March 2002,
http://www.uswaternews.com/archives/arcglobal/2watlev3.html
40
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, ―Jhelum River,‖ 2011
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/303711/Jhelum-River
41
Gitika Commuri, Indian Identity Narratives and the Politics of Security (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE
Publications, 2010), 212–213.
42
Olli Varis, Cecilia Tortajada, and Asit K. Biswas, eds., Management of Transboundary Rivers and Lakes (Berlin:
Springer, 2008), 202.
43
Nathalie Tocci, ed., Who is a Normative Foreign Policy Actor? The European Union and Its Global Partners
(Brussels: Centre for European Policy Studies, 2008), 223–225.
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Ravi River
The Ravi River originates in the Himalayas of India. It
follows the Indian–Pakistani border for 80 km (50 mi)
before running through the northwestern part of Lahore,
Pakistan‘s second most-populous city. It flows into the
Chenab River north of Multan in central Punjab Province.
The Ravi is the smallest of the Punjab rivers and is the

most polluted. Many industrial and municipal polluters
discharge human waste and heavy metals into this and all
other Pakistani rivers.44
Sutlej River
The Sutlej River, longest and easternmost of the five Punjab rivers, enters Pakistan from Punjab
State in India. The river begins its flow from a lake in southwest Tibet. Near the Pakistani border
with India, the Sutlej flows into the vast reservoir behind Bhakra Dam, one of the highest
concrete gravity dams in the world.45
As it nears the Pakistani border, the Sutlej receives the waters of the Beas River. The Sutlej
subsequently flows along the Pakistani–Indian border for 105 km (65 mi). Several link canals
from more eastern Punjab rivers help restore the Sutlej‘s flow before its final stretch through the
central Punjab Plain. At its confluence with the Chenab River, the combined rivers become the
Panjnad River before flowing into the Indus.46
Kabul River
The most significant Indus River tributary that flows in from the river‘s west bank is the Kabul
River, which rises west of the Afghani capital of Kabul and flows into Pakistan through a narrow
river valley north of the Khyber Pass. Near Peshawar, the Warsak Dam on the Kabul was the
first large dam project built by Pakistan after partition. The dam serves as the main source of
water for the city of Peshawar and generates electricity for the region. In 2008, the Taliban
threatened to destroy the dam in retaliation for attacks against the terrorist organization by local
residents.47
44
Nagesh Kumar and Sachin Chaturvedi, Environmental Requirements and Market Access: Reflections from South
Asia (New Delhi: Academic Foundation, 2007), 172.
45
Tai Yong Tan and Gyanesh Kudaisya, The Aftermath of Partition in South Asia (New York: Routledge, 2000),
135–137,
46
Jack Kalpakian, Identity, Conflict and Cooperation in International River Systems (Burlington, VT: Ashgate,
2004), 152.
47
Jane Perlez and Pir Zubair Shah, ―Confronting the Taliban, Pakistan Finds Itself at War,‖ New York Times, 2
October 2008, http://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/03/world/asia/03pstan.html?pagewanted=1
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Major Cities
With an estimated population of 184.8 million people in 2010, Pakistan is one of the most
heavily populated countries in Asia.48 According to the most recent Pakistani census, slightly
less than one third of the Pakistani people live in urban areas. This low percentage is nonetheless
higher than that of either India or Afghanistan, Pakistan‘s neighbors.
City Name Province Population 2009 est.49

Karachi Sindh 13,125,000
Lahore Punjab 7,132,000
Faisalabad Punjab 2,849,000
Rawalpindi Punjab 2,026,000
Multan Punjab 1,659,000
Gujranwala Punjab 1,652,000
Hyderabad Sindh 1,590,000
Peshawar Khyber Pakhtunkhwa 1,422,000
Islamabad Federal Capital Area 832,000
Quetta Balochistan 841,000
Karachi
The provincial capital of the Sindh Province, Karachi is
Pakistan‘s most populous city and primary seaport.
Following partition, it served as Pakistan‘s capital for
over a decade until the government moved to Rawalpindi
and then to Islamabad. For much of Pakistan‘s history,
Karachi has been Pakistan‘s only commercial port, and
that role has cemented the city‘s preeminence within the
country.50
During the post-independence years when Karachi was Pakistan‘s capital, booming construction
and infrastructure growth brought waves of Pashtuns, Punjabis, and Kashmiris into the city as
workers. Afghani refugees and illegal immigrants from Bangladesh, India, and Sri Lanka later
boosted the city‘s population and its ethnic diversity.51
Violence between the city‘s two largest ethnic groups—Pashtuns and Muhajirs—has plagued
Karachi for several decades. The city has also seen sectarian violence in the last decade between
Sunni and Shi‘a Muslim groups.52
48
World Urbanization Prospects, ―The 2009 Revision Population Database,‖ 2011,
http://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/unup/index.asp?panel=3
49
Population Division, UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, ―World Population Prospects: The 2006
Revision, and World Urbanization Prospects: The 2007 Revision,‖ 2008, http://esa.un.org/unup/p2k0data.asp
50
A. Z. Hilali, ―The Challenges to Pakistan‘s Domestic Security,‖ Journal of Third World Studies (Spring 2002),
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3821/is_200204/ai_n9059490/
51
Shahid Javed Burki, ―Karachi: A Unique Mega City,‖ Dawn, 4 October 2004,
http://www.pakistanlink.com/Letters/2004/oct04/15/02.html
52
BBC News, ―Violence at Karachi Shia Funerals,‖ 1 June 2004, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3765047.stm
15 | © D L I F L C
Karachi‘s population boom has tremendously strained the city‘s ability to address the needs of its
burgeoning population. The city‘s location in a mostly desert-like region with swamplands to the
southeast has made water particularly difficult to supply. Most of its water is piped in from the
Indus River, but the demand is greater. During drought periods, when some of Karachi‘s
secondary sources temporarily dry up, water-supply conditions can become critical in some
sections of the city.53
Lahore
Lahore, Pakistan‘s second-largest city, is near the Indian
border in northern Punjab. Unlike Karachi, Lahore has
been a major city of the Indian subcontinent for
centuries. For fourteen years (1584–1598 C.E.) during
the reign of Akbar the Great, Lahore served as capital of
the Mughal Empire. The modern city retains many
renowned architectural remnants of the Mughal era.
Foremost among these are the Badshahi Mosque, the
world‘s largest ―historical‖ mosque, and the Lahore Fort. The city also displays numerous
examples of extensive projects built during the British colonial period.54
Modern Lahore is capital of Punjab Province, the most populous of Pakistan‘s provinces. The
traditional region of Punjab was divided between India and Pakistan during the partition of 1947.
Lahore, the center of Punjabi culture and only 24 km (15 mi) from the new Indian–Pakistani
border, was hit particularly hard by the violent disruptions of the pre-independence period. The
city‘s Hindus and Sikhs, who made up approximately one-third of Lahore‘s population prior to
independence, migrated to the Indian side as Muslims from Amritsar and other northern Indian
cities came to Pakistani Punjab. The ensuing violence left nearly 6,000 homes damaged in
Lahore.55
Despite the terrible tensions and disruptions of the independence period, Lahore has avoided
many of the ethnic conflicts that still embroil Karachi. Partly this was because many of the
Lahore Muhajirs spoke the same language (Punjabi) as the existing Lahore population and in
many cases had established kinship networks in the city. That was not the case in Karachi.56
Today, Lahore stands as the cultural capital of Pakistan and one of its economic and financial
centers. Lahore is home to the country‘s most prestigious business and arts colleges, as well as
the historic University of the Punjab. The economy is typically diversified for a city of its size,
53
Noman Ahmed and Muhammad Suhail, ―Alternate Water-Supply Arrangements in Peri-Urban Localities: Awami
(People‘s) Tanks in Orangi Township, Karachi,‖ Environment and Urbanization 15, no. 23 (2003),
http://eau.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/15/2/33.pdf
54
Catherine Ella Blanshard Asher, The New Cambridge History of India: Part 1, vol. 4: Architecture of Mughal
India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 257–258.
55
Ritu Menon and Kamla Bhasin, Borders & Boundaries: Women in India’s Partition (New Brunswick, NJ:
Rutgers University Press, 1998).
56
Ian Talbot, ―A Tale of Two Cities: The Aftermath of Partition for Lahore and Amritsar 1947–1957,‖ Modern
Asian Studies 41, no. 1 (2007): 151–185
16 | © D L I F L C
ranging from steel and chemical plants to a growing information technology segment. 57 Cotton
textile plants have traditionally been the largest manufacturing employer.58
Islamabad and Rawalpindi

Pakistan‘s capital, Islamabad, is one of the world‘s
youngest capital cities. It was built in the 1960s to be the
new capital, replacing Karachi. The site chosen was at the
base of the Margalla Hills just north of its larger sister
city Rawalpindi.59 Islamabad is part of a capital territory
that has a population of over 1,000,000, with an estimated
851,000 living within the city proper.
Rawalpindi, Islamabad‘s much older and larger sister, is the Pakistan Army‘s headquarters—in
character with the city‘s history as the largest garrison in British India.60 Pindi, as the city is
referred to by locals, is a crowded, bustling city with factories and industrial plants, including
textile mills, a refinery, an iron foundry, and Pakistan‘s only brewery.61 The many bazaars in
Rawalpindi‘s Old City are famous and attract locals and tourists.62
Faisalabad
Founded in 1890 as Lyallpur, the modern city was renamed in 1977 after the late Saudi King
Faisal. The city came into existence when the British built perennial irrigation canals and
transformed the economy of the Punjab Plain. As agricultural production came to the doabs, the
previously arid scrublands between the Punjab rivers, the British colonial government
established and dispensed land grants to the new agricultural areas. They then administratively
organized them into colonies. These new canal colonies, as they were called, triggered a wave of
migration from northern Punjab to the lower Punjab Plain. Lyallpur was created to be the
headquarters of the Lower Chenab Colony, the largest of the canal colonies. It emerged as an
agricultural market center that soon dwarfed the older market towns along the Chenab River.
Following Pakistani independence in 1947, Lyallpur began to develop a strong industrial base.
The textile industry led the way, and the city quickly became Pakistan‘s textile center. 63 Other
industries include hosiery, sugar mills, pharmaceuticals, and textile and agricultural machinery.
57
Athar Osama, ―Fighting Image Problem: An IT Industry Rises in Pakistan,‖ TechNewsWorld, 17 May 2005,
http://www.technewsworld.com/story/42934.html
58
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, ―Lahore,‖ 2011, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/327951/Lahore
59
Orestes Yakas, Islamabad: The Birth of a Capital (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001).
60
Sudhir Chadda, ―Pakistan Military—Another Inevitable Coup? It May Not be Good for India and America!‖ India
Daily, 5 October 2004, http://www.indiadaily.com/editorial/10-05b-04.asp
61
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, ―Rawalpindi,‖ 2011,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/492326/Rawalpindi
62
Tony Halliday, ―Islamabad, Rawalpindi, and the Murree Hills,‖ in Pakistan, 3rd ed. (London: Insight Guides,
2007).
63
Faheem ul Islam, ―Insight into the Dynamics of Clustering in Traditional Industries in Developing Economies:
The Case of Faisalabad Cotton Textile Cluster in Pakistan‖ (conference paper, 9th Annual Global Conference of
TCI, Lyon, France, October 9–13, 2006).
17 | © D L I F L C
The accumulation of industries and the lack of waste treatment facilities have together created a
major pollution problem for the city.64
Despite Faisalabad‘s emergence as an industrial center, it also continues to serve its initial role as
a market and support center for the surrounding agricultural areas. Agricultural research is one
aspect of this role. In 1961, the University of Agriculture was established in the city, upgrading
the former Punjab Agricultural College and Research Institute. The University has since become
Pakistan‘s largest and top-ranked agricultural school.65, 66
Peshawar
Peshawar is the largest Pakistani city outside of the
Punjab or Sindh Province, and is the capital of Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa Province. It has historically acted as the
gateway to the Khyber Pass and Central Asia beyond. Its
location made it one of the key trading centers along the
Silk Road.67 The current name of the city is ascribed to
the Moghul Emperor Akbar the Great and means ―the
place at the frontier.‖68
Peshawar lies in a valley and is surrounded by agricultural fields in which sugar cane, wheat,
vegetables, maize, sugar beets, and fodder are grown. The local economy is dominated by
services and the construction industry. Industrial and manufacturing operations tend to be
relatively small.69
Since the late 1970s, the city has been enmeshed in the ongoing civil wars and insurgencies in
nearby Afghanistan, and refugees and combatants have streamed into the city. The city has long
had a concentration of Pashtun culture, and the recent influxes of mostly Pashtun Afghanis have
further increased the percentage of Pashtuns living in the city.70
As the city‘s population has rapidly grown, the infrastructure has struggled to keep pace. The
city suffers from a significant housing shortage, and the large number of Afghan refugees has
heavily stressed health facilities. The road system also has not kept up with the increased amount
of traffic.71 Air, water, and noise pollution have become major concerns.72
64
Ishfaq Ahmad, ―City Report of Faisalabad‖ (working paper, Asian Urban Information Center of Kobe, 2006),
http://www.auick.org/database/training/2006-1/CR/WS2006-1CR-Faisalabad.pdf
65
Higher Education Commission Pakistan, ―Rankings List,‖ 2011,
http://www.jocation.com/forum/Pakistani_Universities_ranking_by_HEC_42;
http://www.hec.gov.pk/new/QualityAssurance/Ranking_lists.htm
66
Association of Commonwealth Universities, Commonwealth Universities Yearbook, vol. 2 (London: Association
of Commonwealth Universities, 1999), 1083.
67
Tony Halliday, ―Peshawar,‖ in Pakistan, 3rd ed. (London: Insight Guides, 2007).
68
Lee Boyland, The Rings of Allah (Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse, 2004), 29.
69
Mohammad Asif Khan, ―Livelihood Strategies and Employment Structure in Northwest Pakistan‖ (thesis,
University of Göttingen, 2008), 17.
70
Pashto.org, ―Pashtun,‖ 2007, http://www.pashto.org/content/view/19/63/
71
City Alliances, ―City Development Strategy: Peshawar,‖ 2005,
http://www.citiesalliance.org/cdsdb.nsf/Attachments/Pakistan+profile/$File/PCD+Profile.pdf
18 | © D L I F L C
Multan
As the principal city of the southern Punjab Plain, Multan
serves as a commercial and industrial center for the
region. The city lies near the Chenab River and was the
location for the first of the canal colonies developed
beginning in 1886. The city is one of the hottest locations
in all Pakistan.73
Modern Multan is tied to the surrounding rural regions,

with 80% of the city‘s population earning their income
directly or indirectly through agriculture.74 Cotton and livestock are key elements of this
agricultural economy, as are mangoes, which are an important export. The city is well known for
its blue pottery, camel-skin work, and other cottage industry products.75
Environmental Concerns
In a country where 92% of the land is arid or semiarid, one of the biggest environmental
concerns is water quality.76 One of the world‘s most massive irrigation systems has been built to
increase Pakistan‘s agricultural capacity, but inadequate drainage systems have led to water
logging and increases in soil salinity.77, 78
Industrial water pollution is a major concern as well. The Pakistan Environmental Protection
Agency reports that only 1% of the country‘s wastewater is treated before being discharged into
rivers. In 2006, major epidemics of waterborne illnesses struck many of Pakistan‘s major cities.79
Authorities estimated that 60% of all infant mortalities in Pakistan in 2005 resulted from water
pollution.80 Addressing the water-quality problem has become a national priority.81
72
Daily Times (Pakistan), ―Pollution Reaches Alarming Level Throughout Peshawar,‖ 16 October 2006,
http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2006%5C10%5C16%5Cstory_16-10-2006_pg7_15
73
Anatol Lieven, ―Multan,‖ in Pakistan: A Hard Country (New York: Public Affairs, 2011).
74
Department of Agriculture, City District Government Multan, ―Agriculture,‖ 2009–2010,
http://www.multan.gov.pk/page.php?data=49
75
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, ―Multan,‖ 2011, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/396964/Multan
76
Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency, ―Chapter 1 Water—The Essential Resource,‖ State of Environment
Report 2005 (Draft), (report, Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency, 2005),
http://www.environment.gov.pk/pub-pdf/StateER2005/Part3-Chp%201.pdf
77
Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency, ―Chapter 1 Water—The Essential Resource,‖ State of Environment
Report 2005 (Draft), (report, Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency, 2005),
http://www.environment.gov.pk/pub-pdf/StateER2005/Part3-Chp%201.pdf
78
South Asia Regional Office, The World Bank, ―Sindh—On-Farm Water Management Project: Updated Project
Information Document,‖ (report, World Bank, Project P078997, January 2004), http://www-
wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2003/09/30/000094946_03091204002060/Rend
ered/PDF/multi0page.pdf
79
Geoff Bridges, ―Country Chapter–Pakistan‖ in Asian Water Development Outlook 2007 (Manila: Asian
Development Bank, 2007), http://www.adb.org/Documents/Books/AWDO/2007/cr08.pdf
80
IRIN News, ―Pakistan: At Least Six Killed after Drinking Polluted Water,‖ International News, 12 April 2005,
http://www.irc.nl/page/17834
81
Aamer Ahmed Khan, ―Pakistan ‗Faces Pollution Crisis,‘‖ BBC News, 5 June 2006,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/5048308.stm
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As Pakistan‘s population continues to grow, particularly in urban areas, air pollution has become
a major problem. Dust and smoke particles in the air of Pakistani cities have been measured at
levels twice the world average and five times the average for developed nations. Automobiles are
major contributors to these air-quality problems. The number of vehicles on Pakistani roads has
increased 500% over the last few decades, and many of these cars and trucks use low-quality,
high-emission fuels. The government has reacted by encouraging the use of vehicles fueled by
compressed natural gas, which is less polluting.82
Natural Hazards
Earthquakes
Because of Pakistan‘s position along the plate boundary between Asia and the Indian
subcontinent earthquakes are a persistent hazard, even in areas far from the towering Himalayas.
For example, in Quetta, the largest city in Balochistan, a magnitude 7.8 earthquake destroyed the
city in 1935.83 An even stronger magnitude 8.1 earthquake shook the Makran Coast 10 years
later. The earthquake and subsequent tsunami caused significant damage and loss of life near the
epicenter and in Karachi, 443 km (275 mi) away.84
Floods
Floods occur seasonally along the major rivers of Pakistan,
particularly during the summer monsoon.85 As a result,
protective embankments and spurs have been built to
protect river cities and nearby infrastructure. Almost all
these flood-prevention projects are in the Indus River Plain
in Punjab and Sindh provinces. Flood management policies
have also encouraged appropriate development within
historic flood plains. Still, the swollen Indus River flooded
in 2010, submerging about one-fifth of the country and causing 1,985 deaths, 2,946 injuries, and
damaging 1,744,471 houses.86, 87
82
Aamer Ahmed Khan, ―Pakistan ‗Faces Pollution Crisis,‘‖ BBC News, 5 June 2006,
83
Roger Bilham, ―28 November 1945 Makran Mw 8.1 Earthquake,‖ Earthquakes and Tectonic Plate Motions,
Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences, University of Colorado, 2003,
http://cires.colorado.edu/~bilham/Makran1945/MakranTsunami.html
84
C. G. Pendse, ―The Mekran Earthquake of the 28th November 1945,‖ Scientific Notes 10, no. 125 (7 October
1946): http://cires.colorado.edu/~bilham/Makran1945/Pendse1946.pdf
85
H. Rehman and A. Kamal, ―Indus Basin River System—Flooding and Flood Mitigation,‖ (conference paper, 8th
Annual River Symposium and Environmental Flows Conference, 2005).
86
Mike Vilensky, ―One-Fifth of Pakistan Under Water as the Country Turns Sixty-Three,‖ New York, 14 August
2010, http://nymag.com/daily/intel/2010/08/pakistan.html
87
National Disaster Management Authority, Prime Minister‘s Secretariat, Government of Pakistan, ―Flooding
Report: 14 December 2010,‖ 14 December 2010,
http://www.pakistanfloods.pk/images/stories/flood/situation_report/December/14-12-2010.pdf
20 | © D L I F L C
Drought
Pakistan is particularly vulnerable to drought conditions.
Arid regions such as Balochistan and the desert regions of
the Indus River Plain have always faced limited water
resources. Even in areas fed by the rivers flowing from
the mountains, the large amount of this water devoted to
agriculture can produce serious water supply issues for a
growing population that is increasingly urbanized.
Shrinking water storage capacity in aging dams that
continue to silt up has also reduced Pakistan‘s ability to
augment domestic water supplies during dry years.88
88
Shahid Ahmad et al., ―Drought Mitigation in Pakistan: Current Status and Options for Future Strategies‖ (working
paper, International Water Management Institute, Drought Series, Colombo, 2004).
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Chapter 1: Assessment
1. Pakistan‘s entire southern border is along the Arabian Sea.
True
Pakistan‘s southern border lies entirely along the Arabian Sea, which is the outlet for both
trade and naval forces.
2. The border between Pakistan and Afghanistan is known as the Durand Line.
True
It was drawn by British diplomat Sir Mortimer Durand during colonial times. It divides
contentious tribal areas, but Afghanistan has never recognized the demarcation.
3. Pakistan is highly susceptible to earthquakes.

