INTERNAL EROSION OF DAMS AND THEIR FOUNDATIONS

BALKEMA – Proceedings and Monographs

in Engineering, Water and Earth Sciences
SELECTED AND REVIEWED PAPERS FROM THE WORKSHOP ON INTERNAL EROSION AND
PIPING OF DAMS AND THEIR FOUNDATIONS, AUSSOIS, FRANCE, 25–27 APRIL 2005

Internal Erosion of Dams and

their Foundations
Editors
Robin Fell
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The University of New South Wales,
Sydney, Australia

Jean-Jacques Fry
Electricité de France, Le Bourget du Lac Cedex, France

LONDON / LEIDEN / NEW YORK / PHILADELPHIA / SINGAPORE

Taylor & Francis is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK

Typeset by Charon Tec Ltd (A Macmillan Company), Chennai, India

Printed and bound in Great Britain by Anthony Rowe Ltd (a CPI-group company),
Chippenham, Wiltshire

All rights reserved. No part of this publication or the information contained herein may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, by
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without written prior permission from the publishers.

Although all care is taken to ensure integrity and the quality of this publication and the information herein,
no responsibility is assumed by the publishers nor the author for any damage to the property or
persons as a result of operation or use of this publication and/or the information contained herein.

Published by: Taylor & Francis/Balkema

P.O. Box 447, 2300 AK Leiden, The Netherlands
e-mail: Pub.NL@tandf.co.uk
www.balkema.nl, www.taylorandfrancis.co.uk, www.crcpress.com

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Internal erosion of dams and their foundations/editors, Robin Fell,
Jean-Jacques Fry.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 978-0-415-43724-0 (hardcover: alk. paper)
1. Dam failures. 2. Soil erosion. 3. Dams—Foundations. I. Fell,
Robin. II. Fry, J. J. (Jean J.)

TC550.2.I58 2007
627
.8—dc22 2007002563

ISBN: 978-0-415-43724-0 (Hbk)

 Internal Erosion of Dams and their Foundations – Fell & Fry (eds)
© 2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-43724-0

Table of Contents

Preface VII

Overview paper

The state of the art of assessing the likelihood of internal erosion of embankment dams, water
retaining structures and their foundations. 1
R. Fell & J.J. Fry

Submitted papers

Assessing the vulnerability of dams to internal erosion 25

R.C. Bridle
Internal erosion in Porjus dam – risk assessment and proposal for upgrading 35
M. Bartsch
Issues in the management of internal erosion in UK embankment dams 45
A.J. Brown
Bureau of Reclamation experience with evaluating internal erosion of embankment dams 55
J.M. Cyganiewicz, W.O. Engemoen & C.G. Redlinger
A framework for assessing the likelihood of internal erosion and piping of embankment dams and
their foundations 65
R. Fell, M.A. Foster & C.F. Wan
Assessment of the likelihood of initiation of erosion in embankment dams 71
R. Fell, C.F. Wan & M.A. Foster
Application of no, excessive and continuing erosion criteria to existing dams 103
M.A. Foster
Re-evaluation of internal erosion incidents at Matahina Dam, New Zealand 115
M.D. Gillon
Detection of internal erosion in embankment dams using temperature, resistivity and
SP measurements 133
S. Johansson
Internal stability of particles in dam cores made of cohesionless broadly graded moraines 151
J. Lafleur & P.H. Nguyen
A specific triaxial device for the study of internal erosion in cohesive soils 159
D. Marot, A. Alexis & F. Bendahmane
The susceptibility of internal erosion in the Suorva Dam 167
Å. Nilsson
Filters and internal erosion in Swedish dams 173
Å. Nilsson