True
Because of Pakistan‘s position along the plate boundary, between Asia and India,
earthquakes are a persistent hazard, even in areas far from the towering Himalayas.
4. Sindhis are the largest ethnic group in Karachi, the provincial capital of Sindh Province.
False
Sindhis are a minority in Karachi, one of Pakistan‘s most ethnically diverse cities. The city‘s
two largest ethnic groups are Pashtuns and Muhajirs.
5. The Ganges River is the most significant river in Pakistan.

False
The Indus River is the most important river in the country, as most other rivers flow into it.
22 | © D L I F L C
Chapter 2: History
Overview
Pakistan‘s history dates 4,500 years to the beginning of
the Indus Valley civilization, one of the oldest urban
civilizations. When Indo–Aryan tribes migrated to the
Indus Valley‘s present-day Sindh and Punjab provinces,
they brought early forms of the Sanskrit language and a
religious system that evolved into Hinduism. One empire
after another tried to conquer the area, including the
Hellenistic Empire (Alexander the Great) and the
Mauryan Empire. Distinct cultures emerged, such as the
Greco-Buddhist Gandhara, which lasted several
centuries.89 Traders and invaders from the south arrived in Sindh in the eighth century, bringing
Islam. Many Islamic caliphates successively ruled Pakistan until the collapse of the great Mughal
Empire in the 18th century.90 The entire territory of present-day Pakistan, India, and parts of
Afghanistan was then occupied by the British Empire, a period marked by wars and treaties until
1947.91
Concurrent with their departure, the British instituted the partition of India, which resulted in
violence and mass migration of Pakistani Hindus into Hindu India and Muslim Indians into
Muslim Pakistan.92, 93 In 1947, Pakistan flanked India in two parts, East Pakistan and West
Pakistan. After the 1971 war between the two wings and India, however, East Pakistan seceded
and became the nation of Bangladesh.94
Pakistan‘s history has seen continued tumult since then, as the people struggle to establish
democracy. Its brief independence has been marred by numerous coups, rampant corruption,
political unrest, assassinations, and economic troubles. In addition, the antidemocratic Taliban
continue to operate along the porous border with Afghanistan. In 2009, the Pakistani government
launched a major offensive against them in the regions of the Swat Valley and Waziristan.
Tensions between Pakistan and India remain high as militants continue to attack India from
Pakistan.
89
James Wynbrandt, A Brief History of Pakistan (New York: Facts on File, 2008), 1–40.
90
James Wynbrandt, A Brief History of Pakistan (New York: Facts on File, 2008), 41–93.
91
Lawrence James, Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India (New York: Macmillan, 1997).
92
93
Yasmin Khan, The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan (New Haven: Yale University Press,
2007).
94
Richard Sisson and Leo E. Rose, War and Secession: Pakistan, India, and the Creation of Bangladesh (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1991).
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Early History
The Indus Valley Civilizations

The history of today‘s Pakistan connects to ancient world
cultures. The earliest ruins lie in the Kacchi Desert of
eastern Balochistan, known as Mehrgarh, and date to the
eighth century B.C.E.95 Scholars have traced several
thousand years of settlement history there. Before 2500
B.C.E., a number of city-states emerged on the Indus
River Plain. This Indus Valley Civilization (also known
as the Harappan Civilization) had a writing system, a diversified economic system, and
communal structures such as public baths. The most famous ruins of this era are at Mohenjodaro,
near the Indus River in Sindh Province. Stone seals discovered at Mohenjodaro display a
pictographic script, which has yet to be deciphered.96, 97, 98
The end of the Indus Valley Civilizations has been ascribed to the invasion of Aryan tribes from
Central Asia, although archaeological evidence of demolished cities is scant. The ancient Hindu
text, the Rigveda, refers to defeats of non-Aryans at a site linked to Harappa, providing some
support for this theory.99 But numerous theories say that Indus Valley cities declined for reasons
other than invasion.100
Crossroads of Empires
Traders and invaders have long used the mountain passes in Afghanistan and northern Pakistan
to access the Indus River Plain. Many groups came and then quickly vanished. Yet others formed
empires that inevitably fell to a later wave of invaders through the mountain passes. In 330
B.C.E., the armies of Alexander the Great swept through the northern Indus River Plain into the
region known as Gandhara. His armies quickly retreated westward.101 The Mauryan Empire, a
power from the east, absorbed the Indus Valley. The Mauryan era brought increased Buddhist
influence, and the city of Taxila (near modern Islamabad) became a center of Buddhist learning.
A succession of invaders from Central Asia precipitated the decline and eventual retreat of the
Mauryans back to the Ganges region.102
Bactrians, Scythians, Parthians, and Kushans successively came, conquered, and fell. The
Kushans ruled from Peshawar from the mid-first century C.E. to the mid-third century C.E.
During Kushan rule, Buddhist culture reached its zenith in the Indus region. Most of the Kushan
95
Ahmad Hasan Dani, ―History through the Centuries,‖ National Fund for Cultural Heritage (Pakistan), 2004,
http://www.heritage.gov.pk/html_Pages/history1.html
96
Craig Baxter, ―Ch. 1—Historical Setting: Early Civilizations,‖ in Pakistan: A Country Study, ed. Peter R. Blood,
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, April 1994, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-
bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+pk0014)
97
Jonathan Mark Kenoyer, Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization (New York: Oxford University Press,
2006).
98
Asko Parpola, Deciphering the Indus Script (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009).
99
Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century (New
Delhi: Pearson Education, 2008), 187.
100
Romila Thapar, ―The Aryan Question Revisited‖ (lecture transcript, Academic Staff College, Jawaharlal Nehru
University, 11 October 1999), http://members.tripod.com/ascjnu/aryan.html
101
William J. Duiker and Jackson J. Spielvogel, The Essential World History: Volume 1: To 1800, 6th ed. (Boston:
Wadsworth/Cengage Learning, 2011), 95–102.
102
Ahmad H. Dani, The Historic City of Taxila (Paris: UNESCO, 1986).
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Empire eventually fell to the Persian Sassanids in the west and the Guptas in the east.103 During
the fifth century C.E., White Huns (Hepthalites) swept from the north into modern Pakistan and
northern India. (The White Huns left no written records, but it is thought that they were
assimilated into the local population after their defeat by the Turks in the sixth century C.E.104)
At the end of the fifth century C.E., the local Rai Dynasty came to power, and was succeeded by
the short-lived Hindu Brahman dynasty in the mid-seventh century.105
Islamic Empires
The Early Islamic Empires

The first Islamic incursion came from the south. In 712, the Umayyad
Caliphate (also Omayyad) conquered the ancient port of Daibul on the
Arabian Sea and advanced north up the Indus River. The southern Indus
region, primarily Buddhist at the time, was ruled by an unpopular
Brahman governor and thus was easily conquered. Umayyad control
ultimately reached as far north as Multan, in southern Punjab.106 A few
decades later, the Abbasid Caliphate overthrew the Umayyad Caliphate
and took control of the southern Indus territories. Under Umayyad and
early Abbasid rule, Arabs and Sindhis established intellectual contacts.
Islamic mystics, known as Sufi masters, helped spread the Muslim
religion. They remain a significant cultural component of Sindhi
literature and religion to this day.107
As the Abbasid Caliphate declined, the Ghaznavids entered into the Indus region from the
Turkish principality of Ghazni, in modern Afghanistan. Mahmud of Ghazni expanded the empire
as far as Lahore, its administrative and cultural center. By the late 12th century, Muhammad of
Ghor had advanced east through the Ghaznavid Empire; Lahore fell to him in 1187, and it
became the Ghorid capital.108 His successor established the Sultanate of Delhi, which grew
rapidly and eventually controlled all of northern India and the Indus River Plain for several
hundred years.109 During this time, many Punjabis converted to Islam. A brief invasion by
Mongolian armies led by Tamerlane in 1398 hastened the decline of the Sultanate, although it
did regain some of its power during the Lodhi Dynasty in the late 15th century. Nonetheless, the
Sultanate was soon to be replaced by the greatest of the Muslim dynasties, the Mughal
Empire.110
103
Peter B. Golden, Central Asia in World History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 31 – 33.
104
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, ―Hephthalite,‖ 2011,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/262325/Hephthalite
105
Robin Coningham and Mark Manuel, ―The Early Empires of South Asia,‖ in The Great Empires of the Ancient
World, ed. Thomas Harrison (Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2009), 226–249.
106
Stanley Lane-Poole, History of India: Volume III: Medieval India from the Mohammedan Conquest to the Reign
of Akbar the Great (London: Grolier, 1906), 31–33.
107
K. Ayyappa Panicker, Medieval Indian Literature: An Anthology (New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi, 2000), 489–511.
108
109
Karl J. Schmidt, An Atlas and Survey of South Asian History (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, Inc., 1995), 39.
http://books.google.com/books?id=FzmkFXSgxqgC&lpg=PA3&pg=PA3#v=onepage&q=&f=false
110
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The Mughal Period
Babur, an ethnic Mongol and descendant of Tamerlane,
saw his empire (in present-day Uzbekistan) conquered at
the turn of the 16th century. Regrouping, he moved
southwest, first into modern Afghanistan, then into
Punjab, and finally into the Ganges Plain. In 1526,
Babur‘s armies, despite being vastly outnumbered,
defeated the last Lodhi sultan at the Battle of Panipat.
Superior weaponry and tactics were largely responsible
for his victory.111 Babur founded the Mughal Empire.112
He died only a few years later, however, and his son Humayun proved unable to consolidate
control over the newly conquered regions. But under his grandson Akbar, the Mughal Empire
began to flourish.
During Akbar‘s reign, the mansabdari administrative system was introduced. Under this military
and civilian meritocracy, mansabdars earned cash payments and personal fiefs based on their
performance and ability to enlist troops. None of this land was inheritable, however, and thus did
not increase the power of given families.113 The Mughal period is also remembered for its
architectural achievements; the most famous is the Taj Mahal in Agra, India. Within modern
Pakistan, the Lahore Fort, Shalimar Gardens, and Badshahi Mosque in Lahore were built during
the early Mughal Empire. By the late 17th century, the empire overextended its troops and its
money.114 As local rebellions ensued, a small island nation in Europe began to focus attention on
the Indian subcontinent.
111
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, ―Babur: Victories in India,‖ 2011,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/47524/Babur/
112
Craig Baxter, ―Ch. 1—Historical Setting: The Mughal Period,‖ in Pakistan: A Country Study, ed. Peter R. Blood,
bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+pk0016)
113
114
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Colonial Era
The British Enter the Indus River Plain

During the 18th century, the Mughal Empire was
fragmenting into independent principalities, while
England and France competed to expand far-flung coastal
trading posts. Military support for these trading ventures
became crucial as hostile European competition reached
trading enclaves around the world.115 The British fought
three wars against the French on Indian soil to emerge as
the preeminent European power on the subcontinent in the mid-1700s. Within modern Pakistan,
British influence came late. During the first part of the 19th century, both Sindh and Punjab were
independently ruled.116 Neither region had escaped British attention, however. A treaty signed in
1832 recognized Sindhi integrity and banned British transport of armed vessels or military stores
on the Indus River.
In 1839, the British ignored the ban and launched the First British–Afghan War. Armed conflict
between the Sindhi rulers and the British quickly followed. In 1843, the British annexed all of
Sindh after their victory at the Battle of Miani.117 The Upper Sindh region of Khairpur avoided
the conquest by treaty, becoming one of many ―Princely States‖ and retaining some degree of
sovereignty. In Punjab, the kingdom began to unravel after the death of Ranjit Singh, the Sikh
ruler, in 1839.118 The British, watching the chaotic events in Punjab, readied for war. Ultimately,
two Anglo–Sikh wars occurred in the 1840s that eventually left Punjab under British control.119
After the first of these wars, the British ceded Kashmir to Raja Gulab Singh of Jammu for a
concessionary sum of money. Thus began a Hindu dynasty in a mostly Muslim land, sowing the
seeds of a conflict that continues to this day.120
115
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, ―India: History: India and European Expansion: The Anglo-French Struggle,‖
2011, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India
116
117
G. Anderson and Manilal Bhagwandas Subendar, The Last Days of the Company: A Source Book of Indian
History, 1818–1858 (London: G. Bell & Son, 1918), 28–31.
118
J. S. Grewal, The New Cambridge History of India: II.3: The Sikhs of the Punjab, rvsd. ed. (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1998), 119–127.
119
Amarpal S. Sidhu, The First Anglo–Sikh War (Stroud, Gloucestershire, UK: Amberley, 2010).
120
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, ―Dogra Dynasty,‖ 2011,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/167993/Dogra-dynasty
27 | © D L I F L C
Colonial Rule
The Indus River Plain entered the British fold just as the
first wave of rebellion spread though India. During the
India Mutiny of 1857, Indian soldiers staged uprisings in
various cities of northern India. Eventually the British put
down the revolt with the assistance of troops from Punjab.
The end of the mutiny marked the beginning of direct
British rule in India and the end of the reign of the last
Mughal emperor.121 The tribal areas of the Pashtuns and
Baluchis were located on the western frontiers of the
Indian Empire. The British considered these areas vital because the mountains (and passes into
Afghanistan) provided a defensible buffer against Russian advances into Central Asia. 122 The
British ultimately negotiated agreements that transformed much of modern Balochistan into
princely states, allowing the British to control the areas of the southern mountain passes into
Afghanistan.123
In the Pashtun regions to the north, the British waged a Second Afghan War from 1878–1879. A
treaty negotiated by British diplomat H.M. Durand in 1893 defined the boundary (the Durand
Line) between Afghan and British claims. Today, the Afghanistan–Pakistan border divides the
traditional Pashtun homeland between the two countries. The British thereafter loosely ―ruled‖
their side of the tribal areas as the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP), known today as
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province.124, 125 Punjab and Sindh became the granaries of northern India
under the British. Irrigation systems lengthened growing seasons and expanded the amount of
farmland, creating canal colonies in once-semiarid regions of central and southern Punjab and
increasing the agricultural output of Sindh.126
121
Emily Goldman, Power in Uncertain Times: Strategy in the Fog of Peace (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press,
2010), 69–71.
122
Peter Hopkirk, The Great Game: On Secret Service in High Asia (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001).
123
Anatol Lieven, Pakistan: A Hard Country (New York: Public Affairs, 2011), 342–348.
124
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, ―Durand Line,‖ 2011,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/174128/Durand-Line
125
Lawrence James, Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India (New York: Macmillan, 2000), 366–367.
126
Alice Albinia, Empires of the Indus: The Story of a River (New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2010), 47–48.
28 | © D L I F L C
The Beginnings of the Hindu–Muslim Split
The British suspected the Muslim aristocracy‘s involvement in the
Indian Mutiny of 1857.127 While the British-educated Hindu middle
class thrived, the Muslim upper classes (who had ruled India for many
centuries) increasingly found themselves culturally and politically
isolated within the British Raj. As Indian nationalism rose as a popular
cause, many Muslim leaders viewed the nationalist groups—most
notably, the Indian National Congress—as representatives of Hindu
interests.128 At the beginning of the 20th century, the British
implemented administrative and political changes to divide Hindus and
Muslims within India. After the All-India Muslim League was founded
in 1906, the British enacted legislation that allowed Muslims separate
electorates for the Indian Legislative Council.129
In 1916, the Congress and the Muslim League signed the Lucknow Pact,
in which the Congress accepted the separate Muslim electorates, and the Muslim League agreed
to support the Congress‘s drive to expel the British. One of the key architects of this pact was the
lawyer Muhammad Ali Jinnah, a member of both the Muslim League and the Congress.130
During the 1920s, the nonviolent boycotts advocated by Mohandas Gandhi increasingly
dominated the home-rule movement in India. Jinnah, now Muslim League president, opposed
Gandhi‘s Hindu-based approach, which he felt was unconstitutional. The Nehru Report of 1928
urged the Congress party to put aside their Lucknow Pact commitment to Muslim electorates.
Frustrated, Jinnah resigned his Muslim League presidency and moved to England for 5 years to
resume his law practice.131, 132
Independence and Partition

In 1934, Jinnah returned to India to reclaim leadership of the Muslim League, but he was no
longer the ambassador of Hindu–Muslim unity. He had embraced the Two Nations Theory, first
introduced by Muhammad Iqbal in 1930.133 In 1940, Jinnah submitted the Lahore Resolution. It
called for the eastern and northwestern Muslim majority areas in India to ―be grouped to
constitute independent States in which the constituent units should be autonomous and
sovereign.‖134 After the Lahore Resolution, relations between the Congress and the Muslim
League became increasingly strained, and positions hardened. In the 1946 elections following
World War II, the Muslim League gained 90% of the Muslim seats in the Indian Parliament. This
127
Sheila McDonough, ―The Muslims of South Asia (1857–1947),‖ in Muslim Perceptions of Other Religions: A
Historical Survey, ed. Jean Jacques Waardenburg (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 250–252.
128
129
S. Mahmud Ali, Understanding Bangladesh (New York: Columbia University Press, 2010), 2–8.
130
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, ―Lucknow Pact,‖ 2011,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/350663/Lucknow-Pact
131
D. N. Panigrahi, India’s Partition: The Story of Imperialism in Retreat (New York: Routledge, 2004), 46–55.
132
Nikhat Ekbal, Great Muslims of Undivided India (Delhi: Kalpaz Publications, 2009), 72.
133
S. Alexander Haslam, Stephen D. Reicher, and Michael J. Platow, The New Psychology of Leadership: Identity,
Influence, and Power (New York: Psychology Press, 2011), 153.
134
Pervaiz Iqbal Cheema, ―The Muslim League: Decline of a National Party,‖ in Political Parties of South Asia, ed.
Subrata K. Mitra, Mike Enskat, and Clemens Spieß (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2004), 134–135.
29 | © D L I F L C
earned them a place at the negotiating table for whatever agreements the British might entertain
concerning Indian independence.
A final British plan for an independent India proposed a central government controlling
functions such as defense, foreign policy, and currency, while Muslim- and Hindu-majority
provinces otherwise maintained autonomy. The plan was rejected by the Congress. When the
British later rejected Jinnah‘s proposal for equal power sharing in an interim Indian government,
the Muslim League decided to boycott the new government. Shortly after, in August 1946,
Jinnah called for ―Direct Action,‖ triggering violent communal riots in Bengal and Bihar in
eastern India.135 The British hastily fashioned plans to implement the independence of a
partitioned India. They determined to separate both Bengal and Punjab into Hindu and Muslim
areas, and the princely states were to align with the country chosen by their rulers.136, 137 On 14
August 1947, India and Pakistan became independent nations. The partition boundary was
announced 3 days later, triggering one of the largest and most violent mass population
migrations in history.138, 139
The Nation of Pakistan
Post-Independence
Pakistan faced many issues upon independence. Was the country to be
an Islamic nation under shari‘a law, or a secular state with a Muslim
majority? How would a country in two parts separated by 1,600 km
(1,000 mi) of a hostile neighboring country govern itself?140 What
would be the national language when the East spoke Bengali and the
West primarily spoke Punjabi and Sindhi? How could Pakistan
assimilate the new Pakistanis who streamed into the country after
partition? In addition, the status of Balochistan and the North-West
Frontier Province were still unresolved at independence. The Pakistani
military used force to bring some of the Baluchi state of Kalat into
Pakistan.141 In the NWFP, the Pashtun leader Abdul Ghaffar Khan was a Congress member who
fought against partition. Though he urged his followers in the NWFP not to vote in the plebiscite
to join Pakistan, the plebiscite passed despite a large boycott.142
135
Piers Brendon, The Decline and Fall of the British Empire, 1781–1997 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2008),
409–410.
136
Joya Chatterji, The Spoils of Partition: Bengal and India, 1947–1967 (New York: Cambridge University Press,
2010), 19–60.
137
Tai Yong Tan and Gyanesh Kudaisya, The Aftermath of Partition in South Asia (New York: Routledge, 2000),
217–218.
138
Yasmin Khan, The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan (New Haven: Yale University Press,
2007).
139
140
Elliot Tepper, ―Pakistan in Retrospect,‖ International Journal 27, no. 3, India, Pakistan, Bangla Desh (Summer
1972): 357–380.
141
Shaheen Sardar Ali and Javaid Rehman, Indigenous Peoples and Ethnic Minorities of Pakistan: Constitutional
and Legal Perspectives (Richmond, Surrey, England: Curzon, 2001), 61–62.
142
Anas Malik, Political Survival in Pakistan: Beyond Ideology (New York: Routledge, 2011), 139–140.
30 | © D L I F L C
But the foremost territorial issue was Kashmir. When the Hindu maharajah of Kashmir, who
initially did not agree to become part of either country, saw Pashtun tribesmen nearing his capital
of Srinigar, he finally agreed to join with India. All factions in Kashmir continue to debate the
details of that formal agreement and use them to justify their positions. The immediate result was
a war between India and Pakistan only 2 months after independence.143 The two adversaries
eventually agreed to a ceasefire line, but they have yet to arrive at a long-term solution to the
Kashmir issue. Jinnah became Pakistan‘s first Governor General, but ruled for only a year before
dying of tuberculosis. He advocated equal rights for all citizens of Pakistan, regardless of their
religion. Jinnah‘s statements suggest that he had favored secular statehood for Pakistan, but
Pakistan eventually moved in a different direction.144
A Country Divided
During the first 25 years of Pakistan‘s history, many of the issues that
had arisen at independence continued to fester. The national language
chosen was Urdu, a primary language only for the muhajirs (Muslims
who had fled India after Partition), and this choice upset the Bengali
population of East Pakistan. The Kashmir conflict continued and
Pakistan and India again went to war over the region in August 1965.
Ethnic tensions in the Sindhi cities heightened as the muhajirs became
the dominant group in Karachi and Hyderabad. In 1956, Pakistan
completed drafting its constitution and became an Islamic Republic.
Still, there were protests in East Pakistan over the language issue. In
addition, East Pakistan perceived economic favoritism toward the
western part of the country, where the capital Karachi was. These issues
translated into a political power struggle between the Muslim League,
the dominant party of West Pakistan, and the East Pakistan-based United Front Party.145
In 1958, the Pakistani military carried out the first of a string of coups that have characterized
much of Pakistan‘s history. The new leader, Mohammed Ayub Khan, abolished the constitution
and imposed martial law for more than three years until a new constitution with strong
presidential powers took effect in 1962.146 But the 1965 war with India over Kashmir weakened
Khan‘s political base. Many believed that he had capitulated to India in negotiating the ceasefire
agreement. In addition, many East Pakistanis perceived insufficient Bengali representation and
unbalanced distribution of tax revenues between East and West. As the army was forced to quell
uprisings, Khan‘s position became increasingly untenable. In 1969, he declared martial law
again. He handed over power to his Commander-in-Chief, Agha Mohammad Yahya Khan, who
scheduled elections for the following year.147
143
Kuldip Singh Bajwa, Jammu and Kashmir War, 1947–1948 (New Delhi: Har-Anand Publications, 2003).
144
Anas Malik, Political Survival in Pakistan: Beyond Ideology (New York: Routledge, 2011), 38.
145
Aleksandar Pavkovi and Peter Radan, Creating New States: Theory and Practice of Secession (Burlington, VT:
Ashgate, 2007), 105–106.
146
University of California Press, 1990), 17–19.
147
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The Bangladesh Independence War
The December 1970 elections began the final chapter in the continuing
political battle between East and West Pakistan. The Aswami League,
which strongly advocated a six-point program for significant financial
and political autonomy for the two Pakistans, swept all seats in East
Pakistan. The Aswami leader, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, now felt that his
party had the mandate to form a national government. On this point he
was opposed by West Pakistan political leader Zulfikar Ali Bhutto,
whose party controlled the majority of the legislative seats from the
western half. When negotiations reached an impasse, President Khan,
on 1 March 1971, delayed convening the new National Assembly.
Strikes and protests broke out across West Pakistan, causing an open
revolt. By the end of the month, Rahman was under arrest and Pakistani
army forces were flowing into East Pakistan to crush the rebellion.
Pakistan was involved in a civil war.148
The ensuing conflict eventually drew in India, where millions of East Pakistani Hindus had fled
during the civil war.149 In early December 1971, full-scale war broke out between the two
countries. Besides fighting in East Pakistan, the two countries battled in Punjab and Kashmir.
For Pakistan, the war was a disaster for their military. By mid-December 1971, the Pakistani
forces had surrendered to the combined Indian and rebel forces. In the wake of the Pakistani
defeat, East Pakistan became the independent nation of Bangladesh.150
Bhutto and ul-Haq

Bhutto became the new President and Chief Martial Law Administrator of the now contiguous
country, and Yahya Khan resigned only days after the 1971 war. Under Bhutto, Pakistan began
the slow process of rebuilding. The military was purged, with Muhammad Zia ul-Haq becoming
the new Army Chief of Staff. Educational and healthcare reforms were instituted, major
industries and banks were nationalized, and a new constitution was enacted.151 In 1973, Bhutto
resigned the presidency to become prime minister, the primary seat of power under the new
constitution. Elections were scheduled in 1977, and a strong opposition known as the Pakistan
National Alliance (PNA) ran a vigorous campaign against Bhutto‘s Pakistan People‘s Party
(PPP). When the election resulted in an overwhelming victory for the PPP, street protests broke
out. Bhutto ordered the army to quell the demonstrations and had the PNA leadership arrested.152
On 5 July 1977, the military stepped in. They arrested Bhutto, declared martial law, and Zia
became President and Chief Martial Law Administrator. Plans were initially announced to hold
an election within 90 days, but the election was cancelled when it appeared Bhutto might win.
148
Katherine Southwick, ―The Urdu-speakers of Bangladesh: An Unfinished Story of Enforcing Citizenship
Rights,‖ in Statelessness and Citizenship: A Comparative Study of the Benefits of Nationality, ed. Brad K. Blitz and
Maureen Lynch (Northampton, MA: Edward Elger, 2011), 119–120.
149
Allan D. Cooper, The Geography of Genocide (Lanham, MD: University of America Press, 2009), 167–168.
150
151
Anatol Lieven, Pakistan: A Hard Country (New York: Public Affairs, 2011), 72.
152
Brian Cloughley, War, Coups & Terror: Pakistan’s Army in Years of Turmoil (New York: Skyhorse Publishing,
2008), 26–27.
32 | © D L I F L C
Instead, Bhutto was put on trial and convicted for conspiracy to murder a rival politician. Despite
world outcry for clemency, Zia did not back down, and Bhutto was hanged in 1979.153 Zia
pursued a policy of Islamization in which Pakistan increasingly aligned with the rest of the
Muslim world and instituted many Islamic laws and punishments.154 The Zia regime still faced
numerous challenges. Balochistan nationalism was largely quelled by economic development in
the region, but ethnic tensions in the cities of Sindh Province had turned violent. After the Soviet
Union invaded Afghanistan in December 1979, Pakistan‘s border regions in the North-West
Frontier Province became bases for Afghani mujahideen fighting the Soviets.155
Recent History
Return to Democracy
Zia ended martial law in 1985, but before doing so, a constitutional
amendment was passed that enormously affected the Pakistan political
landscape during the 1990s. The Eighth Amendment allowed Pakistan‘s
President, a figurehead position as defined by the 1973 constitution, to
reserve the power to dismiss the Prime Minister and National Assembly
and to call for new elections.156 In August 1988, a plane carrying Zia,
the U.S. Ambassador to Pakistan, and top Pakistani military officials
mysteriously crashed, killing all aboard. An election scheduled for
November went on as planned, and the PPP, led by Bhutto‘s daughter,
Benazir Bhutto, won the most seats. Bhutto became the first Muslim
woman head of state.157 Bhutto‘s term lasted only 20 months before
Pakistan President Gulam Ishaq Khan used the Eighth Amendment to
dismiss her on charges of corruption and to call for a new election.
The election, held 2 months later, swept in the Islamic Democratic
Alliance (IJI) and their leader Nawaz Sharif, a Punjabi industrialist. The IJI and Sharif instituted
reforms that boosted Pakistan‘s economy, although critics argued that the fast pace of reforms
hurt the most vulnerable segments in Pakistani society.158 The Sharif government also passed
legislation expanding shari‘a law.
Pakistan‘s pendular politics continued when Sharif and Khan stepped down in 1993 after a
constitutional confrontation, followed by another election and the return of the PPP and Benazir
Bhutto. Bhutto‘s second tenure as Prime Minister was longer than her first, but economic
decline, continued ethnic unrest in Sindh, and further charges of corruption eventually weakened
153
Zahid Hussain, The Scorpion’s Tail: The Relentless Rise of Islamic Militants in Pakistan—And How It Threatens
America (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2010), 52–53.
154
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, ―Pakistan: History: Zia ul-Haq,‖ 2011,
155
Sumit Ganguly, ―Pakistan: Neither State Nor Nation,‖ in Multination States in Asia: Accommodation or
Resistance (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 89–91.
156
Anas Malik, Political Survival in Pakistan: Beyond Ideology (New York: Routledge, 2011), 39.
157
Stanley A. Wolpert, India and Pakistan: Continued Conflict or Cooperation? (Berkeley: University of California
Press, 2010), 58.
158
Imran Ali, ―Power and Islamic Legitimacy in Pakistan,‖ in Islamic Legitimacy in a Plural Asia, ed. Anthony Reid
and Michael Gilsenan (New York: Routledge, 2007), 131.
33 | © D L I F L C
her political position. Pakistan‘s new President Farooq Leghari dismissed Bhutto in 1996.159 In
the ensuing elections early the next year, Sharif‘s new party, the Pakistan Muslim League
(Nawaz), won an overwhelming majority. Soon after Sharif returned to power, an amendment
was passed to repeal the Eighth Amendment that had been used so often during the preceding
decade.160
Back to Military Control

In 1998, Sarif appointed Pervez Musharraf as Army Chief of Staff. As a
muhajir, Musharraf was an outsider in the primarily Punjabi power
circles and thus seemed less of a threat to Sharif. But Sharif did not
foresee that Musharraf would replace him less than two years later.
Musharraf came to power after Sharif tried to fire and arrest him. This
triggered a military revolt that led to Sharif‘s ouster and Pakistan‘s
return to martial law.161 Sharif saw Musharraf as a threat because the
Pakistani military was unhappy when Sharif backed down from another
military conflict with India over Kashmir in early 1999.162 At that time,
Pakistan had carried out its initial nuclear weapons test. The U.S. and
other nations pressured Sharif to pull Pakistani-backed infiltrators out of
India‘s side of the Line of Control.163, 164 Besides losing military
support, Sharif was increasingly vulnerable because of the country‘s
faltering economy, unhappiness over press restrictions, and legal
maneuvers to stifle political opposition.165
After Musharraf assumed power as Chief Executive, a 1999 ruling by the Pakistani Supreme
Court validated the coup and gave him 3 years of executive and legislative authority starting
from the coup date. He named himself President in 2001, and a referendum in April 2002
extended his presidency for another 5 years.166 National Assembly elections were held later in
the year, giving Musharraf‘s political party a plurality. Following the elections, the Assembly
elected Mir Zafarullah Khan Jamali as Prime Minister, the first Baluchi to hold that position.167
Musharraf continued as President and Army Chief of Staff until 2008.
159
William B. Milam, Bangladesh and Pakistan: Flirting with Failure in South Asia (New York: Columbia
University Press, 2009), 138–139.
160
Veena Kukreja, Contemporary Pakistan: Political Processes, Conflicts, and Crises (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE
Publications, 2003), 240–242.
161
Ahmed Rashid, Descent into Chaos: The U.S. and the Disaster in Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Central Asia (New
York: Penguin Books, 2009), 41–43.
162
Lawrence Freedman, A Choice of Enemies: America Confronts the Middle East (New York: Public Affairs,
2008), 369–370.
163
Devin T. Hagerty, ―The Kargil War: An Optimistic Assessment,‖ in Nuclear Proliferation in South Asia: Crisis
Behaviour and the Bomb, ed. Sumit Ganguly and S. Paul Kapur (New York: Routledge, 2008), 100–116.
164
Neil Joeck, ―The Kargil War and Nuclear Deterrence,‖ in Nuclear Proliferation in South Asia: Crisis Behaviour
and the Bomb, ed. Sumit Ganguly and S. Paul Kapur (New York: Routledge, 2008), 117–143.
165
BBC News, ―Business: The Economy: Pakistan‘s Economic Nightmare,‖ 14 October 1999,
http://newsvote.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/473661.stm
166
Tariq Ali, The Duel: Pakistan on the Flight Path of American Power (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2009), 10–
12.
167
Carina Jahani, Agnes Korn, and Paul Brian Titus, The Baloch and Others: Linguistic, Historical and Socio-
Political Perspectives on Pluralism in Balochistan (Wesbaden: Reichert Verlag, 2008), 265.
34 | © D L I F L C
The Aftermath of 9/11
A turning point in Pakistan‘s role in the world came in the
wake of the 9/11 terrorist attacks in the United States in
2001. Pakistan, which had supported the ruling Taliban in
Afghanistan, reversed policy under pressure from the
United States and other countries, and joined the coalition
to remove the Taliban from power. Pakistan also
committed to eliminate terrorist camps operating on its
soil.168 U.S. military and economic assistance to Pakistan
increased dramatically as the United States sought to
foster an ally in the region.169 The Pakistani military made some headway in their
counterterrorism efforts in the ensuing years. In the summer and fall of 2009, military campaigns
in the Swat and Waziristan valleys led to the capture and the killing of militants.170
In October 2007, Musharraf won the presidential election. He resigned from his army post to be
sworn in as president. By that time, Benazir Bhutto and Nawaz Sharif had returned from exile,
and general elections were slated for January 2008. Shortly after emergency rule was lifted,
however, Bhutto was assassinated and general elections were postponed to February 2008. In
August 2008, Musharraf resigned under pressure of impeachment proceedings against him.171 On
6 September 2008, Asif Ali Zardari, Benazir Bhutto‘s widower and PPP member, was elected
president.
The end of 2008 also saw strained relations with India as bombings in Mumbai were linked to
Pakistani militants. Moreover, in the global economic crisis, Pakistan had to borrow billions of
dollars from the International Monetary Fund to balance its payments.
168
Donald P. Wright, A Different Kind of War: The United States Army in Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF),
October 2001–September 2005 (Fort Leavenworth, KS: Combat Studies Institute Press, 2010), 39–40.
169
Katie Paul, ―About Those Billions,‖ Newsweek Online, 21 October 2009,
http://www.newsweek.com/2009/10/21/about-those-billions.html
170
Robert A. Pape and James K. Felman, Cutting the Fuse: The Explosion of Global Suicide Terrorism and How to
Stop It (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010), 156.
171
Jonathan R. White, Terrorism & Homeland Security, 7th ed. (Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning, 2011), 406.
35 | © D L I F L C
Recent Events
Zardari has faced persistent questions regarding his
popularity, and some government officials question his
legitimacy. In November 2009, he transferred authority
over the country‘s nuclear weapons program to his Prime
Minister, Syed Yousuf Raza Gilani. Zardari‘s decision
came days after the expiration of an amnesty protecting
him and other government officials from graft charges.172
In fact, public dissatisfaction with Zardari, Gilani, and

opposition leader Sharif continues to escalate. Some prominent critics, including Shaheen Sehbai
and Shafqat Mahmood, hope that Army Chief of Staff Ashfaq Parvez Kayani will at least forcibly
remove the leadership and replace them with a caretaker civilian government. Others wish for
the general to take control of the government.
On 2 May 2011, members of the United States Naval Special Warfare Development Group, more
commonly known as SEAL Team 6 or DEVGRU, conducted a major operation inside Pakistan,
code-named Operation Neptune Spear. In the suburban town of Abbottabad, the elite team raided
the compound where Osama bin Laden was believed to have been living for the past 6 years.
They found bin Laden and killed him.173
It is highly expected that the discovery of bin Laden living so openly and close to the capital will
further strain relations between the United States and Pakistan. It again raises the question as to
how committed the Pakistani government—and the military and intelligence service in
particular—is to fighting al-Qaeda.174 In fact, it was revealed in early 2011 that the U.S.
government has long considered the Inter-Services Intelligence Directive (ISI), the main
Pakistani intelligence agency, to be a terrorist organization.175
172
Seth G. Jones, In the Graveyard of Empires: America’s War in Afghanistan (New York: W.W. Norton & Co.,
2009), 308.
173
Philip Rucker, Scott Wilson, and Anne E. Kornblut, ―Osama bin Laden Buried at Sea after Being Killed by U.S.
Forces in Pakistan,‖ Washington Post Online, 02 May 2011, http://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/osama-bin-
laden-is-killed-by-us-forces-in-pakistan/2011/05/01/AFXMZyVF_story.html
174
Jane’s Intelligence Weekly, ―Osama bin Laden Killed by US in Pakistan Raid,‖ 03 May 2011.
175
Jason Burke, ―Guantánamo Bay Files: Pakistan‘s ISI Spy Service Listed as Terrorist Group,‖ Guardian Online
(UK), 25 April 2011, http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/apr/25/guantanamo-files-isi-inter-services-intelligence
36 | © D L I F L C
1. Pakistan‘s history is one of the world‘s most ancient civilizations.
True
Pakistan‘s 4,500 year history dates back to the beginning of one of the oldest urban
civilizations, the Indus Valley civilization.
2. Zia ended martial law in 1985.

True
Zia ended martial law in 1985, but before doing so, a constitutional amendment was passed
that enormously affected the Pakistan political landscape during the 1990s.
3. Much of what is today Pakistan was under the control of Zoroastrian kings when Islam was
introduced in the eighth century C.E.
False
In 712, the Umayyad Caliphate conquered the ancient port of Daibul on the Arabian Sea and
advanced north up the Indus. The southern Indus region, primarily Buddhist at the time, was
ruled by an unpopular Brahman governor and thus was easily conquered.
4. Overwhelming force was a key factor in the establishment of the Mughal Empire.
False
In 1526, Babur‘s armies, despite being vastly outnumbered, defeated the last Lodhi sultan at
the Battle of Panipat. Superior weaponry and tactics were largely responsible for his victory.
5. Provisions of the agreement ending the Anglo–Sikh Wars of the 1840s were indirectly
responsible for the ongoing sectarian violence in Kashmir.
True
After the first of these wars, the British ceded Kashmir to Raja Gulab Singh of Jammu for a
concessionary sum of money. Thus began a Hindu dynasty in a mostly Muslim land, sowing
the seeds of a conflict that continues to this day.
37 | © D L I F L C
Chapter 3: Economy
Introduction
Since independence, Pakistan‘s economy has alternated
between periods of slow and fast growth. Large-scale
manufacturing has been a major component of the
government‘s growth strategy during this time, with
much of this sector focused on consumer goods such as
textiles, garments, and processed foods.176
Though Pakistan‘s economy was often characterized as