V
Hydraulic criteria for internal erosion in cohesionless soil 179
S. Perzlmaier
Evaluation of erosion of soil used in dykes and earth embankments which are subjected to flood 191
P. Reiffsteck
Evaluating internal instability and internal erosion in a selection of existing Swedish
embankment dams 203
H.F. Rönnqvist
A review of Corps of Engineers levee seepage practices in the United States 209
G.L. Sills, PE & N. Vroman
Investigation of internal erosion by the process of suffusion in embankment dams and their
foundations 219
C.F. Wan & R. Fell
FIREBIRD_Breach: A numerical model for breach formation in earthfill dams by overtopping
of the crest 235
P. Wang & R. Kahawita

Subject Index 243

Author Index 245

VI
 Internal Erosion of Dams and their Foundations – Fell & Fry (eds)
© 2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-43724-0

Preface

Internal erosion and piping in embankments and their foundations is the main cause of failures and accidents
to embankment dams. For new dams the potential for internal erosion and piping can be controlled by
good design and construction of the core of the dam and provision of filters to intercept seepage through
the embankment and the foundations.
However many existing dams were not provided with filters or transition zones and are susceptible
to internal erosion and piping failure. This has been recognized by dam owners and engineers and there
has been research carried out in recent years to better understand the physical processes and mechanics
of internal erosion. The editors believed that there would be considerable benefits in gathering together
international experts on the topic in order to define the state of the art and to seek their ideas on research
needs.
Electricité de France (EDF) and the Institut pour la Recherche Appliquée et l’Expérimentation, (IREX)
agreed to sponsor a Workshop on Internal Erosion and Piping of Dams and their Foundations which was
held from the 25th to 27th April 2005 in Aussois, France, with two objectives: (a) Definition of the main
types of physical processes of internal erosion, and of the framework upon which the safety assessment
of all the internal erosion incidents of water retaining structures can be based. (b) Assessment of current
research needs.
This book presents an overview paper which is a consensus report on the State of the Art and research
needs. It has been prepared based on the papers and discussion at the Workshop and has been reviewed by
the attendees. Also presented is a selection of the papers presented at the Workshop. These cover the whole
internal erosion process from initiation of erosion, continuation (whether filters are effective), progression
to form a pipe, and formation of a breach.

Robin Fell
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
The University of New South Wales,
Sydney, Australia
Jean-Jacques Fry
Electricité de France,
Le Bourget du Lac Cedex,
France

VII
 Internal Erosion of Dams and their Foundations – Fell & Fry (eds)
© 2007 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-43724-0

The state of the art of assessing the likelihood of internal erosion of

embankment dams, water retaining structures and their foundations

Robin Fell
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia

Jean-Jacques Fry
Electricité de France CIH, Le Bourget Cedex, France

ABSTRACT: An International Workshop on Internal Erosion of Embankment Dams and their Foundations
was held in Aussois, France from 25th to 27th July 2006.This paper presents a consensus report on the State of
the Art. It has been prepared based on the papers and discussions at the Workshop, and has been reviewed by the
attendees.
The internal erosion process is considered in terms of initiation of erosion, continuation (whether filters will
stop erosion), progression, detection and intervention, and breach.
Research needs to improve the prediction of the likelihood of internal erosion are described.