―resilient,‖ that is no longer the case.177, 178, 179 Official
government figures maintain that the economy has
continued to grow despite numerous shocks to its political and economic systems, ranging from
military coups and ethnic violence to economic sanctions and catastrophic natural disasters. But
many independent observers believe that such positive figures are artificially inflated.180
By 2008, political instability, reduced investment, and high global commodity prices had raised
Pakistan‘s deficit, increased inflation, and reduced the value of the currency.181 An International
Monetary Fund (IMF) loan of USD 10.8 billion and a stabilization program averted a default on
foreign debt payments and restored macroeconomic balance.182 The Gross Domestic Product
(GDP) growth rate for the 2008–2009 fiscal year was a mere 2%, however, and expectations for
fiscal year 2010–2011 growth have been reduced to 2.5%. Although this reduction is partly
caused by the devastating floods of 2010, it also represents systemic weaknesses of the Pakistani
economy.183
Despite a generally above-average increase in per capita income and gross national product
(GNP, the value of all final goods and services produced within a given period) over the last
several years, Pakistan is still one of the world‘s poorest nations. In the most recent Human
Development Index published by the United Nations, Pakistan ranked 125th out of 169
countries.184 High illiteracy rates (especially among women), poor health infrastructure, rapid
176
Yasmeen Niaz Mohiuddin, Pakistan: A Global Studies Handbook (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, Inc., 2007),
136.
177
BBC News, ―IMF Praises Pakistan‘s Resilience,‖ 20 August 2002,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/2205896.stm
178
Associated Press of Pakistan, ―Pak Economic Resilience Gets Translated Into High Growth Rate,‖ 18 April 2007,
http://app.com.pk/en_/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=7872
179
Ayub Mehar, ―End of Another Decade of Economic Weakening,‖ Economic Review 42, no. 2 (February 2011),
5–8.
180
Ayub Mehar, ―End of Another Decade of Economic Weakening,‖ Economic Review 42, no. 2 (February 2011),
5–8.
181
Embassy of Pakistan, ―Economy and Trade,‖ n.d., http://www.embassyofpakistan.com/economy_trade.php
182
Reuters, ―Factbox—Pakistan‘s Economy,‖ 23 September 2009,
http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/SP97692.htm
183
Jane‘s Defence, ―Economy, Pakistan,‖ Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment—South Asia, 24 March 2011.
184
United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report 2010 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan,
2010), 151, http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf
38 | © D L I F L C
population growth, and political instability are some factors that have kept Pakistan from
progressing further in the fight against poverty.185
Agriculture
Agriculture continues to be a large segment of Pakistan‘s
economy contributing about 22% of Pakistan‘s GDP and
employing 43% of the country‘s workforce.186, 187, 188
Agricultural products also contribute directly or indirectly
to over 75% of Pakistan‘s exports.189
The agricultural sector contributes to Pakistan‘s

economic growth in terms of the raw materials it
supplies, the market it provides for industrial products,
and as a source of foreign exchange earnings.190 Yet this sector suffers from limited investment
and low productivity. Poor input and infrastructure, insufficient use of resources, inefficient
allocation of water for its irrigation systems, and imbalanced distribution of farmland hinder
agricultural progress.191 Though nearly 70% of the country‘s population relies on agriculture for
its livelihood, a few wealthy landowners own more than half the arable land. These landowners,
who become legislators and politicians, influence policy and pursue their interests over the issues
and challenges of industry and small landowners.192, 193
The primary agricultural regions are in the provinces of Sindh and Punjab in the heavily irrigated
Indus River Plain. Non-irrigated regions are primarily in northernmost Punjab and the Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa Province and constitute about one-fourth of cultivated land in Pakistan. These
areas rely on summer rain to grow winter-sown crops.194
185
Isobel Coleman, ―Gender Disparities, Economic Growth and Islamization in Pakistan,‖ Council on Foreign
Relations, July 2004,
http://www.cfr.org/publication/7217/gender_disparities_economic_growth_and_islamization_in_pakistan.html
186
Asian Development Bank, ―Asian Development Outlook 2009 Update: Pakistan,‖ 2009,
http://www.adb.org/Documents/Books/ADO/2009/update/PAK.pdf
187
Central Intelligence Agency, ―Pakistan: Economy,‖ in The World Factbook, 28 April 2011,
188
Asian Development Bank, ―Pakistan: Economic Data,‖ 2011, 1,
http://www.adb.org/Documents/Books/Key_Indicators/2010/pdf/PAK.pdf
189
125.
190
Foreign Agricultural Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, ―Pakistan Agriculture Economy and Policy
Report,‖ February 2009,
http://www.fas.usda.gov/country/Pakistan/Pakistan%20Agriculture%20and%20Policy%20Report.pdf
191
192
193
The World Bank, ―Pakistan: Priorities for Agriculture and Rural Development,‖
http://go.worldbank.org/KQ3CN5O0J0
194
127.
39 | © D L I F L C
Cotton is the most important cash crop because it is the raw material for Pakistan‘s vital textile
and garment industries. Pakistan is the fourth-largest consumer and producer of cotton in the
world.195 Wheat is the biggest grain crop and major food staple.196 Acreage has also been
increasingly devoted to fruit, particularly citrus, mangoes, and apples.197
Industry
Pakistan‘s industrial sector, including manufacturing,
mining, construction, and electricity and gas, generates
about 25% of GDP. Industry employed 20% of the work
force and had an estimated 3.4% growth rate in 2008.198
Manufacturing is the largest portion of this sector, and it
has historically experienced higher growth than the
economy as a whole; however, this has not been the case
since 2009.199 Most workers in this sector are involved in
small-scale manufacturing enterprises that typically pay
less and have working conditions inferior to those in larger operations.200 These small-scale
enterprises produce items such as carpets, knives, leather and sporting goods, garments, and
furniture.201
Large-scale manufacturing has been a major component of the government‘s growth strategy,
focusing on a few consumer goods such as textiles, garments, processed foods, paper, and
tobacco.202, 203 In overall manufacturing, the percentages of intermediate and capital goods, such
as fertilizers, cement, chemicals, steel, and automobiles, have been increasing.204
Projections for the 2010–2011 fiscal year anticipate a significant decline in industrial output
largely because the codependent agricultural sector has yet to recover from the devastation of
massive flooding in 2010.205
195
196
Pakissan.com, ―Wheat,‖ 2010, http://www.pakissan.com/english/allabout/crop/wheat/index.shtml
197
Ministry of Food, Agriculture & Livestock, Government of Pakistan, ―Area Under Fruit—Pakistan,‖ May 2006,
http://www.pakistan.gov.pk/divisions/food-division/media/fv_05-06_tbl1.pdf
198
199
http://www.adb.org/documents/books/ado/2011/ado2011.pdf
200
135.
201
135.
202
136.
203
Encyclopædia Britannica Online, ―Pakistan: The Economy: Industry,‖ 2011,
204
205
40 | © D L I F L C
Services
The service sector is the largest component (55%) of
GDP and employs about 37% of the working
population.206 Service accounted for twice as much GDP
growth as agriculture in 2010, while industry rebounded
from a negative growth rate in 2009 to lead GDP growth
in 2010.207, 208 Export shares of the service sector were
third after textiles and other export commodities with
USD 24 billion in 2008.209 Improvements in service
helped narrow the trade deficit because of lower imports,
but the high cost of services in Pakistan contributed to core inflation.210, 211, 212
Transportation
Pakistan‘s transportation sector contributes over 10% to GDP and employs more than 6% of its
workforce. Despite ongoing privatization initiatives throughout Pakistan‘s major industrial and
service sectors, government agencies and businesses continue to control transportation growth
and development.213 Though Pakistan has a functional transportation infrastructure, it needs
further development. Lack of growth in transportation is slowing the country‘s economic
expansion as a whole.214
Poor reliability and high cost of transportation coupled with long travel times result in lower
export competitiveness, a higher cost of doing business, and reduced participation in global
supply chains that require speedy delivery.215 The government, with foreign assistance, is
devoting significant resources toward improving road and rail infrastructure. A prime example of
206
207
208
http://www.adb.org/documents/books/ado/2011/ado2011.pdf
209
Humair Ishtiaq, ―Rising Services Export,‖ Dawn, 30 November 2009,
http://www.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-content-library/dawn/in-paper-magazine/economic-and-
business/rising-services-export
210
211
Humair Ishtiaq, ―Rising Services Export,‖ Dawn, 30 November 2009,
http://www.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-content-library/dawn/in-paper-magazine/economic-and-
business/rising-services-export
212
Aneel Salman, ―Pakistan: Economic Outlook and Priorities in 2009—What and How‖ (paper, South Asia
Analysis Group, paper no. 3519, 25 November 2009),
http://www.southasiaanalysis.org/%5Cpapers36%5Cpaper3519.html
213
The World Bank, ―Transportation: Pakistan,‖ 2011,
http://www.worldbank.org.pk/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/PAKISTANEXTN/0,,conte
ntMDK:22354893~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:293052,00.html
214
215
41 | © D L I F L C
this endeavor is the Makran coastal road, a 653 km (406 mi) highway connecting Karachi with
the newly developed Gwadar port.216, 217
The country‘s rail system, Pakistan Railways, is one of the largest government-run transportation
enterprises. It handles passenger and freight traffic. With rates for the latter partially subsidizing
the former, it is cheaper to transport freight by road than rail. Thus, quite a high percentage of
freight is carried on the nation‘s motorways.218
Pakistan‘s commercial aviation and port industries have

yet to reach their potential. Domestic and international air
cargo travels primarily through Karachi‘s Jinnah
International Airport, although Islamabad and Lahore
handle significant amounts of cargo. The major airline is
the government-run Pakistan International Airlines (PIA),
which handles about 70% of domestic air passengers and
almost all domestic freight.219 Port traffic has grown
steadily in the last few years. Almost all international
trade is handled by two major ports, Port Karachi and Port Qasim.220 But the government is
pouring money into the development of Port Gwadar, a project bankrolled with significant
Chinese contributions.
216
ntMDK:22354893~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:293052,00.htmlm
217
Jane‘s Defence, ―Infrastructure, Pakistan,‖ Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment—South Asia, 24 March 2011,
218
Associated Press of Pakistan, ―PM Approves Plan to Upgrade Pakistan Railways,‖ 15 June 2007,
http://www.app.com.pk/en_/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=10923
219
The World Bank, ―Pakistan Transport Sector,‖ 2009, http://go.worldbank.org/A0D9IJ5SH0
220
http://www.worldbank.org.pk/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/PAKISTANEXTN/0,,print:
Y~isCURL:Y~contentMDK:22354893~pagePK:141137~piPK:141127~theSitePK:293052,00.html
42 | © D L I F L C
Natural Resources
Energy
Pakistan‘s main natural resources are arable land, water,
hydroelectricity, and energy, including natural gas, oil,
and coal.221 Because Pakistan‘s oil production is modest,
however, it depends on imports to satisfy domestic oil
demand.222 Natural gas accounts for the largest share of
Pakistan‘s energy use, amounting to about 50% of total
energy consumption. Pakistan currently consumes all the
domestic natural gas it produces; without higher production rates, it will need to become a
natural gas importer. Because energy problems are undermining the country‘s growth in all
industries and taking a toll on public finances, Pakistan is making privatization of the gas and oil
sectors a priority. But workers have protested the move and delayed progress toward that goal.223,
224
Pakistan‘s proven coal reserves are mostly located in the Thar Desert of Sindh Province. The
Thar deposits are the largest in the world.225 At about 174 billion tons, they are expected to have
the potential to satisfy the country‘s energy needs for 100 years.226 Since the discovery of these
deposits in 1992, however, coal production in Pakistan has not significantly increased, and the
country imports coal to meet its modest coal demands.227
221
Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs, U.S. Department of State, ―Background Note: Pakistan: Economy,‖
06 October 2010, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3453.htm#econ
222
Jane‘s Defence, ―External Affairs, Pakistan: Imports,‖ Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment—South Asia, 24
March 2011.
223
Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs, U.S. Department of State, ―Background Note: Pakistan: Economy,‖
06 October 2010, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3453.htm#econ
224
Jane‘s Defence, ―Natural Resources, Pakistan: Natural Gas,‖ Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment—South Asia,
24 March 2011.
225
Siddharth Srivastava, ―Pakistan‘s Thar Desert Coal Deposits,‖ Asia Sentinel, 09 May 2011,
http://www.asiasentinel.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=3179&Itemid=243
226
―Thar Coal Reserves Can Provide Energy for 100 Years,‖ PakTribune, 12 November 2009,
http://www.paktribune.com/news/index.shtml?221266
227
Jane‘s Defence, ―Natural Resources, Pakistan: Mineral Deposits,‖ Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment—South
Asia, 24 March 2011.
43 | © D L I F L C
Mineral Resources
In 2009, Pakistan‘s mineral industry accounted for 2.9%
of GDP with a 5.8% growth rate.228 The sector employs
less than 2% of the population in both state and private
companies. Construction and industrial materials such as
limestone, gypsum, aragonite/marble, and clays have
been extensively mined.229 Chromite and iron ore are
currently mined more than other minerals. Balochistan in
particular is the site of several reserves of valuable
minerals, including the recent discovery of possibly the
seventh-largest copper reserves in the world.230 The Pakistani government is also exploring
Balochistan‘s granite and marble deposits.231 Many Baluchis feel that the national government
has excluded Balochistan from its fair share of the proceeds of its valuable mineral and natural
gas deposits. This perception has become an underlying element of the ongoing unrest there.232,
233
Trade
Pakistan has been running a sizable trade deficit for several years. In 2004, the trade imbalance
was roughly USD 2.75 billion.234 With the recent global economic crisis, it soared to USD 20.91
billion in 2008, but declined to USD 17.04 billion in the 2009 fiscal year and to USD 11.6
million in 2010.235, 236 The principal culprit for the continual deficit has been the rising price of
oil imports, which has hit developing countries like Pakistan particularly hard. The trade gap has
been offset primarily by the privatization of national companies, foreign direct investment, and
larger remittances from Pakistanis working abroad.
228
U.S. Geological Survey, ―2009 Minerals Yearbook: Pakistan,‖ 2009,
http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2009/myb3-2009-pk.pdf
229
Geological Survey of Pakistan, ―Metallic & Nonmetallic Mineral Resources of Pakistan,‖ n.d.,
http://gsp.gov.pk/old/resources/metallic.html
230
Khaleeq Kiani, ―$1.25bn Copper, Gold Reserves Discovered,‖ Dawn, 13 April 2006
http://archives.dawn.com/2006/04/14/top8.htm
231
Daily Times (Pakistan), ―Govt to Explore Balochistan‘s Mineral Resources: Wattoo,‖ 18 July 2009,
http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:rtddLqY5ZTsJ:www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp%3Fpag
e%3D2009%255C07%255C18%255Cstory_18-7-
2009_pg5_5+%22Govt+to+explore+Balochistan%27s+mineral+resources%22&cd=1&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us&clie
nt=firefox-a&source=www.google.com
232
Khalid Khokhar, ―Wooing the Angry Baloch,‖ The News International, 21 April 2011,
http://www.thenews.com.pk/TodaysPrintDetail.aspx?ID=42822&Cat=2&dt=4/21/2011
233
Andrew McGregor, ―Pakistan Launches New Offensive in Balochistan,‖ Terrorism Focus 3, no. 25 (27 June
2006) http://www.jamestown.org/single/?no_cache=1&tx_ttnews[tt_news]=819
234
Federal Bureau of Statistics, Government of Pakistan, ―Table 14.1. Value of Foreign Trade,‖ 2007,
http://www.statpak.gov.pk/depts/fbs/statistics/external_trade/14.1.pdf
235
Reuters, ―Pakistan‘s September Trade Deficit Narrows to $897 Mln,‖ 12 October 2009,
http://in.reuters.com/article/domesticNews/idINISL2166020091012
236
Jane‘s Defence, ―Economy: Assessment,‖ Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment—South Asia, 24 March 2011.
44 | © D L I F L C
Exports
Pakistan‘s exports have steadily grown since the midpoint
of the previous decade. For the fiscal year 2010, exports
accounted for nearly USD 23 billion. The most important
markets for Pakistani exports over this period were to the
United States and the European Union.237 But in 2009,
exports dramatically declined, particularly to the United
States and United Arab Emirates, because of decreased
consumer demand and global trade.238 Effective measures
are needed to build a much larger export base that is sufficient to finance oil, machinery, and
other essential imports.239 The World Trade Organization (WTO) statistics for 2009 reveal that
just under one-third of Pakistan‘s commodity exports were textiles and clothing.240 Leather
goods, woolen carpets and rugs, rice, and sporting goods are also significant export goods. Of
Pakistani exports in 2009, 16% went to the United States, followed by the United Arab Emirates,
Afghanistan, the United Kingdom, and China.241
Imports
Pakistan‘s imports increased in 2008, totaling USD 38 billion. In fiscal year 2009, imports were
reduced 10% from the previous year because of lower oil prices and import restrictions.242 But
for fiscal year 2010, imports rose to nearly USD 33 billion.243 Petroleum and petroleum-based
products are Pakistan‘s largest import commodities. Machinery and equipment also make up a
high percentage of Pakistan‘s imports.244 Fertilizers, iron, steel, and vegetable fats and oils are
also significant import items.245 China was Pakistan‘s largest import partner in 2009, with Saudi
Arabia (Pakistan‘s largest supplier of oil), the United Arab Emirates, the United States, and
Kuwait being the top five.246
237
Jane‘s Defence, ―External Affairs, Pakistan: Exports,‖ Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment—South Asia, 24
March 2011.
238
Ministry of Commerce, Pakistan, Government of Pakistan, ―Trade Policy,‖ 2010,
http://www.commerce.gov.pk/tradestat.asp
239
240
World Trade Organization, ―Time Series: Merchandise Trade by Commodity: Pakistan,‖ 2009,
http://stat.wto.org/StatisticalProgram/WSDBViewData.aspx?Language=E
241
242
243
244
Federal Bureau of Statistics, Government of Pakistan, ―Imports by Commodities of Last 5 Years,‖ 2011,
http://www.statpak.gov.pk/fbs/sites/default/files/external_trade/14.3.pdf
245
Federal Bureau of Statistics, Government of Pakistan, ―Imports by Commodities of Last 5 Years,‖ 2011,
http://www.statpak.gov.pk/fbs/sites/default/files/external_trade/14.3.pdf
246
45 | © D L I F L C
Tourism
Pakistan has considerable tourism potential, with many archaeological and historical attractions,
plus the heights of the Himalaya Mountains and the Karakoram Range. The industry has suffered
greatly in recent years largely because of political and civil unrest.
Banking and Finance

The national currency of Pakistan is the rupee
(abbreviated PKR). In 2010, the PKR-to-USD exchange
rate was 85.27:1, an increase of nearly 15 rupees to the
dollar from the previous two years.247 An increase of
imports into Pakistan tends to devalue the rupee and raise
the exchange rate against the dollar.
As a result of consolidation, modernization, and

improved transparency, Pakistan‘s banking system has
undergone significant changes over the last two decades,
moving from a state-dominated sector to a more privately owned system. Today, an
overwhelming majority of the commercial banks in Pakistan are private.248 Yet on a regional
basis, the Pakistani financial sector lags in performance.
The State Bank of Pakistan manages the currency, public debt, and exchange controls. It also
developed a framework for integrating Islamic banking practices into the national financial
system.249 Banks now offer numerous financial instruments and partnerships in lieu of interest-
bearing loans for commercial banking transactions that do not involve foreign currencies. This
arrangement exists, in part, because the Quran forbids the charging of interest.250
With Pakistan’s economy under renewed pressure, partly from the worldwide economic
recession, the State Bank of Pakistan instituted austerity measures in the latter part of 2010.
Those measures had the unintended consequence of driving inflation to a record high, bringing
consumer spending sharply down and further exacerbating the economic crisis.251
247
248
The Heritage Foundation, ―2011 Index of Economic Freedom: Pakistan,‖ 2011,
http://www.heritage.org/Index/country/Pakistan
249
Amr Mohamed El Tiby, Islamic Banking: How to Manage Risk and Improve Profitability (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley,
2011), 3–24.
250
Anthony Tarantino and Deborah Cernauskas, ―Faith-Based Risk Management—Shariah,‖ in Essentials of Risk
Management Finance (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2010), 253–267.
251
Jane‘s Defence, ―Economy, Pakistan: Monetary Policy,‖ Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment—South Asia, 24
March 2011.
46 | © D L I F L C
Investment
Total investment in Pakistan has declined over the last
few years because of the political instability and unsafe
investment climate. The same factors have caused stock
market outflows.252 Other deterrents include corruption,
arbitrary and inconsistent regulations, poor infrastructure,
and a lack of coordination across the national and
regional governments.253, 254
The ongoing privatization of government-owned

businesses and industries has spurred much of the foreign investment in Pakistan. Pakistani law
requires that 90% of these privatization proceeds go toward debt retirement.255 Pakistan was thus
able to reduce its debt service (the percentage of export and remittance revenues that go toward
debt repayment) from 25% in 2000 to 15% in 2010.256 Foreign direct investment has steadily
declined over the past 5 years, however, from a high of USD 5.5 billion in 2007 to USD 1.4
billion in 2010, with projections showing a continuing trend in 2011.257, 258
Standard of Living
In Pakistan, the global financial crisis made a bad living situation worse. Already, 38% of
Pakistani children were moderately underweight due to food and fuel insecurity. By 2008, the
effects of spiking commodity prices had caused half the general population to go without
adequate food supplies.259 Today, one-third of the population, more than 50 million people, live
in poverty.260 Women, children, the disabled, and the elderly suffer the most. Some children are
forced to work and parents are not able to obtain healthcare for their family. Pakistanis are also
forced out of their homes because of insecurity and conflict. In the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
Province, 2 million people have been displaced, the largest emigration since the partition from
252
253
Ansar Abbasi, ―Corruption Retarding Investment in Pakistan: WB,‖ News International, 10 July 2009,
http://thenews.jang.com.pk/TodaysPrintDetail.aspx?ID=23190&Cat=13&dt=7/11/2009
254
255
FDi Magazine, ―Unstoppable Train,‖ 25 April 2007, http://www.fdiintelligence.com/Archive/Unstoppable-train
256
World Bank Group, ―Pakistan: Data Profile,‖ December 2010, http://ddp-
ext.worldbank.org/ext/ddpreports/ViewSharedReport?&CF=1&REPORT_ID=9147&REQUEST_TYPE=VIEWAD
VANCED&HF=N&WSP=N PAK
257
Jane‘s Defence, ―Economy, Pakistan: Main Economic Indicators,‖ Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment—South
Asia, 24 March 2011.
258
―FDI Falls to $1.23bn in July-April,‖ News International, 17 May 2011,
http://www.thenews.com.pk/TodaysPrintDetail.aspx?ID=47334&Cat=3&dt=5/17/2011
259
Sam Taylor, ―Pakistan Reels as Global Financial Crisis Hits Poor Families Hard,‖ UNICEF Newsline, 29 May
2009, http://www.unicef.org/emerg/pakistan_49842.html
260
The World Bank, ―Social Protection in Pakistan,‖ 26 February 2010,
http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/0,,contentMDK:22182478~page
PK:146736~piPK:146830~theSitePK:223547,00.html
47 | © D L I F L C
India in 1947.261 In October 2009, 20 food hubs of the UN World Food Program in Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa Province were temporary closed because of security concerns.262
Before the financial crisis of 2007 and 2008, Pakistan had made strides in raising its per capita
income and improving quality of life.263 The per capita gross national income has nearly doubled
since 2000 to USD 1,000 in 2009.264 Life expectancy, primary school enrollment, and most
health indices, such as infant and child mortality rates and immunization rates, showed
improvement between 2000 and 2009.265, 266 Most of these successes are the result of the Social
Action Program (SAP) put in place during the 1990s and early 2000s.267
Employment Trends
The estimated unemployment rate for 2010 was 15%,
almost the same as the preceding year.268 When added to
the other negative economic, political, and social trends
that define Pakistani society today, this creates viable
conditions for terrorist organizations to easily recruit
volunteers.269 With the steep decline in foreign direct
investment and the continuing global economic
slowdown, it seems unlikely that Pakistan will be able to
reverse this trend soon.
261
Sam Taylor, ―Pakistan Reels as Global Financial Crisis Hits Poor Families Hard,‖ UNICEF Newsline, 29 May
2009, http://www.unicef.org/emerg/pakistan_49842.html
262
IRIN News, ―Pakistan: Security Fears Prompt Closure of WFP Food Hubs,‖ 21 October 2009,
http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportId=86672
263
The World Bank, ―Pakistan: Achieving Results in a Challenging Environment,‖ 2011,
http://go.worldbank.org/VC9EWUBCC0
264
265
266
Federal Bureau of Statistics, Government of Pakistan, ―Pakistan Social And Living Standards Measurement
Survey (Pslm) 2008-09 Provincial/District,‖ 2011, http://www.statpak.gov.pk/fbs/content/pakistan-social-and-
living-standards-measurement-survey-pslm-2008-09-provincial-district
267
The World Bank, ―Social Protection in Pakistan,‖ 26 February 2010,
http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/0,,contentMDK:22182478~page
PK:146736~piPK:146830~theSitePK:223547,00.html
268
269
Robert A. Pape and James K. Feldman, Cutting the Fuse: The Explosion of Global Suicide Terrorism and How to
Stop It (Chicago: University of Chicago, 2010), 132–133.
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Public versus Private Sector
In 1991, the government established the Privatization
Commission Secretariat to oversee the transition of
government-owned assets, including ―banks, industrial
units, public utilities, oil, gas and transport companies,
and infrastructure service providers[,]‖ to private
industry.270 This reversed a long-standing practice of
central planning by the federal government. The
privatizations have positively affected the economy by
stimulating foreign investment, creating jobs, and
increasing quality through competition.271 Militant activity and unstable government have
curtailed growth, however, because foreign investors fear investing in an uncertain economy.
270
Privatisation Commission, Government of Pakistan, ―Who We Are,‖ n.d.,
http://www.privatisation.gov.pk/about/who%20we%20are1.htm
271
Jane‘s Defence, ―Economy, Pakistan: Privatisation,‖ Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment—South Asia, 24 March
2011.
49 | © D L I F L C
Business Outlook
According to the World Bank, despite Pakistan‘s growing
economy, the business outlook for the country remains
uncertain.272 Pakistan‘s rapid economic growth in the past
decade was the result of external financing, profits from
privatization, grants, and foreign-investments that offset
the trade deficit.273 But because revenues and savings
were stagnant, Pakistan‘s economy was unable to stay
balanced when the global financial crisis hit in 2007–
2008. Macroeconomic reform and lower global
commodity prices have helped to stabilize external and fiscal imbalances, lower inflation, and
build up foreign reserves. To reduce the government‘s vulnerability to shock, Pakistan needs to
increase its revenues.274
An ongoing issue is diversification. Pakistan‘s industrial exports are still tied to textiles and
garments. Competitive pressures from other countries and the industry‘s sensitivity to drops in
cotton production pose key challenges to textiles. In addition, a large percentage of textile
exports are with only a few countries in Europe and North America. Insufficient diversification
made export trade vulnerable to a recent downswing in trading activity with these partners.275
Pakistan continues to look for ways to diversify its economy. One potential growth area is the
outsourcing of software, information technology, and business services for developed countries
(similar to India‘s model). Yet several significant hurdles must be overcome, including a
shortage of technical graduates, high bandwidth costs, and security concerns by some Western
companies.276 To date, lower-tech outsourcing, such as call centers and business process offices,
has been growing the fastest.277 With the Strategic Trade Policy Framework for 2009–2012, the
government of Pakistan is trying to expand its export base and diversify its economy in
promising sectors.278
272
World Bank, ―2009 Pakistan Economic Update,‖ 29 October 2009, http://go.worldbank.org/ZTVKU33FB0
273
Asian Development Bank, ―South Asia: Pakistan,‖ Asian Development Outlook 2007, March 2007,
http://www.adb.org/Documents/Books/ADO/2007/PAK.asp
274
The World Bank, ―Pakistan: 2009 Pakistan Economic Update,‖ 29 October 2009,
http://go.worldbank.org/ZTVKU33FB0
275
Asian Development Bank, ―South Asia: Pakistan,‖ Asian Development Outlook 2007, March 2007,
http://www.adb.org/Documents/Books/ADO/2007/PAK.asp
276
Naween A. Mangi and Rafiq Dossani, DAWN, ―Pakistan not yet on the Outsourcing Map,‖ Walter A.
Shorenstein Asia-Pacific Research Center, Stanford University, 12 September 2005,
http://aparc.stanford.edu/news/pakistan_not_yet_on_the_outsourcing_map_20050921/
277
Naween A. Mangi, ―Pakistan: Better Late Than Never in Outsourcing,‖ BusinessWeek, 9 May 2005,
http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/05_19/b3932079.htm
278
Globe Trade Alert, ―Pakistan: Strategic Trade Policy Framework 2009–12,‖ 8 September 2009,
http://www.globaltradealert.org/measure/pakistan-strategic-trade-policy-framework-2009-12
50 | © D L I F L C
1. The agricultural sector employs more Pakistanis than any other sector of the economy.
True
Agriculture continues to be a large segment of Pakistan‘s economy. Agriculture
contributes about 22% of Pakistan‘s GDP and employs 43% of the country‘s workforce.
2. Pakistan‘s primary agricultural areas rely solely on seasonal rains for watering crops.
False
The primary agricultural regions are in the provinces of Sindh and Punjab in the heavily
irrigated Indus River Plain. Non-irrigated regions are primarily in northernmost Punjab
and the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province and constitute about one-fourth of cultivated land
in Pakistan.
3. Tobacco is the most important cash crop in Pakistan.

False
Cotton is the most important cash crop because it is the raw material for Pakistan‘s vital
textile and garment industries.
4. Most jobs in the industrial sector are found in small-scale manufacturing enterprises
rather than large industrial facilities.
True
These small-scale enterprises produce items such as carpets, knives, leather, sporting
goods, garments, and furniture.
5. The service sector provides the largest portion of Pakistan‘s gross domestic product.
True
The service sector is the largest component (55%) of GDP and employs about 37% of the
working population. Service accounted for twice as much GDP growth as agriculture in
2010.
51 | © D L I F L C
Chapter 4: Society
Introduction
Pakistan is a multiethnic nation with a high population
growth rate, causing the average age to become
increasingly younger. It is the sixth most populous
country with 185 million people, 38% of whom are under
the age of 15.279 Pakistan has one of the largest refugee
populations, most of whom are Afghans.280 The majority
of Pakistanis live along the Indus River, and about 35%
live in urban areas.281 Pakistani customs have changed
little over the centuries. Art, literature, and culinary
traditions adopted from the Mongols, Turks, and Persians are still in place today. Its culture is
rich with handicrafts influenced by the various waves of invaders. The people of Pakistan are
well-known for the courtesy they extend to guests, however, a travel advisory warns against
tourist travel because of possible terrorist activities.282
Ethnic Groups
Pakistan‘s ethnic groups are categorized by a combination of language, religion, and tribal
affiliation. The major ethnic groups are Punjabis (approximately 45%), Pashtuns (15%), Sindhis
(14%), Saraiki (8%), Muhajirs (8%), Baluchis (4%), Kashmiri and other (combined 6%).283 In
1971, when East Pakistan became the independent nation of Bangladesh, Pakistan‘s largest
ethnic group was the Bengali. The separation changed the ethnic mix of Pakistan. The Muhajirs
had already immigrated to Pakistan from India after Partition (1947), and most settled in urban
Sindh. Sindhis and Punjabis still live in Sindh and Punjab provinces along the Indus River.
Punjabis are now the majority population. The Pashtuns live in the mountains of the Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa Province. Pashtuns also live alongside Baluchis on the Balochistan Plateau in
Balochistan Province.284 Saraikis live primarily in the region between northern Sindh and
southern Punjab provinces. They speak Saraiki and lobby actively for an ethnic province of their
279
Population Reference Bureau, ―Data by Geography: Pakistan: Summary,‖ 2011,
http://www.prb.org/Datafinder/Geography/Summary.aspx?region=146&region_type=2
280
UN High Commissioner for Refugees, ―2011 Country Operations Profile–Pakistan,‖ 2011,
http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/page?page=49e487016
281
Bureau of Public Affairs, U.S. Department of State, ―Background Note: Pakistan: People,‖ 6 October 2010,
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3453.htm#people
282
Bureau of Consular Affairs, U.S. Department of State, ―Travel Warning: Pakistan,‖ 2 February 2011,
http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/tw/tw_5269.html
283
Central Intelligence Agency, ―Pakistan: People,‖ in The World Factbook, 25 April 2011,
284
237.
52 | © D L I F L C
own.285 Tension between ethnic groups in Pakistan, spurred in part by religious zeal, is the cause
of much unrest and hostility.286
Punjabis
The Punjabi people are a diverse mixture of pre-Islamic
Jat and Rajput castes, with groups originating from places
as diverse as Arabia, Kashmir, Afghanistan, and
Persia.287 They are divided into different tribes by
ancestry and occupation; the Punjabi language unites
them.288
Punjabis dominate the upper military and civil service echelons and, in large part, run the central
government. Many other ethnic groups resent this situation. It is particularly abhorrent to
Sindhis, who are few in number, of humble means, and underrepresented in civil service
positions.289 Tensions mounted between them and Punjabis in the early 1980s, when the Sindhis
were feeling alienated from the state. The capital of Pakistan had been moved in the 1960s from
Karachi (in Sindh) to Islamabad (in northern Punjab).290, 291
Sindhis
The name Sindh derives from a Sanskrit word for the Indus River and is also the source of the
words ―India‖ and ―Hindu.‖ Sindhis speak the Sindhi language, and most practice Islam. They
have deep roots in Sindh Province, where life is based on a strong feudal structure. Large Sindh
landowners own most of the farms and reap most of the benefit of work done by tenant farmers.
Even in elections, Sindhi villagers cannot override the rules and mandates set by landowners.
Muhajirs from India replaced the departing Hindu Sindhis after Partition and gained power at the
expense of the remaining Sindhis.292 Ethnic tension between the Sindhis and Muhajirs continues
because there is still no clear solution to the unequal power distribution.293
285
Harihar Bhattacharyya, Federalism in Asia: India, Pakistan and Malaysia (New York: Routledge, 2010), 34.
286
Selig S. Harrison, ―Pakistan‘s Ethnic Fault Line,‖ Washington Post, 11 May 2009,
http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/05/10/AR2009051001959.html
287
Peter R. Blood, ed., ―Ch. 3—Society: Population: Punjabis,‖ in Pakistan: A Country Study, Federal Research
Division, Library of Congress, 1994, http://countrystudies.us/pakistan/32.htm
288
Peter R. Blood, ed., ―Ch. 3—Society: Population: Punjabis,‖ in Pakistan: A Country Study, Federal Research
289
Harihar Bhattacharyya, Federalism in Asia: India, Pakistan and Malaysia (New York: Routledge, 2010), 103–
104.
290
Peter R. Blood, ed., Pakistan: A Country Study, Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1994.
291
238–239.
292
Harihar Bhattacharyya, Federalism in Asia: India, Pakistan and Malaysia (New York: Routledge, 2010), 37–38.
293
239–240.
53 | © D L I F L C
Muhajirs
As a consequence of Partition, 7 million Muhajirs emigrated from India in 1947, replacing
millions of Hindus and Sikhs who departed for India. Although they represent only 8% of
Pakistan‘s total population, they now form 50% of the population of two cities in Sindh
Province, Karachi and Hyderabad. Furthermore, they displaced many native Sindhis from
prominent positions. In India, the Muhajirs had lived mainly in cities, where they obtained
professional skills and high levels of education. When they immigrated to Pakistan, they became
entrepreneurs and civil servants, assuming a disproportionate share of positions in government,
finance, and business. Many joined the Muhajir Quami National Movement (MQM), spurred by
animosity toward them.294
Pashtuns
The Pashtuns constitute one of the largest tribal groups in
the world. Many believe they descend from European
soldiers of Alexander the Great‘s army. The majority of
Pashtun clans live in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and
Balochistan provinces. They are known for their complex,
male-centered code of conduct—Pashtunwali—that
requires honor, revenge, hospitality, and formal
abasement. Pashtunwali code commands that women be
restricted to private family compounds. On the few
occasions when Pashtun women leave their homes, they wear a burqa, which covers them
completely except for small openings for the eyes. The fourth part of the Pashtun code, formal
abasement, requires that those who lose a fight show submission, and those who win show
mercy.295 Most Pashtuns are Sunni Muslims, and adhere to an egalitarian ethos in their
communities.296
Pashtuns make up the bulk of the Taliban in both Pakistan and Afghanistan. There is a long-
standing nationalist movement among ethnic Pashtuns. Pashtun political leaders warn that
younger cadres may abandon politics for arms.297 Preventing the radicalization of more Pashtuns
is important. They are essential to successful counterterrorism.
294
240–241.
295
241–245.
296
Peter R. Blood, ed., ―Ch. 3—Society: Population: Pakhtuns,‖ in Pakistan: A Country Study, Federal Research
297
Ben Arnoldy, ―Pakistan‘s Pashtuns, Looking for Statehood, May Look to Taliban,‖ Christian Science Monitor, 8
October 2009, http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Asia-South-Central/2009/1008/p08s04-wosc.html
54 | © D L I F L C
Baluchis
Pakistan‘s fifth largest tribal group lives mainly in
Balochistan, a barren landscape that extends into Iran and
Afghanistan. Baluchis share this region with other ethnic
groups of common beliefs, moral order, customs, and
literature. Baluchis place great importance on personal
honor, loyalty, hospitality, generosity, and offering
protection to those in need.298 They engage in pastoral
nomadism and agriculture. Their arid land requires
irrigation, so they use water from oases or from channels that divert water from rivers. Their
society is organized into a ―feudal militaristic‖ order in which the word of the tribe‘s leader is
law. Known for resisting intrusions into their way of life, they are among Pakistan‘s poorest
people. Most speak Baluchi, an Indo-Iranian language, although some speak Brahui, an ancient
Dravidian language.299 An ongoing ethnic insurgency among the Baluchis aims to combine the
ethnic provinces in Pakistan and Iran into a separate Balochistan.300, 301
Saraikis
The Saraiki were the dominant ethnic group of the Princely State of Bahawalpur, which opted in
1947 to join Pakistan. Rather than creating a Bahawalpur province, the Pakistani government
merged the territory with that of Punjab. There have been various movements among the Saraikis
to attain greater autonomy as either a separate province of Pakistan or a sovereign nation. The
Saraiki movements have been predominantly nonviolent. Some Saraiki politicians have made
threats that if their demands are not heeded, they might take up arms.302, 303
298
Peter R. Blood, ed., ―Ch. 3—Society: Population: Baloch,‖ in Pakistan: A Country Study, Federal Research
299
245–246.
300
Aleem Maqbool, ―Balochistan Reaches Boiling Point,‖ BBC News, 7 January 2010,
301
BBC News, ―Rebel Leader Capture Delights Iranian Press,‖ 24 February 2010,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/8534158.stm
302
Riaz Missen, ―Seraiki Nationalism in Focus,‖ Dawn, 2 May 2009, http://archives.dawn.com/archives/67393
303
Muhammad Feyyaz, ―Demand for Saraiki Province‖ (background paper, Pakistan Institute of Legislative
Development and Transparency, March 2011).
55 | © D L I F L C
Kashmiri
According to a 2008 estimate, 4.1 million people live in
that part of Kashmir that is administered by Pakistan. The
vast majority of these people are ethnic Kashmiris.304
Although the Kashmiri are predominantly Sunni Muslim,
the pre-1947 ruler of Kashmir was Hindu. He opted to
join the territory to India following the independence of
British India. This triggered a series of wars that have left
the area divided among Pakistan, India, and China.
The Kashmiris have their own language and a long history of independence from both Pakistan
and India prior to 1947. Yet they are closely related to the other people of the region and
influenced by the same factors. Pakistani-controlled territory in Kashmir has served as a staging
point for militants who have frequently attacked sites in India, and a number of militant groups
are active in the area and among the Kashmiri.305
Languages
Although more than 20 languages are spoken in Pakistan, the most common are Urdu, Pashto,
Sindhi, Punjabi, and Baluchi. These languages are classified as Indo-European languages and use
the same Perso-Arabic script, which is based on the Arabic alphabet and modified to
accommodate additional sounds from Persian.306 Many languages in the region use the Arabic
alphabet and add letters, dots, and other shapes to represent additional sounds from the native
language. The script reads from right to left and letters are written in cursive style. All consonant
sounds are represented in the script; however, some vowel sounds are not written, which
sometimes makes reading difficult. In Pakistan, Urdu and English are the official languages and
are used in university classrooms, private schools, government and legal documents, and in army
manuals.
Urdu
Urdu, an Indo-Aryan language, is spoken by approximately 104 million people. Urdu and Hindi
(now spoken mostly in India) rank among the top five most-used languages in the world and
largely are mutually intelligible when spoken.307 Urdu is spoken as a native language by only 8%
of the population, yet is Pakistan‘s national language.308 Over 75% of Pakistanis and 95% of
304
Jane‘s Defence, ―Territories, Pakistan-administered Kashmir,‖ Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment–South Asia,
26 April 2011.
305
Jane‘s Defence, ―Non-State Armed Groups, Pakistan,‖ Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment–South Asia, 26 April
2011.
306
236.
307
This figure includes those who speak Urdu as a second language.
308
56 | © D L I F L C
those who live in cities in Pakistan understand Urdu.309 The word urdu comes from the Turkish
word ordu, which means ―camp‖ or ―army.‖ Muslim soldiers of Persian, Arab, and Turkish
descent used Urdu as a common language during their conquest of India.310, 311
Punjabi
Punjabi, an Indo-Aryan language, is spoken by about 104
million people, mainly in Punjab Province in Pakistan and
Punjab State in India. It is the world‘s 12th most spoken
language and is used by approximately 44% of the
Pakistani population.312, 313 The writing system for
Punjabi varies from Devanagari to Shahmukhi to
Gurmukhi, depending on socio-geographical factors.
Punjabi‘s many dialects follow a geographical continuum
in which they merge with Sindhi in Pakistan and Hindi in
India. Dialects are spoken by peoples of different religions, including Hindus, Christians, and
Muslims, as well as Sikhs, for whom it is the language of their sacred text.314
Pashto
Pashto is an Indo-Iranian language that first appeared in written form in the 16th century. Pashto
is spoken by 25–30 million people living mainly in Afghanistan and Pakistan‘s Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa Province.315 In Pakistan, it is spoken by 8% of the people.316 It has many dialects,
which vary by country. Eastern Pashto is spoken in Pakistan and Western Pashto in Afghanistan,
where it is an official language along with Dari.
309
237.
310
M. Obaidul Hamid, ―Planning for Failure: English and Language Policy and Planning in Bangladesh,‖ in
Handbook of Language and Ethnic Identity: The Success-Failure Continuum in Language and Ethnic Identity
Efforts, Volume 2, eds. Joshua Fishman and Ofelia Garcia (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 193–194.
311
M. Paul Lewis, ed., ―Urdu,‖ in Ethnologue: Languages of the World, 16th ed. (Dallas: SIL International, 2009),
http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=urd
312
M. Paul Lewis, ed., ―Statistical Summaries,‖ in Ethnologue: Languages of the World, 16th ed. (Dallas: SIL
International, 2009), http://www.ethnologue.org/ethno_docs/distribution.asp?by=size
313
314
M. Paul Lewis, ed., ―Panjabi, Western,‖ in Ethnologue: Languages of the World, 16th ed. (Dallas: SIL
International, 2009), http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=pnb
315
Peter Austin, One Thousand Languages: Living, Endangered, and Lost (Berkeley: University of California Press,
2008), 141.
316
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Sindhi
Sindhi is the third most spoken language in Pakistan.
About 12% of the Pakistani population speaks Sindhi,
predominantly in southeast Pakistan.317 Another 2.8
million speakers live in India. Sindhi appeared as a
written language with its own script around the eighth
century C.E. An Indo-Aryan language, Sindhi‘s modern
script is based on a version of the Perso-Arabic script
adopted in the mid-19th century.318 Today, Sindhi is
written in Arabic script in Pakistan.319 Over 70% of Sindhi words are Sanskrit, though small
parts of its vocabulary are Dravidian, Arabic, and Persian.320 The Sindhi language—a strong
element of Sindhi identity—has a rich literary history, and was the majority language before
Partition in the area now known as Pakistan. After the large migration in 1947 of Urdu-speaking
Muslims from India (Muhajirs), Sindhi speakers became the minority in the cities, and became
greatly disadvantaged socially, educationally, and economically.321
Saraiki
Recognized by the Pakistani government as a separate language in 1981, Saraiki was long
labeled as a dialect of Punjabi. About 10% of Pakistanis speak the language.322 Since the 19th
century, when it became a written as well as spoken language, it has primarily been written in the
same modified Persian script used for Urdu. Since the mid-1970s, the Saraiki people have more
aggressively asserted their ethnic identity by forming social organizations and political parties,
and using their language to promote their cause.323
317
318
Florian Coulmas, The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Writing Systems (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 1999), 469.
319
M. Paul Lewis, ed., ―Sindhi,‖ in Ethnologue: Languages of the World, 16th ed. (Dallas: SIL International, 2009),
http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=snd
320
Lachman M. Khubchandani, ―Sindhi,‖ in The Indo-Aryan Languages, eds. George Cardona and Dhanesh Jain
(New York: Routledge, 2003), 684.
321
Tariq Rahman, ―Language, Politics, and Power in Pakistan: The Case of Sindh and Sindhi,‖ Ethnic Studies
Report 17, no. 1 (January 1999), 27, http://www.worldsindhi.org/publishedreports/reports/tariqrahman.pdf
322
323
Tariq Rahman, Language, Education and Culture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 230.
58 | © D L I F L C
Religion
Islam
Islam is the second largest religion in the world (second
to Christianity) with over 1 billion followers. The word
―Islam‖ means ―to submit‖ or ―to surrender.‖ Islam, like
Judaism and Christianity, is a monotheistic religion and
recognizes the validity of the Old and New Testaments.
But Muslims believe that the final and culminating
revelations were made to Muhammad, the last prophet.324 The Quran (the Final Testament), is
considered the record of God‘s revelations to Muhammad. The Five Pillars of Islam are 1) belief
in Allah as the only God and Muhammad as his prophet, 2) praying five times each day, 3)
almsgiving, 4) fasting from sunrise to sunset during the month of Ramadan, and 5) making the
pilgrimage to Mecca. A Muslim is encouraged to lead a healthy life that exemplifies the qualities
of kindness, chastity, honesty, mercy, courage, patience, and politeness.325
Sunni and Shi’a Islam