1 INTRODUCTION The method was developed in 4 steps:

1. Attendees were issued an invitation to attend the
Electricité de France (EDF) owns 400 dams (including
workshop. The invitation included a questionnaire
150 large embankment dams) and 584 km of dykes,
designed to focus technical papers and discussion
the majority of which are very old. Internal ero-
on the main phenomena and problems in dams and
sion is the major potential mode of failure of these
their foundations. The questionnaire is attached in
structures. In view of this, EDF wishes to improve
Appendix B
its methods for assessing the likelihood of internal
2. Submission of papers by workshop attendees to
erosion of its dams and dykes. Given the contradict-
consider answers to the questions.
ory information contained in the literature, EDF felt
3. Presentation of papers, discussions and workshop
that there was a need to gather together international
sessions to compare experience and judgement,
experts on the topic in order to define the state of
followed by writing of a synthesis of the main
the art.
conclusions reached at the workshop.
The Institut pour la Recherche Appliquée et
4. Submission of final synthesis and papers, taking
l’Expérimentation, (IREX) is about to launch a
into account additional questions and comments on
research program on internal erosion of dams and
the draft from attendees.
dykes, and supported the idea of gathering experts
and to seek their ideas on research needs. Six topics describing the internal erosion failure
With this background, a workshop was held from process were discussed at the workshop:
the 25th to 27th April 2005 in Aussois, France, with
• Topic 1 – Initiation.
two objectives:
• Topic 2 – Continuation.
1. Definition of the main types of physical processes • Topic 3 – Progression.
of internal erosion, and of the framework upon • Topic 4 – Breach (failure).
which the safety assessment of all the internal ero- • Topic 5 – Detection and Intervention.
sion incidents of water retaining structures can be • Topic 6 – Frameworks and Decision Processes.
based.
This paper has been prepared by Robin Fell of
2. Assessment of current research needs.
the School of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
The workshop was attended by 37 people. The list the University of New South Wales, Sydney, Aus-
of attendees is provided in Appendix A. tralia, and Jean-Jacques Fry of the Centre d’Ingénierie

1
 INITIATION → CONTINUATION
Leakage exits on d/s side Continuation of erosion
of core and backward erosion
initiates
Figure 1. Diagram of internal erosion in the embankment by backward erosion (Foster & Fell, 1999a).
COLLAPSE OF PIPE LEADING
TO LOSS OF FREEBOARD
OUTFLOW
ENLARGING
Breach by pipe enlargement
Figure 2a. Potential breach (failure) phenomena-pipe enlargement and slope instability.
d’Hydraulique (CIH), Electricité de France, Le Bour-
get, France, who were the principal organizers of the
workshop. Gregg Barker of Hydro Tasmania, Hobart,
Australia (who was working on secondment to Elec-
tricité de France) also assisted with the organization
of the workshop and with the preparation of this
synthesis.
This synthesis is a record of the main conclusions
from the workshop and summaries the research needs.
It was prepared in a draft form, has been reviewed
by the attendees and represents, so far as is practic-
able, a consensus of views of those who attended the
workshop.
2 DEFINITIONS
For the purposes of this paper, the following def-
initions are used. The definitions are presented in
alphabetical order.
Backward erosion. Backward erosion involves the
detachment of soils particles when the seepage exits
to a free unfiltered surface, such as the ground surface
downstream of a soil foundation or the downstream
face of a homogeneous embankment or a coarse
rockfill zone immediately downstream from the fine
grained core. The detached particles are carried away
2
→ PROGRESSION → BREACH/FAILURE
Backward ero- Breach mechanism
sion progresses forms
back to the reservoir
PORE PRESSURES INCREASE
WITH INTERNAL EROSION SLOPE INSTABILITY OF
DOWNSTREAM SHOULDER
ORIGINAL PORE
PRESSURES
Breach by slope instability
by the seepage flow and the process gradually works
its way towards the upstream side of the embankment
or its foundation until a continuous pipe is formed
(Figure 1).
Breach. Breach is the final phase of internal erosion.
It may occur by one of the following four phenomena
(listed below in order of their observed frequency of
occurrence). The breach phenomena are also shown
graphically in Figure 2.
• Gross enlargement of the pipe (which may include
the development of a sinkhole from the pipe to the
crest of the embankment).
• Slope instability of the downstream slope.
• Unravelling of the downstream face.
• Overtopping (e.g. due to settlement of the crest from
suffusion and/or due to the formation of a sinkhole
from a pipe in the embankment).
Concentrated leak erosion. Erosion in a concen-
trated leak may occur in a crack in an embankment
or its foundation, caused by differential settlement,
desiccation, freezing, and thawing, and by hydraulic
fracture; or it may occur in a continuous perme-
able zone containing coarse and/or poorly compacted
materials which form an interconnecting voids system
(Figure 3). The concentration of flow causes erosion
(sometimes called scour) of the walls of the crack or
interconnected voids.
 CREST SET TLES & PIPE OUTFLOW EXCEEDS
DAM OVERTOPS ROCKFILL CAPACITY;
FINE FRACTION
ROCKFILL DISLOGES
MIGRATES
CAUSING SLOPE IN-
STABILITY