Sunni and Shi‘a are the two major sects within the Islamic religion. Upon Muhammad‘s death,
the community debated how to select a new leader. Some believed religious leadership should be
based on merit; they saw leadership as a trust that is earned. They later became identified as
Sunnis. Another group believed leadership should descend from Muhammad through his family.
They believed that to live in unity with the truth of Islam, people need the help of divinely
favored individuals: those from the Prophet‘s lineage. Of the four caliphs who ruled after
Muhammad, Ali was the closest relative. Those who believe that Ali should have been the
immediate successor are called Shi‘a, short for Shi’a-t-Ali, or ―party of Ali.‖ Shi‘ites today
receive their spiritual leadership from a council of imams.326
Islam in Pakistan
About 97% of Pakistanis are Muslim. Sunni Muslims make up 77% and Shi‘a Muslims the other
20%. Christians, Hindus, Sikhs, and others make up the remainder of the population.327 The term
―Islamist‖ (not to be confused with ―Islamic‖) refers to a practitioner of political Islam who
seeks to end the secular state and replace it with a strict religious state. In Pakistan, various
Islamist groups are often opposed to each other as well as to Western influence. The Islamist
324
Reza Aslan, No God But God: The Origins, Evolution, and Future of Islam (New York: Random House, 2006),
34–35.
325
Frederick Mathewson Denny, An Introduction to Islam (New York: Macmillan, 1993), 118–137.
326 J
onathan P. Berkey, The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East, 600–1800 (New York:
Cambridge University Press, 2003), 87–88.
327
Peter R. Blood, ed., ―Ch. 3—Society: Religion,‖ in Pakistan: A Country Study, Federal Research Division,
Library of Congress, 1994, http://countrystudies.us/pakistan/38.htm
59 | © D L I F L C
cause was strengthened in Pakistan when shari‘a courts were established under Zia ul-Haq and
then in the early 1990s under Prime Minister Sharif.328
Cuisine
Many kinds of bread or roti made of unleavened wheat
are a substantial part of Pakistani cuisine. The common
bread, chapatti, is shaped from wheat dough into a thin
disc that is baked on a dry hot iron pan. Another slightly
thicker bread cooked in oil is called parata. A type of
bread or cake called naan is cooked in a clay vessel called
a tandoor.329
Pakistani cuisine consists of foods that are abundant and cheap. The milk in which both the curds
and butterfat have been removed is called lassi. Lentils are the more common vegetable, while
meat, eggs, and fruits are consumed by wealthier Pakistanis.330
Though every region in Pakistan has its unique cuisine, all Pakistani cooks rely heavily on
spices, herbs, and flavorings to benefit an otherwise bland dish. Spices such as chili powder,
turmeric, garlic, paprika, pepper, cumin, ginger, cinnamon, and saffron are used liberally in
Pakistani cooking.331
Traditional Dress
The traditional dress in Pakistan is the salwar kameez, Pakistan‘s national dress. The salwar are
the loose-fitting pants with the kameez worn over them like a tunic or long shirt. This salwar
kameez can be worn by men and women and styled accordingly. In urban settings it is quite
common to find people, especially of the younger generations, wearing Western style clothing
instead of traditional attire.
328
Peter R. Blood, ed., ―Ch. 1—History: Zia Ul-Haq,‖ in Pakistan: A Country Study, Federal Research Division,
Library of Congress, 1994, http://countrystudies.us/pakistan/21.htm
329
324.
330
Pamela Goyan Kittler and Kathryn Sucher, Food and Culture, 5th ed. (Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth,
2004), 451.
331
Clive Carpenter, ed., Middle East, Western Asia, and Northern Africa, World and Its People (New York:
Marshall Cavendish, 2006), 394–395.
60 | © D L I F L C
Women
To accompany their salwar kameez, Pakistani women
wear the dupatta, a long headscarf.332 Women also wear
traditional shoes called khussa. They are hand-stitched
lightweight flats, often decorated with ornate embroidery.
In northwest Pakistan, the Kalash women traditionally
wear a shushut, or headdress. To accompany this, they
also wear long black dresses decorated with beadwork or
embroidery.333
Another head covering worn by Muslim women in Pakistan is the niqab that covers the face
completely except for the eyes. The hajib, the most common of the headscarves, is square in
shape and wraps around the head, leaving the face exposed.334
Men
Men in Pakistan wear the salwar kameez and usually
wear a hat. There are various hats depending on the
region. Pakistani men also wear turbans, and the style
changes with each region.335
Gender Issues
Patriarchal Culture
Because Pakistan is a patriarchal culture, men and women conceptually inhabit separate worlds.
The home is defined as the women‘s world whereas the outside world is defined as the men‘s
world. Pakistani women are considered domestic producers and providers, lacking social status
and value. In addition, the preference for sons is dominant in Pakistan, so giving birth to a female
child is not as celebrated as giving birth to a son.336 Men in general receive a better education
and more access to public resources than women do. Among children in poor families, the rate of
chronic malnutrition is higher for girls than boys. Women lack access to proper healthcare
because of their low economic, social, and cultural status. Since men are allowed to eat first,
there often is little or no food for the women, so they may suffer nutritional deficiencies.
332
Kathryn Besio, ―In the Lady‘s Seat: Cosmopolitan Women Travelers in Pakistan,‖ in Women, Religion, & Space:
Global Perspectives on Gender and Faith, eds. Karen M. Morin and Jeanne Kay Guelke (Syracuse: Syracuse
University Press, 2007), 97.
333
Caroline Crabtree and Pam Stallebrass, Beadwork: A World Guide (New York: Rizzoli, 2002), 124.
334
Mohammad A. Qadeer, Pakistan: Social and Cultural Transformation in a Muslim Nation (New York:
Routledge, 2006), 198.
335
Carolyn Black, Pakistan: The People (New York: Crabtree Publishing Co., 2003), 16–17.
336
Khan M. Ibrahim and Ulrich Laaser, eds., Critical Gender Issues in Developing Countries: The Case of Pakistan
(Lage, Germany: Jacobs, 2001).
61 | © D L I F L C
Women‘s roles are clearly delineated and limited. Girls are expected to marry at a young age and
give birth to numerous children. In general, women lack access to financial resources including
earnings, formal lending institutions, or careers. Except in urban areas, they generally do not
work outside the home for wages; if they do, they remain responsible for household duties.
Violence toward Women

Violence toward women is a powerful mechanism used
by the family and society to silence any voices of
resistance. Forms of violence toward Pakistani women
have included physical and mental torture, murder, honor
killing, sexual harassment, rape, kidnapping, trafficking,
and prostitution. Statistics on these occurrences have
remained low because these violations tend to be
underreported.337
Despite women‘s legal rights to own land and inherit property, few women have access to these
resources. A 1995 report found that only 36 women out of 1,000 rural households surveyed in
Punjab owned property in their names, and of those, only one-quarter had control of their
property.338
Bills of Protection for Women

In 2001, the Government of Pakistan amended their constitution to address issues of gender
inequality. The amendment gave women more representation in local and national government.
As of 2005, women‘s representation was better in Pakistan‘s government than in ―most countries
of the world, including the largest democracies.‖ There has been much talk of reforms for
women in the social, political, and economic arenas, but actual reforms have been. A recent
study revealed that ―[l]ack of political will, weak and corrupt governance structures, limited
technical and intellectual capacity of institutions, and resource constraints have been the main
impediments in policy implementation.‖339
337
Barbara A. Weightman, Dragons and Tigers: A Geography of South, East, and Southeast Asia (Hoboken, NJ:
John Wiley & Sons, 2011), 76–77.
338
Ghulam Moheyuddin, ―Background, Assessment, and Analysis of the Gender Issues in Pakistan‖ (background
paper, World Bank Institute, November 2005), http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/683/01/MPRA_paper_683.pdf
339
Ghulam Moheyuddin, ―Background, Assessment, and Analysis of the Gender Issues in Pakistan‖ (background
paper, World Bank Institute, November 2005), http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/683/01/MPRA_paper_683.pdf
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Arts
Ghazals
Taken from both Arabic and Persian poetry, ghazals are
songs about love. Considered semi-classical music, these
songs are accompanied by percussion and stringed
instruments. They were originally sung in Farsi; singers
today perform them mainly in Urdu, but can sing them in
other Pakistani languages. Pakistani women are the
primary singers of this style of music.340
Storytelling
Storytelling to music is an ancient art, now becoming ―endangered‖ in Pakistan. One center of
this art form was in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province, specifically in Peshawar. People would
come to the central marketplace to listen to storytellers from varied cultural backgrounds tell
their tales. Although professional storytellers have largely disappeared, this tradition in modified
form made its way into the theaters and continues in the major cities of Pakistan.341
Folklore
Folklore in Pakistan is a mixture of beliefs, facts, and fiction, and has been told over the
generations so much that the Pakistanis claim that it has become difficult to tell the fact from the
fiction. The stories often revolve around themes of unconditional love with dynamic female
characters willing to fight societal norms for the love of their mate.
Symbolism is a large part of Pakistani folklore. It is seen in characters such as faqirs, or holy
persons, who can destroy or restore life and turn blood into water. Other symbols that figure into
Pakistani folk tales are ogres, heroes, and sleeping beauties. These characters find themselves in
incredible situations that they must overcome, such as a quest in search of fortune or responding
to warning dreams. The story then attempts to explain the situation and provide a favorable
outcome. Pakistani children‘s folktales originally derived from India and have gained so much
popularity that books about them have been published and television shows have portrayed
them.342
340
Jason Porterfield, Islamic Customs and Culture (New York: Rosen Pub., 2009), 43.
341
ArtsEdge, The Kennedy Center, ―Gift of the Indus: The Arts and Culture of Pakistan: Theater,‖ 2011,
http://artsedge.kennedy-center.org/interactives/pakistan/arts-of-pakistan/theater.htm
342
Margaret A. Mills, Peter J. Claus, and Sarah Diamond, eds., South Asian Folklore: An Encyclopedia:
Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka (New York: Routledge, 2003).
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Sports and Recreation
While such sports as skiing, baseball, cycling, rowing, and yachting are quite popular, cricket
remains the most popular game. Muhammad Ali Jinnah, known as Pakistan‘s founder, had a
great love for sports. He recognized their potential to promote discipline and health among
Pakistan‘s citizens.343 As a result, Pakistan has participated internationally in the Olympics, the
Commonwealth, Asian, and South Asian Federation games, and the Cricket World Cup.
Cricket
In Pakistan, cricket teams began to develop after
Partition and have grown more numerous over the
years. Pakistan now has men‘s, women‘s, youth, and
school cricket leagues. In 1992, the national team won
the World Cup, the most prestigious award in the sport.
In 2009, they won the World Twenty20 championship,
the newest tournament sponsored by the International
Cricket Council.344
Field Hockey
The Pakistan Hockey Federation started in 1948, and field hockey today is Pakistan‘s national
sport. Pakistani hockey gained recognition during the 1960s when the team participated
internationally, and Pakistan later won several world titles, the last in 1994. Pakistan has both
men‘s and women‘s hockey teams.345, 346
Gulli Danda
Similar to cricket or even baseball, gulli danda is a sport played in rural areas. It requires a
danda and a gilli, two sticks, one swung at the other with a golf-like swing. As in baseball, the
person hitting the gilli is out when another player catches it. There is no running to bases; rather,
if the gilli is not caught, the hitter hits another one. After three strikes, the hitter is out.347
343
Om Gupta, Encyclopaedia of India, Pakistan & Bangladesh (Delhi: Isha Books, 2006), 183–184.
344
Omar Noman, Pride and Passion: An Exhilarating Half Century of Cricket in Pakistan (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1998), 212.
345
Ian Graham, Pakistan (North Mankato, MN: Smart Apple Media, 2004), 20.
346
Sally Morgan, Focus on Pakistan (Milwaukee, WI: World Almanac Library, 2007), 50.
347
Steve Craig, Sports and Games of the Ancients (Westport, CT: Greenword Press, 2002), 63–65.
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Rugby
The Karachi Rugby Football Union was formed in 1926
and almost folded by the 1980s. In the 1990s, local
players established clubs in Lahore and Karachi, and
foreign staff from embassies and business agencies
established a club in Islamabad. Popularity has since
increased considerably, and in 2000, the Pakistan Rugby
Union was established. Pakistan fielded its first national
team in 2003. Rugby has become so popular that schools
now offer it in their curricula.348
348
Pakistan Rugby Union, ―Pakistan Rugby Union,‖ 2007, http://www.pakistanrugby.com/about.html
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1. Punjabis are the largest ethnic group in Pakistan.
True
Making up about 45% of the Pakistani population, the Punjabis dominate in the upper
echelons of the military and civil service and, in large part, run the central government.
2. Sindhi is the national language of Pakistan.

False
Urdu was made the national language after partition in 1947. This demotion of the Sindhi
language was seen as a blow to the cultural unity of Sindhis.
3. The Muhajirs are an ethnic group indigenous to Pakistan.

False
Muhajir is the catchall term for the 7 million Muslims who emigrated from India in 1947,
replacing millions of Hindus and Sikhs who departed for India. Originally these people came
from a variety of backgrounds, but the Pakistanis categorized them together as new arrivals
who did not conform to the country‘s preexisting ethnicities.
4. Pashtunwali is the term used for the Pashtuns‘ code of conduct.

True
This code of conduct places tremendous value on hospitality and the granting of refuge to all
who seek it; an obvious advantage to the Taliban and al-Qaeda fugitives seeking to hide from
U.S. and allied forces in the area of the Pakistan–Afghanistan border where the Pashtuns live.
5. A number of Pakistan‘s ethnic groups seek greater autonomy from the central government or
outright independence.
True
The Balochis, Pashtuns, and Saraikis are prime examples of Pakistani ethnic groups that are
pursuing greater freedom from the government through a variety of means, including armed
struggle and legislation.
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Chapter 5: Security
Introduction
Pakistan has had a tumultuous history, from its violent
birth in 1947 to wars with India, civil war and the
secession of East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) in 1971, and
four military coups. Although a democracy, it was
founded for religious reasons. Today, Pakistan tries to
balance its secular and religious identities.
The already complicated story of Pakistan began a new

chapter in 2001, when the country became an ally of the
United States in global counterterrorism. To advance its
own efforts at development, Pakistan accepted substantial economic and military assistance from
the United States. For years, Pakistan had supported the predominantly Pashtun Taliban
government in neighboring Afghanistan. In the aftermath of the 9/11 attacks, Pakistan renounced
its relationship with the Taliban. Still, many Taliban and al-Qaeda fighters found refuge in
Pakistan, fleeing U.S. and allied forces after the ouster of the Taliban regime in Afghanistan.
Pakistan largely left these fighters alone for the next several years. But in the summer and fall of
2009, the Pakistani military conducted aggressive campaigns in the Swat and Waziristan valleys.
These protracted battles restored some degree of government control over these areas and forced
the Taliban fighters underground.349
United States–Pakistan Relations

Since late 2001, the United States and Pakistan have
battled against extremist groups in the region. Hundreds
of al-Qaeda members have been captured or killed,
sometimes with the assistance of the Pakistani military
and intelligence organizations. U.S. economic and
military aid have been reestablished, totaling tens of
billions of USD since 2001.350, 351, 352 Pakistan was given
Major Non-NATO Ally (MNNA) status in 2004.353 In
September 2009, Pakistan successfully pleaded for an additional USD 7.5 billion in aid for the
next 5 years. Conditions were placed on how it would be spent.354
349
New York Times, ―Times Topics: Swat Valley,‖ 16 November 2010,
http://topics.nytimes.com/top/news/international/countriesandterritories/pakistan/northwest-
pakistan/swat_valley/index.html
350
Jeremy Page and Zahid Hussain, ―Barack Obama‘s Pakistan Policy in Disarray after Opposition to $7.5bn Aid
Conditions,‖ Times Online, 14 October 2009 http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article6873616.ece
351
Derrick Z. Jackson, ―U.S. Aid to Pakistan a Shell Game,‖ Boston Globe, 6 October 2009,
http://www.boston.com/bostonglobe/editorial_opinion/oped/articles/2009/10/06/us_aid_to_pakistan_a_shell_game/
352
Katie Paul, ―About Those Billions,‖ Newsweek, 21 October 2009, http://www.newsweek.com/id/218932
353
Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs, U.S. Department of State, ―Background Note: Pakistan: U.S.-
Pakistan,‖ 6 October 2010, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3453.htm
354
Ashish Kumar Sen, ―Congress Allays Pakistani Fears Over Aid,‖ Washington Times, 15 October 2009,
http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2009/oct/15/congress-allays-pakistani-fears-about-conditions-f/
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The United States has increasingly criticized Pakistan‘s efforts to suppress the Taliban. The U.S.
government has been especially persistent in demanding that Pakistan launch an offensive
against the Pakistani Taliban in North Waziristan, partly because the May 2010 Times Square
car bombing attempt in New York City was linked with that organization.355
Relations with Neighboring Countries