CLAY
CORE

SUFFUSIVE COARSE FRACTION

ZONE REMAINS

Breach by overtopping by settlement Breach by unravelling of the downstream face

Figure 2b. Potential breach (failure) phenomena-overtopping by settlement and unravelling of the downstream face.

INITIATION → CONTINUATION → PROGRESSION → BREACH/FAILURE

Concentrated leak forms and erosion Continuation of erosion Enlargement of con- Breach mechanism forms
initiates along walls of crack centrated leak

Figure 3. Diagram of internal erosion in the embankment in a concentrated leak (Foster & Fell 1999a).

Continuing Erosion Detection. Detection is the ability to detect the

CONTINUING Boundary internal erosion process during one of the erosion
EROSION
phases. Currently, internal erosion is most easily
DF15 EXCESSIVE detected in the progression or breach phases.
EROSION Excessive Erosion Excessive erosion. The filter is between the exces-
SOME
Boundary sive erosion and continuing erosion criteria and seals
EROSION but after ‘excessive’ erosion of the base soil.
No Erosion
Failure mode. Failure mode describes how the
NO EROSION Boundary dam could fail for the particular loading condition. It
includes the definition of loading, the internal erosion
Other factor e.g. DB85
path and internal erosion phases (initiation of ero-
sion, continuation, progression and breach). In event
Figure 4. Conceptual filter erosion boundaries (Foster, tree analysis, each failure mode is represented by one
1999), Foster & Fell (1999b, 2001). complete event tree.
Heave (also known as ‘blow out’ or ‘liquefac-
tion’) occurs in cohesionless soils when seepage pore
Continuation. Continuation is the phase where the pressures are such that the effective stress becomes
relationship of the particle size distribution between zero (pore pressure equals total stress). ‘Heave’ may
the base (core) material and the filter controls whether often be followed by backward erosion if the seepage
or not erosion will continue. Foster and Fell (1999b, gradients remain high at the surface.
2001) and Foster (1999) define four levels of sever- Hydraulic fracture occurs in the core of embank-
ity of continuation from ‘no erosion’ to ‘continuing ment dams when the minor principal stress in the core
erosion’ (Figure 4). Definitions the levels of sever- becomes zero or even slightly negative if the soil can
ity of continuation are provided in this section in withstand tensile stresses. The pressure of the water
alphabetical order. seeping through the core from the reservoir exceeds
Factors such as the dispersivity of the soil may also the remaining compressive stress and forms a crack
affect the continuation phase. or further opens an existing crack in which internal
Continuing erosion. The filter is coarser than erosion may initiate.
the continuing erosion criteria and is too coarse Initiation. Initiation is the first phase of internal
to allow the eroded base materials to seal the erosion, when one of the phenomena of detach-
filter. ment of particles occurs. Four initiation phenomena

3
are defined: concentrated leak, backward erosion,
suffusion and soil contact erosion (each of which are
defined separately in this section).
Internal erosion. Occurs when soil particles within
an embankment dam or its foundation, are carried
downstream by seepage flow. Internal erosion can ini-
tiate by concentrated leak erosion, backward erosion,
suffusion and soil contact erosion.
Internal erosion path. Internal erosion path is the
path of moving eroded particles inside the dam and/or
its foundation.
Internal erosion phases. Internal erosion of
embankment dams and their foundations can be re-
presented by four phases:
• Initiation of erosion.
• Continuation of erosion (i.e. whether there are
filters capable of stopping the erosion process).
• Progression to form and sustain a pipe and/or to
increase seepage and pore pressures in the down-
stream part of the embankment or its foundation.
• Development of a breach resulting in uncontrolled
release of the water from the reservoir.
Intervention. Intervention is the ability to stop the
internal erosion process during one of the first three
phases and prior to the formation of a breach.
Load. The main loads exerted on a dam are hydro-
static loads (which are related to the reservoir level)
and seismic loads (which may be expressed in terms
of earthquake magnitude and peak ground acceleration
[PGA]). Other potential loads include acts of terrorism
or an aero plane crashing into the dam. The likeli-
hood of a given reservoir level load is expressed as
the annual probability or frequency that the maximum
reservoir level is within a certain range. The likelihood
of a given seismic load is expressed as the annual prob-
ability or frequency of a loading parameter (e.g. peak
ground acceleration) being in a certain range.
Load condition. A load condition is a theoretical
combination of different loads exerted on a dam at a
given time for analysis purposes. The loading condi-
tion is the first node of the internal erosion assessment.
The loading condition controls whether certain failure
modes are possible, and affects the likelihood of each
of the internal erosion phases. Table 3 (Section 4.1.1)
provides some recommended loading conditions.
Location of initiation of erosion. This is the physical
initiating point of internal erosion in the structure such
as in the embankment, foundation, along a conduit
or along a spillway interface. (Refer to Figure 12 in,
Section 4.1.2).
No erosion. The filter is finer than the no erosion
criteria and seals with practically no erosion of the
base material.
Piping. Piping is the form of internal erosion which
initiates by backward erosion, or erosion in a crack or
high permeability zone, and results in the formation
of a continuous tunnel called a ‘pipe’ between the
4
Figure 5. Grading envelopes of some broadly graded soils
which did not self filter (Sherard, 1979).
upstream and the downstream side of the embankment
or its foundation.
Progression. Progression is the third phase of
internal erosion, where hydraulic shear stresses within
the eroding soil may or may not lead to the enlargement
of the pipe. Increases of pore pressure and seepage
occur. The main issues are the likelihood of and rate
of pipe enlargement and whether the pipe will col-
lapse, whether upstream zones may control the erosion
process by flow limitation and whether a pipe will
extend through the low permeability zones of the
embankment.
Self-filtering. In soils which self-filter, the
coarse particles prevent the internal erosion of the
medium particles, which in turn prevent erosion of the
fine particles. Soils which potentially will not self-
filter include those which are susceptible to suffusion
(internal instability), and very broadly graded soils
such as those which fall into the grading envelope
shown in Figure 5. Figure 5 is from Sherard (1979).
The soils had particle size distributions which plotted
nearly as a straight line, were of glacial origin, and the
dams from which the soils were taken had all exhibited
signs of internal erosion. The soils have a volume of
fine particles greater than the volume of voids between
the coarse sand and gravel fraction and the coarser par-
ticles are ‘floating’ in the finer particles. The figure is
not meant to define the boundary of such soils, only
examples.
Soil contact erosion (also described as external or
surface suffusion). Soil contact erosion is a form of
internal erosion which involves selective erosion of
fine particles from the contact with a coarser layer,
for instance along the contact between silt and gravel
sized particles (Figure 6)
Some erosion. The filter is between the no erosion
and continuing erosion criteria and seals after ‘some’
erosion of the base material.
Suffusion and internal instability. Suffusion is a
form of internal erosion which involves selective ero-
sion of fine particles from the matrix of coarser
particles (coarse particles are not floating in the fine
particles). The fine particles are removed through the
voids between the larger particles by seepage flow,
 FINE-GRAINED
MATERIAL

MIGRATION OF FINE MATERIAL INTO

INTERFACE THE COARSE MATERIAL AT THE
INTERFACE

COARSE-GRAINED
MATERIAL

DIRECTION
OF SEEPAGE
FLOW

Figure 6. Diagram of soil contact erosion.