Pakistan, nearly twice the size of California, is strategically located within Southwest Asia.356 To
its east and north lie the world‘s two most populous countries, India and China, with rapidly
developing economies. In the west are Iran and oil states. Most of Pakistan‘s western border is
with Afghanistan, a country that has been repeatedly invaded and embroiled in civil wars for
over 30 years. During those conflicts, western Pakistan has hosted refugee camps and informal
military bases for different combatants.
India
Pakistan gained independence in 1947. The partitioning
of the former British colony of India, which carved East
Pakistan and West Pakistan from Indian territory, was
marked by mass violence that forced non-Muslims in
Pakistan to move to India and Muslims in India to
migrate to Pakistan. The partition also caused the current
Jammu and Kashmir controversy. Two Pakistani–Indian
Wars in 1965 and 1971 over this issue were followed in
1972 by an agreement formalizing the ―Line of Control‖
for Jammu and Kashmir. The ―Line of Control‖ is essentially the same as the boundary
established after Partition and the 1947–1948 war.357 Contention has continued, especially over
the interpretation of this boundary near the valuable water supply of the Siachen Glacier in
western Jammu and Kashmir; this resulted in another Pakistani–Indian armed conflict in 1984.
Since then, there have been long standoffs punctuated by occasional battles in this region.358
In 1999, the two countries clashed over Jammu and Kashmir for the first time since Pakistan
matched India‘s status as a country with nuclear weapons capability.359 The 1999 hostilities
raised fears that the two long-time enemies might be tempted to use their nuclear arsenals.360
Relations in the last decade have alternated between tense political and military standoffs and
periods of thaw, with ongoing terrorist attacks within Kashmir being an additional source of
conflict. Major terrorist attacks in the last few years have created a highly tense situation. India
continues to demand that Pakistan extradite those responsible for the November 2008 terrorist
attacks in Mumbai, India, and has placed all negotiations on hold until this matter is resolved.
355
Jane‘s Defence, ―External Affairs, Pakistan,‖ Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment—South Asia, 24 March 2011.
356
PakistaniDefence, ―Geo-Strategic Importance,‖ 2001, http://www.pakistanidefence.com/Info/GeoStrategic.html
357
The 1971 war began as a conflict between India and Pakistan over East Pakistan secession that led to the creation
of the country of Bangladesh. But it eventually spread to a western front, especially to Jammu and Kashmir.
358
Tim McGirk and Aravind Adiga, ―War at the Top of the World,‖ Time, 4 May 2005,
http://www.time.com/time/asia/covers/501050711/story.html
359
BBC News, ―India-Pakistan: Troubled Relations—Kargil Conflict,‖ 2005,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/south_asia/2002/india_pakistan/timeline/1999.stm
360
BBC News, ―India-Pakistan: Troubled Relations—Nuclear Rivalry,‖ 2005,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/south_asia/2002/india_pakistan/timeline/1998.stm
68 | © D L I F L C
Iran
Iran borders Pakistan along the western edge of
Balochistan Province. Although the two countries have
generally been on good terms, their relationship was
strained during the Afghanistan civil wars of the 1990s
because they supported opposing sides. Since the fall of
the Taliban, the two countries have moved closer.361, 362
With Indian assistance, Iran has recently built a new

deep-water port at Chabahar, only a few hundred
kilometers down the coast from Pakistan‘s new port at Gwadar. The two new ports are near the
strategic Gulf of Oman that serves shipments from oilfields. This has created competition to
develop inland trade and access routes to aid the flow of energy resources to the Central Asian
republics and China.363
In early 2011, the Bahraini government contracted with the Fauji Foundation, an enterprise
operated by the Pakistani Ministry of Defense, to recruit Pakistani mercenaries from retired
military personnel.364 These mercenaries were deployed to help quell unrest, particularly among
Bahrain‘s minority Shi‘ite population. This action has caused a diplomatic problem with Iran,
which is a regional power sympathetic to the Bahraini Shi‘ites.365
Afghanistan
Since 11 September 2001, the Pakistan–Afghanistan
border may have become the world‘s most publicized
frontier. Known as the Durand Line, Afghanistan does
not recognize this border, which divides the traditional
tribal areas of the Pashtuns and Baluchis. The border runs
2,430 km (1,507 mi) from near the northernmost tip of
Pakistan‘s Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province to the
country‘s westernmost point at Ribat.366
Smugglers, refugees, terrorists, and everyday Pashtun tribesmen have long been able to move
freely from one country to the other. Controversy over the porous border has been heightened in
recent times because terrorists and Taliban militia have moved freely within these nominally
governed Federally Administered Tribal Areas (known as FATA or simply ―tribal areas‖) of
Pakistan. The Pakistani army responded by building fences along 35 km (22 mi) of the border,
361
Pakistan,‖ 6 October 2010, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3453.htm
362
Sudha Ramachandran, ―‗Brothers‘ in Arms,‖ Asia Times Online, 18 March 2005,
http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/GC18Df06.html
363
Ziad Haider, ―Baluchis, Beijing, and Pakistan‘s Gwadar Port,‖ Georgetown Journal of International Affairs 6,
no. 1 (Winter/Spring 2005): 95–103.
364
R.S.N. Singh, The Military Factor in Pakistan (New Delhi: Lancer, 2008), 131–132.
365
Jane‘s Defence, ―Iran Complains about Pakistani Mercenaries in Bahrain,‖ Jane’s Intelligence Weekly, 21 April
2011.
366
Jayshree Bajoria, ―The Troubled Afghan–Pakistani Border,‖ Council on Foreign Relations, 20 March 2009,
http://www.cfr.org/publication/14905/troubled_afghanpakistani_border.html#p6
69 | © D L I F L C
which Afghan troops in turn have tried to remove. The resulting border skirmishes have
threatened the cooperation needed by Afghanistan, Pakistan, and NATO forces to control the
Taliban insurgency.367 The call for a full border fence is an ongoing issue, and Pakistan has
resorted to placing landmines in strategic areas of the border.368, 369 Each government continues
to accuse the other of interfering in its national affairs.370 Pakistani officials have accused
Afghanistan in particular of allowing India to use Afghan territory to support violent unrest
within the tribal areas.371
During Taliban rule in Afghanistan, Pakistan accepted approximately 2 million Afghani

refugees.372 But the prospect of greater numbers of refugees, who pose a security risk and an
economic burden, caused Pakistan to officially close the border. Nevertheless, both countries are
trying to improve and strengthen ties by furthering mutual interests. Pakistan has pledged aid to
Afghanistan, and by 2009, there was a ―new environment‖ of confidence and trust between
them.373, 374 By late 2009, however, Pakistan had interrupted the India–Afghanistan transit of the
Wagah border, nullifying a previous Afghanistan–Pakistan agreement that allowed Afghanistan
to import Indian goods.375
China
In 1950, Pakistan was one of the first non-Communist
countries to recognize the People‘s Republic of China
(PRC), and diplomatic relations between the two have been
generally good since then. For many years, their mutually
strained relations with India and the Soviet Union
reinforced their strategic relationship. China has several
border disputes with India in the Jammu and Kashmir area.
In 1963, the two countries negotiated a border agreement
367
BBC News, ―Afghanistan ‗Border Fence‘ Clash,‖ 19 April 2007,
368
Associated Press, ―Pakistan Will Secure Afghan Border with Fences, Landmines,‖ CBCNews (Canada), 28
December 2006, http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/story/2006/12/28/pakistan-border.html
369
Kenneth R. Rutherford, Disarming States: The International Movement to Ban Landmines (Santa Barbara, CA:
ABC-CLIO, 2010), 21–26.
370
Frederic Gare, ―Pakistan-Afghanistan Relations in the Post-9/11 Era‖ (endowment paper, Carnegie Endowment
of International Affairs, no. 72, October 2006), http://www.carnegieendowment.org/files/cp72_grare_final.pdf
371
Frederic Gare, ―Pakistan-Afghanistan Relations in the Post-9/11 Era‖ (endowment paper, Carnegie Endowment
of International Affairs, no. 72, October 2006),
372
Yale Law School, Avalon Project, ―Congressional Testimony of Acting Assistant Secretary Alan Kreczko,
Bureau of Population, Refugees and Migration, Department of State, Before the Committee on International
Relations, United States House of Representatives,‖ 1 November 2001,
http://avalon.law.yale.edu/sept11/testimony_019.asp
373
Pakistan,‖ 6 October 2010, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3453.htm#foreign
374
Al Jazeera, ―Pakistan Hails New Afghan Relations,‖ 24 February 2009,
http://english.aljazeera.net/news/americas/2009/02/200922421140626741.html
375
Thai Indian News, ―Pakistan Nixes India-Afghanistan Transit Trade,‖ 25 November 2009,
http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/south-asia/pakistan-nixes-india-afghanistan-transit-trade_100280063.html
70 | © D L I F L C
that gave China control over the Trans-Karakoram tract, a region that India still claims as part of
greater Jammu and Kashmir.376 Although the external dynamics have changed over the last
decades with the collapse of the Soviet Union, the rapprochement of China with India, and the
rise of insurgency in Pakistan, the two countries have so far maintained their ―all weather
relationship.‖377
China has provided Pakistan with major economic, military, and technical assistance, including
nuclear technology. They have collaborated on numerous projects, including gold and copper
mines, power plants, and highways.378 In 1986, the two countries finished building the
Karakoram Highway to link China to Pakistan‘s northern area. Pakistan and China are widening
this road as part of a program to better connect western China with Pakistan‘s new deep-sea port
at Gwadar, which was built with extensive Chinese aid.379, 380, 381 China is also financing a
highway link from Gwadar to Rawalpindi, near where the Karakoram Highway to China
begins.382 This joint venture has unnerved some Indian officials who claim that Chinese Army
engineers are using the project as a pretext for military construction in Pakistan‘s portion of
Kashmir.383 Pakistan and China signed a comprehensive trade agreement in 2008, anticipating
annual trade of about USD 7 billion a year.384
One point of contention between the two neighbors is China‘s concern over the level of
extremism inside Pakistan, and the fact that China‘s Muslim ethnic separatists find safe haven in
the tribal areas of Pakistan.385, 386
376
International Boundary Consultants, ―India‘s Boundary Disputes with China, Nepal, and Pakistan,‖ International
Boundary Monitor, 15 May 1998, http://www.boundaries.com/India.htm
377
Atul Kumar, China-Pakistan Economic Relations, Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies Special Report 30
(New Delhi: Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies, September 2006),
http://ipcs.org/pdf_file/issue/683644508IPCS-Special-Report-30.pdf
378
Jamal Afridi and Jayshree Bajoria, ―China-Pakistan Relations,‖ (background report, Council on Foreign
Relations, 20 August 2009), http://www.cfr.org/publication/10070/chinapakistan_relations.html
379
Tech Lahore (firm), ―China and Pakistan Launch $327m Joint Venture to Upgrade Karakoram Highway for
Increased Trade,‖ 21 January 2008, http://techlahore.wordpress.com/2008/01/21/china-and-pakistan-launch-327m-
joint-venture-to-upgrade-karakoram-highway-for-increased-trade/
380
Pallavi Aiyar, ―China, Pakistan to Renovate Karakoram Highway,‖ The Hindu, 11 July 2006,
http://www.hindu.com/2006/07/11/stories/2006071107281300.htm
381
Associated Press, ―New Pakistani Deep Sea Port a Boon for Chinese Trade,‖ The Star (Malaysia), 13 May 2007,
http://biz.thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2007/5/13/business/20070513083148&sec=business
382
Rajeev Ranjan Chaturvedy, ―Interpreting China‘s Grand Strategy at Gwadar,‖ Institute of Peace and Conflict
Studies no. 1939, 14 February 2006, http://ipcs.org/article/china/interpreting-chinas-grand-strategy-at-gwadar-
1939.html
383
Josy Joseph, ―India Confirms Chinese Military in PoK,‖ Times of India, 12 May 2011,
http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/India-confirms-Chinese-military-in-PoK/articleshow/8259346.cms
384
Jamal Afridi, ―China-Pakistan Relations,‖ Council on Foreign Relations, 20 August 2009,
http://www.cfr.org/publication/10070/chinapakistan_relations.html
385
Omar Waraich, ―China Leans on Pakistan to Deal with Militants,‖ Time, 10 April 2009,
http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1890205,00.html
386
Asif Hassan, ―Pakistan: China and the Militant Connection,‖ STRATFOR, 7 May 2010,
http://www.stratfor.com/analysis/20100507_pakistan_china_and_militant_connection
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Tajikistan
Pakistan was among the first countries to recognize the independence of Tajikistan, and relations
have remained friendly thereafter. Although the two countries do not share a border, they are
only separated by a 14-km (9-mi) sliver of Afghanistan, and share many cultural and historical
connections.387
Throughout the Tajikistan Civil War (1992–1997), Pakistan hosted tens of thousands of refugees
from Tajikistan. Many of these refugees have since returned to Tajikistan.388
Much of Central Asia‘s opiate drug traffic runs through Tajikistan, Afghanistan, and Pakistan.
The three governments try to work together to thwart such activity.389
As part of the Trilateral Transit Trade Agreement between Pakistan, Tajikistan, and Afghanistan,
Pakistan has promised to provide Tajikistan with easy access to Pakistani ports. The agreement
also provides for the transmission of electric energy from Central Asia to Pakistan via
Afghanistan.390
Law and Order

Pakistan has the seventh-largest armed force in the world,
though it has insufficient training and out-of-date
equipment.391 One 2008 estimate placed its total strength,
including paramilitary forces and civilian personnel, at
approximately 900,000.392 Pakistan‘s armed forces include
its army, air force, and navy.
Army
The Pakistani Army is the largest of the armed forces at
619,000 members, with 528,000 in reserve.393 Their main
responsibilities are to protect Pakistan‘s borders, maintain border and internal security, and
defend the country‘s national interests.394 It is one of the most organized and powerful
institutions in the country, with control over Pakistan‘s political, social, and economic
resources.395 During the reign of Zia ul-Haq, the Pakistani Army became closely connected to
Islamic parties, whose support eventually allowed General Musharraf to become president as
387
Tajikistan Embassy to Pakistan, ―Tajikistan & Pakistan Relations and the Development of Tajikistan,‖ 2010,
http://www.tajikembassy.pk/pakistan-and-tajikitan-relation.aspx
388
Tajikistan Embassy to Pakistan, ―Tajikistan & Pakistan Relations and the Development of Tajikistan,‖ 2010,
http://www.tajikembassy.pk/pakistan-and-tajikitan-relation.aspx
389
Christopher M. Blanchard, Afghanistan: Narcotics and U.S. Policy (New York: Nova Science Publishers, 2009),
34–36.
390
Central Asia Newswire, ―Tajikistan Wins Preferred Access to Pakistani Ports,‖ 8 March 2011,
http://centralasianewswire.com/International/viewstory.aspx?id=3471
391
Pakistan,‖ 6 October 2010, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3453.htm#defense
392
―Pakistan,‖ Military Technology 33, no. 1 (2009): 379–383.
393
Defence Pakistan, ―Pakistan Army,‖ 2011, http://www.defence.pk/pakistan-army/
394
Defence Pakistan, ―Pakistan Army,‖ 2011, http://www.defence.pk/pakistan-army/
395
C. Christine Fair, ―Why Pakistan‘s Army is Here to Stay: Prospects for Civilian Governance,‖ International
Affairs 87, no. 3 (2011): 571–588.
72 | © D L I F L C
well as Chief of Staff for the Army.396 The Pakistani Army frequently plays a major role in
humanitarian assistance during the natural disasters.
Air Force
The Pakistani Air Force was formed in 1947. It has
45,000 personnel including civilians, and 330 combat
aircraft. Pakistan‘s three regional commands are in the
northern, southern, and central regions of the country,
with headquarters in Peshawar, Karachi, and
Sargodha.397, 398, 399, 400
Navy
The Pakistani Navy is much smaller than the Army and Air Force, with 27,200 personnel,
including reserves, stationed in various squadrons according to ship type and their mission.401
The Navy‘s main duties are to defend Pakistan‘s coastline, territorial waters, offshore economic
resources, and to maintain Sea Lines of Communications.402 It also has an air component
headquartered at the Pakistan Naval Station Mehran near Karachi.403, 404
Police
In the current model, introduced by the British during
the colonial era, each province has a police force, and
these units take orders from the federal government only
on matters of national security.405 But today‘s Pakistani
Police Force has been poorly managed and trainined. It
was only in 2002 that all 1,250 police stations in
Pakistan had their own vehicles.
Estimates place the number of Pakistani police at about

350,000 for a population of nearly 185 million; clearly insufficient to meet the needs of the
citizenry. For example, Karachi, with a population of around 13 million, has only 29,000 police.
Not surprisingly, the city has one of the highest crime rates in the country. Terrorist
organizations have frequently targeted police personnel and facilities.406
396
Global Security, ―Pakistan Army,‖ n.d., http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/pakistan/army.htm
397
Andrew Brookes, ―Pakistan Air Force,‖ Pakistan Defence, 2011, http://www.defence.pk/pakistan-air-force/
398
Dawn, ―US Delivers 6 F-16 Aircraft to Pakistan,‖ 20 November 2010, http://www.dawn.com/2010/11/20/us-
delivers-six-f-16-aircraft-to-pakistan.html
399
Kanti Bajpai, ―India, US: Estranged Democracies?‖ Times of India, 30 April 2011,
http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-04-30/edit-page/29487886_1_india-us-relations-upa-government-
low-point
400
―Pakistan,‖ Military Technology 33, no. 1 (2009): 383.
401
―Pakistan,‖ Military Technology 33, no. 1 (2009): 382.
402
Andrew Brookes, ―Pakistan Air Force,‖ Pakistan Defence, 2011, http://www.defence.pk/pakistan-air-force/
403
GlobalSecurity, ―Pakistan Navy,‖ 2009, http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/pakistan/navy-intro.htm
404
―Pakistan,‖ Military Technology 33, no. 1 (2009): 382–383.
405
Punjab Police, Government of Punjab, ―Introduction: History,‖ 2010,
http://www.punjabpolice.gov.pk/page.asp?id=136
406
Jane‘s Defence, ―Security and Foreign Forces, Pakistan,‖ Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment—South Asia, 21
April 2011.
73 | © D L I F L C
In addition, the Pakistani police suffer from chronic corruption.407 As early as 1999, it was
reported that torture was routinely used by Pakistani police, and proper procedures for
interrogation were rarely followed.408 In 2001, the Asian Human Rights Commission stated that
the police force was used by influential people as a tool of oppression. Pakistani government
funding to pay the police force was limited, fueling the abuse of power, corruption, and
intimidation.409 The lack of money, abysmal morale, and a high desertion rate have contributed
to the increased strength of the Taliban. Increased aid and better salaries, although still low, have
raised public approval ratings.410
Frontier Corps (FC)

Serving under the Ministry of the Interior, Pakistan‘s Frontier Corps is deployed along the
Pakistan–Afghanistan border, with headquarters in Quetta and Peshawar. Although members of
the corps are typically recruited from the local population, officers are assigned from the
Pakistan Army. The FC‘s main tasks are border patrol and interdiction; however, they also assist
local law enforcement agencies.
FC units frequently serve in the vanguard of operations against insurgents and other militants in
the western provinces. They are poorly equipped and ill-trained for such operations, so both the
United States and the United Kingdom have provided training and aid for the organization.411, 412,
413
Current strength for the organization is estimated at 80,000 troops. The Pakistani government
intends to use Western aid to expand the FC and transform it into a counterterrorism force.414
407
Hassan Abbas, Police and Law Enforcement Reform in Pakistan: Crucial for Counterinsurgency and
Counterterrorism Success (Clinton, MI: Institute for Social Policy and Understanding, April 2009),
http://belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/publication/18976/police_law_enforcement_reform_in_pakistan.html
408
Muddassir Rizvi, ―India/Pakistan: Torture is Routine Pakistani Police Procedure,‖ Asia Times Online, 10
December 1999, http://www.atimes.com/ind-pak/AL10Df02.html
409
David Rohde, ―Threats and Responses: Law Enforcement; Pakistan‘s Police Force Struggles to Find the
Resources It Needs to Combat Terrorism,‖ New York Times, 30 September 2002,
http://www.nytimes.com/2002/09/30/world/threats-responses-law-enforcement-pakistan-s-police-force-struggles-
find.html
410
Paul Wiseman and Zafar M. Sheikh, ―Pakistani Police Underfunded, Overwhelmed,‖ USA Today, 5 May 2009,
http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2009-05-05-pakistancops_N.htm
411
Office of Management and Budget, Executive Office of the President, Appendix, Budget of the United States
Government, Fiscal Year 2012 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 2011), 337–338.
412
Jeremy Page, ―British Forces Train Pakistan‘s Frontier Corps to Fight al-Qaeda,‖ Sunday Times (UK), 21 March
2009, http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article5946916.ece
413
GlobalSecurity, ―Frontier Corps,‖ 19 February 2009,
http://www.globalsecurity.org/intell/world/pakistan/frontier-corps.htm
414
April 2011.
74 | © D L I F L C
Intelligence Agencies
Pakistan has three major intelligence agencies: the Directorate for Inter-Services Intelligence
(ISI), the Intelligence Bureau, and the Military Intelligence. There is a high degree of rivalry and
tension between the three agencies, so they do not work closely together.415
To address this situation, and similar to reform in the U.S. intelligence community, Pakistan is
striving to create a more centralized intelligence structure with a new entity, the National
Counter Terrorism Authority, at the head of the intelligence bureaucracy. Its task would be to
assure greater cooperation between the agencies. But the government has been unable to pass
legislation to allow the new organization to operate.416
Directorate for Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI)

This agency is by far the strongest of the Pakistani
intelligence agencies. Its core responsibilities involve
covert surveillance, collection of foreign and domestic
intelligence, and covert operations. The ISI has used its
ties to drug dealers and Islamic extremists to influence
events in Pakistan, Afghanistan, and the Kashmir
region of India. As the Taliban began to threaten the
government‘s existence in 2009, however, the ISI
increased its cooperation with American intelligence
officials by joining forces to conduct raids and bombings, even as each side sought conflicting
long-range goals.417, 418
Military Intelligence (MI)

MI, which ostensibly was charged solely with military matters, gained importance during the
Musharraf regime and encroached upon the responsibilities typically assigned to the rival ISI. MI
has become increasingly influential in internal security and domestic political matters.419
Intelligence Bureau (IB)