100
90 CLAY TO SILT SAND GRAVEL

80
70
% Passing

60
50 GAP GRADED SOIL

40
30
20
COARSELY GRADED SOIL
10 WITH A FLAT TAIL OF FINES

0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Particle size (mm)

Figure 7. Soil gradation types which are susceptible to suffusion or internal instability.

leaving behind an intact soil skeleton formed by the
coarser particles. Soils which are susceptible to suffu-
sion are internally unstable. Coarse graded and gap
graded soils, such as those shown schematically in
Figure 7 are susceptible to suffusion.
In these soils the volume of fines is less than the
volume of voids between the coarse particles.
3 GENERAL DESCRIPTION
3.1 The overall process
The overall process for internal erosion leading
to failure of a dam is shown diagrammatically in
Figures 1 and 2 for internal erosion in the embank-
ment, and Figure 8(a) and 8(b) for internal ero-
sion in the foundation and from embankment to
foundation.
3.2 General description
The process of internal erosion and piping of a dam
embankment and/or its foundation is best considered
in a systematic way, so that all internal erosion phases
are considered for each failure mode and loading
condition.
Table 1 below summarizes the key factors to be con-
sidered, in a general manner, in each successive phase
of internal erosion.

5
 INITIATION → CONTINUATION → PROGRESSION → BREACH/FAILURE
Leakage exits from the Continuation of Backward erosion in Breach mechanism
foundation and backward erosion progresses to form a forms
erosion initiations pipe

Figure 8a. Model for the development of failure by internal erosion in the foundation by backward erosion. (Foster & Fell
1999a).

(b)
INITIATION → CONTINUATION → PROGRESSION → BREACH/FAILURE
Leakage exits the core into Continuation Backward erosion pro- Breach mechanism
the foundation and backward of erosion gresses to form a pipe. forms
erosion initiates as core Eroded soil is transported
erodes into the foundation in the foundation

Figure 8b. Model for the development of failure by internal erosion from the embankment to foundation by backward erosion.
(Foster & Fell 1999a).

The successive internal erosion phases can be 4 DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE

presented using flowcharts. The advantages of
flowcharts are:
1. They enable the linkages between the successive
phases of a failure mode to be shown graphically.
2. They enable multiple failure modes to be shown
graphically.
3. They make it easier to set up event trees to
quantify the likelihoods of the presented failure
modes.
Figure 9 below is a simplified event tree
representing the linkages between the successive
phases of a failure mode and the different factors to be
considered at each phase.
If the likelihood of internal erosion is to be quanti-
fied event trees are used to model the process.
Note that it is common to have a number of internal
erosion failure modes in a dam and its foundation (refer
Section 4.1.2).
This approach systematically addresses all of the
questions faced by an engineer who is responsible for
assessing an internal erosion problem. Table 2 and
Figure 10 show an example of a sequence of such
questions.
INDIVIDUAL PHASES
4.1 Loading conditions and location of
initiation of internal erosion
4.1.1 Loading conditions
The scenario of loading conditions must firstly be
defined. Examples of loading conditions which should
be considered are shown in Table 3.
Where the frequencies of failure are quantified
the full range of flood levels and earthquake load-
ings should be considered. Experience shows that it
is not usually the extreme (rare) flood events which
have the greatest impact on the annual probabil-
ity of dam failure by internal erosion. It is usually
more frequent floods such as the 1:100 year return
period flood which contribute most. Internal ero-
sion initiated by erosion cracks caused by earthquake
seldom contributes significantly to the frequency of
failure.
The loading condition has a great influence on the
location of the initiating event and its likelihood of
occurrence. An example of the most probable loca-
tions according to the loading condition is provided in
Table 4 and illustrated in Figure 11.