Reporting directly to the prime minister, the IB is tasked with ―national police affairs and
counterintelligence.420, 421 The agency has frequently been used by military and civilian regimes
to target rivals and manipulate elections.422
415
Husain Haqqani, Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for
International Peace, 2005), 110.
416
April 2011.
417
GlobalSecurity, ―Intelligence: Directorate for Inter-Services Intelligence [ISI],‖ 26 April 2005,
http://www.globalsecurity.org/intell/world/pakistan/isi.htm
418
New York Times, ―Inter-Services Intelligence,‖ 11 May 2010,
http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/organizations/i/interservices_intelligence/index.html?scp=3&sq
=is%20musharraf%20a%20pashtun&st=cse
419
STRATFOR, ―Pakistan: Military Intelligence, Politics and the Jihadist Struggle,‖ 26 February 2008,
http://www.stratfor.com/analysis/pakistan_military_intelligence_politics_and_jihadist_struggle
420
Peter Lyon, Conflict Between India and Pakistan: An Encyclopedia (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2008), 84.
421
PakistaniDefence, ―Overview of the Intelligence Services,‖ n.d.,
http://www.pakistanidefence.com/Info/Intelligence.html
422
75 | © D L I F L C
Issues Affecting Internal Stability
Militant Groups
Numerous extremist and terrorist groups, ranging from
local organizations to transnational networks, operate in
Pakistan. Al-Qaeda, the most well-known of these groups,
operates mainly along the border of Afghanistan in the
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province, the Federally
Administered Tribal Areas (FATA), and Balochistan.
Insurgents are strong enough today to spread their
influence and to target areas in major urban centers and in military and government installations.
Terrorist incidents arising from ethnic strife, Sunni–Shi‘a tensions, and militant sub-nationalists
have become more sophisticated, coordinated, and frequent since 2007. The government has
made efforts at peace, but also has conducted military offensives such as those in the Swat
Valley and Waziristan. The Pashtun tribal areas adjacent to the Afghanistan border continue to
be a particular security concern. In the annual report on terrorism released in April 2009, the U.S.
State Department labeled much of Pakistan as ―safe havens for AQ [al-Qaeda] terrorists, Afghan
insurgents, and other terrorist groups.‖423
The Pakistani military continues to confront the Taliban and other militant groups in northwest
Pakistan. The American military has used drone attacks to target militants in that region over the
last several years.
Islamist Groups
Al-Qaeda is pan-Islamic in its scope, aiming at the reestablishment of the caliphate and the
creation of Islamic states throughout the Muslim world. To date, it has proved to be the most
lethal and wide ranging of terrorist organizations. Many top-level operatives have been captured
or killed. It is believed that many leading figures of the organization are hiding in Pakistan.424
Another important Islamist group closely associated with al-Qaeda is Tehrik-e-Taliban, an

umbrella organization of the Taliban groups in the region. A U.S. missile killed the former
Pakistani Taliban leader Baitullah Mehsud in Waziristan. Mehsud‘s fighters, Tehrik-e-Taliban,
have been blamed for the subsequent wave of terrorist bomb attacks in October 2009.425 More
than 150 people died in 5 separate incidents in 12 days.426 The group is also linked to the failed
car bombing in Times Square in New York City in 2010.427
423
Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism, U.S. Department of State, ―Chapter 2. Country Reports: South
and Central Asia Overview,‖ 5 August 2010, http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/crt/2009/140887.htm
424
Jane‘s Defence, ―Non-State Armed Groups, Pakistan,‖ Jane’s Sentinel Security Assessment—South Asia, 26
April 2011.
425
BBC News, ―Q and A: Militancy in Afghanistan and Pakistan,‖ 20 October 2009,
426
BBC News, ―Deadly Bomb Shakes Pakistani City,‖ 16 October 2009, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8310117.stm
427
April 2011.
76 | © D L I F L C
Under the leadership of Hakimullah Mehsud, previously noted for his attacks on NATO convoys
and the capture of hundreds of Pakistani soldiers, the Tehrik-e-Taliban remains a viable and
deadly force.428, 429
Sectarian Groups
The Lashkar-e-Jhangvi is a Sunni terrorist group aimed
at creating a Sunni Islamic state in Pakistan. Its
leadership is drawn from mujahidin who fought the
Soviet Union in Afghanistan. They are anti-Shi‘ite and
have frequently attacked Shi‘ite minorities in Pakistan.430
On 14 October 2010, Pakistani police in Multan arrested
members of the group who were planning to assassinate
Prime Minister Gilani.431 The group had previously
threatened to carry out similar attacks against then-Prime
Minister Nawaz Sharif.432
By contrast, Sipah-e-Mohammed, or Soldiers of Muhammad, is a Shi‘ite organization that seeks

to establish a Shi‘ite Islamic state in Pakistan. Other aims of the organization focus on the
liberation of Shi‘ite communities in other countries.433 The group targets law enforcement
officials and Sunnis.434
Ethnic Nationalist Groups

A number of organizations operate in Balochistan and Kashmir with the intent of creating a
separate ethnic homeland or gaining greater autonomy for their people. Among the Baluchi, the
Balochistan Liberation Army, Baluch People‘s Liberation Front, Baluch Republican Army,
Lashkar-e-Balochistan, Baluch Students‘ Organization—Awami, and Baluch Mussalah Difa
Organization are a few of the more prominent groups. In general, these groups aim at carving an
independent Balochistan from Baluchi majority areas in Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Iran.435
These groups claim to have made significant progress in recruiting new members in recent years,
and on 16 April 2011, they attacked a regional gas pipeline, rendering it inoperable. In what
428
BBC News, ―Profile: Hakimullah Mehsud,‖ 3 May 2010, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8219223.stm
429
April 2011.
430
April 2011.
431
South Asia Terrorism Portal, ―Lashkar-e-Jhangvi,‖ 2011,
http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/pakistan/terroristoutfits/lej.htm
432
John R. Hinnells and Richard King, eds., Religion and Violence in South Asia: Theory and Practice (New York:
Routledge, 2007), 156.
433
South Asia Terrorism Portal, ―Sipah-e-Mohammed Pakistan, Terrorist Group of Pakistan,‖ 2011,
http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/pakistan/terroristoutfits/SMP.htm
434
April 2011.
435
South Asia Terrorism Portal, ―Balocistan Assessment—2011,‖ 2011,
http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/pakistan/Balochistan/index.html
77 | © D L I F L C
seemed to be a response to this attack, the Pakistan Army withdrew from the related gas fields
and handed security for the area to the Frontier Corps.436
In Kashmir, the key groups include Harakat-ul-Mujahideen (Movement of Holy Warriors),

Lashkar-e-Taiba (Army of the Pure), and Jaish-e-Mohammed (Army of Muhammad). Although
these organizations differ in their aims for Kashmir, they all perceive their main enemy to be
India. They have carried out attacks in that country from safe havens inside Pakistan and
Pakistani-controlled Kashmir. Tactics include suicide bombings, assassinations, car bombings,
and similar terror techniques.437, 438
Water Security
Water—specifically, the lack of access to safe drinking
water—is a critical issue in Pakistan.439 Since water
scarcity is a regional issue, water rights disputes have
led to conflicts between neighboring countries.440 At the
current rate of usage, Pakistan is expected to reach
water-famine status by 2020. By 2015, water shortage
will stop farming, the primary economic activity of
about 70% of the population. At any time, Pakistan only
has 30 days of stored river water, and, along with India
and China, harvests most of its water.441 Pakistan‘s economy and population rely almost entirely
on the snowmelt into the Indus River system from mountains in India. Its availability and quality
determines food security, economic growth, energy production, and human health.
The Indus Treaty of 1960 split the Punjab rivers between Pakistan and India. Though it allocates
the eastern parts of the rivers to India and the western parts of the rivers to Pakistan, Indian dams
built on the eastern rivers divert the waters and reduce water flow to Pakistan.442, 443 On the
western side of Pakistan‘s border, the Kabul River, emanating from Afghanistan, is facing
increased demand for infrastructure development and population growth.444
436
April 2011.
437
South Asia Terrorism Portal, ―Jaish-e-Mohammed (Army of the Prophet),‖ 2011,
http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/states/jandk/terrorist_outfits/jaish_e_mohammad_mujahideen_e_tanze
em.htm
438
April 2011.
439
Claudia Parsons, ―Asia Must Tackle Water Security Threat—Report,‖ Reuters, 17 April 2009,
http://www.reuters.com/article/2009/04/17/idUSN17333558
440
Rakhika Viswanathan, ―Water Security and the Politicisation of Water in India,‖ Climatico, 29 January 2009,
http://www.climaticoanalysis.org/post/water-security-and-the-politicisation-of-water-in-india/
441
Sanjeev Miglani, ―Pakistan‘s Cry for Water,‖ in Pakistan: Now or Never? Perspectives on Pakistan (blog),
Reuters, 26 August 2009 http://blogs.reuters.com/pakistan/2009/08/26/pakistans-cry-for-water/
442
OneIndia News, ―Pakistan Questions India on Kishanganga Dam,‖ 13 April 2009,
http://news.oneindia.in/2009/04/13/pakquestions-construction-of-kishan-ganga-dam-by-india.html
443
P. Stobdan, ―IDSA Comment: Pakistan‘s Water Wars with India?‖ Institute for Defence Studies & Analyses, 13
February 2009, http://www.idsa.in/idsastrategiccomments/PakistansWaterWarswithIndia_PStobdan_130209
444
Parliamentarians Network for Conflict Prevention and Human Security, ―Management of the Kabul River and
Afghanistan‘s Relations with Pakistan,‖ 28 May 2009,
78 | © D L I F L C
Looking Forward
U.S. officials believe Pakistan must do more to find,
weaken, and capture militants, especially the Taliban
leadership in Quetta, as well as those who are supplying
their brethren in Afghanistan.445 Pakistani security
services and coalition forces have cooperated in border
security, criminal investigations, and other long-term
projects to fight militancy in Pakistan and abroad.
Pakistan has arrested or detained over 50 members of
Lashkar-e-Taiba believed to be responsible for the
Mumbai attacks that killed 174 in November 2008.446 But it appears that the group, previously
active primarily in the disputed area of Kashmir, has extended the scope of its activities. In April
2011, U.S. Admiral Robert Willard testified before the Senate Armed Services that Lashkar-e-
Taiba had carried out attacks in India and Afghanistan. He stated they also were responsible for
providing materiel for a series of bombings in 2004 and 2005 in Bangladesh.447
In April 2011, Prime Minister Gilani urged visiting members of the U.S. Congress to convince
the Obama administration to share unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) technology with his country.
He claimed this would enable Pakistan to take a more active role in the fight against terrorists
operating in Pakistan, and reiterated his request that the U.S. refrain from using its UAVs to
carry out such attacks inside Pakistan. In 2010, the U.S. Department of Defense indicated that it
is open to the idea of providing Pakistan with such weaponry.448
http://www.parliamentariansforconflictprevention.net/meeting/management-kabul-river-and-
afghanistan%E2%80%99s-relations-pakistan
445
Jayshree Bajoria, ―Pakistan‘s New Generation of Terrorists‖ (background report, Council on Foreign Relations),
26 October 2009, http://www.cfr.org/publication/15422/
446
Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism, U.S. Department of State, ―Chapter 2. Country Reports: South
and Central Asia Overview,‖ 30 April 2009, http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/crt/2008/122434.htm
447
Jane‘s Defence, ―US Warns of Pakistani Militant Group‘s International Ambitions,‖ Jane’s Intelligence Weekly,
20 April 2011.
448
Jon Grevatt, ―Pakistan Calls for UAV Purchase to Engender Military Independence,‖ Jane’s Asia—Pacific
Industry Reporter, 19 April 2011.
79 | © D L I F L C
The 2011 acquittal of a Central Intelligence Agency contractor accused of murder in Pakistan
failed to produce a thaw between the United States and Pakistan. Rather, the act further alienated
the unpopular government of Prime Minister Gilani and President Zardari from the public.
Repeated U.S. UAV attacks against terrorist targets in Pakistan and the May 2011 covert
operation to kill Osama bin Laden have strained the fragile relationship more. This situation is
exacerbated by the fact that Pakistan‘s civilian government exerts little control over its
military.449, 450
All of this has led to a general concern about the stability of the Pakistani government and the
growing belief that a new general election or military coup is likely.451
449
Jane‘s Defence, ―US Relations with Pakistan Under Strain Again,‖ Jane’s Intelligence Weekly, 19 April 2011.
450
Jane Perlez and Ismail Khan, ―Pakistan Tells U.S. It Must Sharply Cut C.I.A. Activities,‖ New York Times, 11
April 2011,
http://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/12/world/asia/12pakistan.html?_r=1&scp=49&sq=pakistan%20intelligence&st=c
se
451
C. Christine Fair and Shuja Nawaz, ―The Changing Pakistan Army Officer Corps,‖ Journal of Strategic Studies
34, no. 1 (February 2011): 63–94.
80 | © D L I F L C
1. Prior to the 9/11 attacks, Pakistan supported the Taliban regime in Afghanistan.
True
For years, Pakistan had supported the predominantly Pashtun Taliban government in
neighboring Afghanistan. In the aftermath of the 9/11 attacks, Pakistan renounced its
relationship with the Taliban. Still, many Taliban and al-Qaeda fighters found refuge in
Pakistan, fleeing U.S. and allied forces after the ouster of the Taliban regime in Afghanistan.
2. Despite changes in the leadership, U.S.–Pakistan relations have remained completely

harmonious.
False
The United States has increasingly criticized Pakistan‘s efforts to suppress the Taliban. The
U.S. government has been especially persistent in demanding that Pakistan launch an
offensive against the Pakistani Taliban in the North Waziristan region.
3. Relations between Pakistan and India are friendly.

False
The two have fought three major wars against one another, and they still dispute the area of
Kashmir. Militants based in Pakistan and Pakistan-controlled Kashmir frequently launch
terrorist attacks against sites in India.
4. Pakistan and China enjoy close military and diplomatic relations.

True
In 1950, Pakistan was one of the first non-Communist countries to recognize the People‘s
Republic of China, and diplomatic relations between the two have been generally good.
5. Pakistan‘s has one of the smallest armed forces in the world.

False
Pakistan has the seventh-largest armed force in the world, though it has insufficient training
and out-of-date equipment. A 2008 estimate placed its total strength, including paramilitary
forces and civilian personnel, at approximately 900,000.
81 | © D L I F L C
Final Assessment
1. One of the biggest environmental concerns in Pakistan is water quality. True or False?
2. Karachi is the only Pakistani city with a population in excess of 1 million people.
True or False?
3. The partition of British India into the independent countries of Pakistan and India had a
tremendous impact upon the demographics of Pakistani cities. True or False?
4. The recurring wars in Afghanistan have profoundly affected the demographics in the city of
Peshawar. True or False?
5. Pakistan enjoys a tropical climate with ample rainfall. True or False?
6. The Mason-Dixon Line has served as the demarcation between Afghanistan and Pakistan
since the late 19th century. True or False?
7. Political disagreements and personal rivalries split the Hindu and Muslim communities
during the years leading up to and following independence in 1947. True or False?
8. The Partition of British India into the independent countries of Pakistan and India caused
great violence and mass migrations. True or False?
9. Pakistan has been a model of democratic governance in an otherwise chaotic region.

True or False?
10. Pakistan–United States relations are strong and warm. True or False?
11. Pakistan, an oil producing nation, provides for its domestic use and exports excess supplies
of petroleum-based products. True or False?
12. The perception among Balochis that the Pakistani government exploits the vast natural
resources of the region is a chief motivation of unrest in the region. True or False?
13. Foreign direct investment, which first began to grow in the early 2000s, has continued to do
so in recent years. True or False?
14. Pakistan‘s unemployment rate has remained in the single digits. True or False?
15. The Pakistani government has actively pursued the privatization of government assets.
True or False?
16. The vast majority of Pakistanis are Hindu. True or False?
17. In terms of gender relations, Pakistan has a largely egalitarian society. True or False?
82 | © D L I F L C
18. It is not uncommon in major urban areas to see Pakistanis wearing Western clothes.
True or False?
19. Unlike other South Asian cuisine, Pakistani cooking is noted for its uniform blandness.
True or False?
20. The majority of Muslims in Pakistan are Shi‘ites. True or False?
21. Much of Pakistan‘s military hardware is outdated. True or False?
22. Pakistan‘s police force is woefully understaffed and has frequently been cited for human
rights violations. True or False?
23. The Frontier Corps‘ main tasks are border patrol and interdiction. True or False?
24. The U.S. government has insinuated that the Directorate for Inter-Services Intelligence is in
league with the Taliban and associated militant organizations. True or False?
25. Over the last several years, the Pakistani military has been successful in eradicating most
militant organizations operating in the country. True or False?
83 | © D L I F L C
Further Reading
Abbas, Hassan. Pakistan’s Drift into Extremism: Allah, the Army, and America’s War on Terror.
Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2005.
Bhutto, Benazir. Reconciliation: Islam, Democracy, and the West. New York: Harper, 2008.
Gerolymatos, André. ―Pakistan‘s Inter-Services Intelligence and Organized Terror in South

Asia.‖ In Castles Made of Sand: A Century of Anglo-American Espionage and Intervention in
the Middle East. New York: Thomas Dunne Books, 2010.
Haqqani, Husain. Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military. Washington, DC: Carnegie
Endowment for International Peace and Brookings Institution Press, 2005.
Hussein, Zahid. Frontline Pakistan: The Struggle with Militant Islam. New York: Columbia
University Press, 2007.
Jones, Seth G., and C. Christine Fair. Counterinsurgency in Pakistan. Santa Monica, CA: Rand
Corporation, 2010.
Menon, Ritu, and Kamla Bhasin. Borders & Boundaries: Women in India’s Partition. New
Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1998.
Mines, Diane P., and Sarah Lamb, eds. Everyday Life in South Asia, 2nd ed. Bloomington:
Indiana University Press, 2010.
Sarin, Victor, Patricia Finn, Tina Pehme, et al. Partition. Woodland Hills, CA: Distributed by
Allumination FilmWorks, 2007.
Shaikh, Farzana. Making Sense of Pakistan. New York: Columbia University Press, 2009.
84 | © D L I F L C

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Chapter 1: Geography ................................................................................................................................... 7

Pakistan controls two important passes, the Khyber and

On the eve of independence, the colonial authorities

Some dry areas have infertile soils, however, and cannot

Indus River Delta and Sindh Coast

The Ravi is the smallest of the Punjab rivers and is the

City Name Province Population 2009 est.49

Islamabad and Rawalpindi

Modern Multan is tied to the surrounding rural regions,

3. Pakistan is highly susceptible to earthquakes.

5. The Ganges River is the most significant river in Pakistan.

The Indus Valley Civilizations

The Early Islamic Empires

The British Enter the Indus River Plain

Independence and Partition

The Nation of Pakistan

Bhutto and ul-Haq

Back to Military Control

In fact, public dissatisfaction with Zardari, Gilani, and

2. Zia ended martial law in 1985.

Though Pakistan‘s economy was often characterized as

The agricultural sector contributes to Pakistan‘s

Pakistan‘s commercial aviation and port industries have

Banking and Finance

As a result of consolidation, modernization, and

The ongoing privatization of government-owned

3. Tobacco is the most important cash crop in Pakistan.

Sunni and Shi’a Islam

Violence toward Women

Bills of Protection for Women

2. Sindhi is the national language of Pakistan.

3. The Muhajirs are an ethnic group indigenous to Pakistan.

4. Pashtunwali is the term used for the Pashtuns‘ code of conduct.

The already complicated story of Pakistan began a new

United States–Pakistan Relations

Relations with Neighboring Countries

With Indian assistance, Iran has recently built a new

During Taliban rule in Afghanistan, Pakistan accepted approximately 2 million Afghani

Law and Order

Estimates place the number of Pakistani police at about

Frontier Corps (FC)

Directorate for Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI)

Military Intelligence (MI)

Intelligence Bureau (IB)

Another important Islamist group closely associated with al-Qaeda is Tehrik-e-Taliban, an

By contrast, Sipah-e-Mohammed, or Soldiers of Muhammad, is a Shi‘ite organization that seeks

Ethnic Nationalist Groups

In Kashmir, the key groups include Harakat-ul-Mujahideen (Movement of Holy Warriors),

2. Despite changes in the leadership, U.S.–Pakistan relations have remained completely

3. Relations between Pakistan and India are friendly.

4. Pakistan and China enjoy close military and diplomatic relations.

5. Pakistan‘s has one of the smallest armed forces in the world.

5. Pakistan enjoys a tropical climate with ample rainfall. True or False?

9. Pakistan has been a model of democratic governance in an otherwise chaotic region.

16. The vast majority of Pakistanis are Hindu. True or False?

20. The majority of Muslims in Pakistan are Shi‘ites. True or False?

21. Much of Pakistan‘s military hardware is outdated. True or False?

Gerolymatos, André. ―Pakistan‘s Inter-Services Intelligence and Organized Terror in South

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