6
 Table 1. Summary of the key factors to be considered in each of the successive phases of internal erosion.
Loading Location Initiation Continuation Progression Detection Intervention Breach

HYDROSTATIC EMBANKMENT BACKWARD FILTERS THE RATE OF PIPING MODE PIPING MODE GROSS
EROSION EROSION ENLARGEMENT
Frequent water level Upper portion PERSONNEL
MONITORING AVAILABILITY
Rare flood Lower portion NO EROSION FREQUENCY AND AND TRAINING
CONCENTRATED WILL PIPE STAY TYPE (EG LEAKAGE,
Safety flood Along conduit LEAK OPEN? TEMPERATURE) EQUIPMENT UNRAVELLING
EXCESSIVE AVAILABILITY OR SLIPE IN-
SEISMIC Adjacent wall EROSION STABILITY
UPSTREAM MATERIALS
OBE over changes in SUFFUSION FLOW LIMITA- AVAILABILITY
slope in the cross TION BY WELL SURVEILLANCE LOSS OF FREE-
MDE valley foundation CONTINUING GRADED ROCK- FREQUENCY WEATHER BOARD BY
profile CONTACT EROSION FILL OR CON- CREST
(It is preferable to EROSION CRETE FACE FLOODING SETTLEMENT

7
consider the full At construction SLAB:
range of flood levels features such as ACCESS
and seismic loads haul roads and river
rather than only closure sections NO FILTER (
extreme values) CRITICAL =CONTINUING TIME OF
FOUNDATION GRADIENTS OR EROSION CRITICAL INTERVENCE SINKHOLE AND
VELOCITY GRADIENT OR DEPENDING ON LOSS OF FREE-
Valley which use particle VELOCITY THE RATE OF BOARD
size, or using DEVELOPMENT
Abutment methods based on OF INTERNAL
opening size or EROSION AND
EMBANKMENT permeability PIPING
TO FOUNDATION

Valley

Abutment
 LOADING LOCATION INITIATION CONTINUATION PROGRESSION DETECTION & BREACH
INTERVENTION

GROSS
ENLARGEMENT

SLOPE INSTABILITY
NO DETECTION
OR INTERVENTION
EROSION, ENLARGE, OVERTOPPING DUE TO
SUSTAIN PIPE CREST SETTLEMENT
EXCESSIVE DETECTION AND
EROSION INTERVENTION
UNRAVELLING OF THE
NO PROGRESSION DOWNSTREAM FACE
CONTINUOUS
EROSION
BACKWARD
EROSION

SOME EROSION
CONCENTRATED
LEAK

EMBANKMENT NO EROSION

SUFFUSION
FREQUENT
RESERVOIR LVL FOUNDATION
SOIL CONTACT
EROSION
EMBANKMENT TO
FLOOD FOUNDATION

EARTHQUAKE

Figure 9. Event tree representing the various phases of failure by internal erosion through the embankment.

Table 2. Example of a sequence of questions faced when assessing an internal erosion problem.

Question Answer

(1) What is the loading condition?
(2) What are the possible mechanisms
of initiating erosion?
(3) What is the filter efficiency in controlling erosion?
(4) What are the hydraulic consequences
of the on-going erosion?
(5) Are the consequences detected?
(6) What are the possible means of a
quick and efficient repair?
(7) What breach mechanisms may develop?
Reservoir rises to X metres above full supply level
Erosion initiates as concentrated leak erosion in
cracks near the dam crest
Erosion continues at an unfiltered exit point
Progression: erosion can form a pipe (dam core supports
a stable roof and the core will not self heal); inflows are not limited
by entrance condition; soil continues to be erodible under the
hydraulic conditions
Detection only when a pipe has formed with large flows
Not possible to lower the reservoir level; flow too great to install a
reverse filter to control erosion. Intervention unsuccessful
Breach process begins by instability of the downstream slope

4.1.2 Location of initiation of internal erosion and
failure path
All possible locations of initiation of internal erosion
should be defined for the dam (Figure 12 gives some
examples). Many cases of failure due to internal ero-
sion are related to initiation of erosion along conduits,
the interface of the core with the spillway, cracks due
to differential settlement on construction surfaces such
as winter or wet season shut downs and river diver-
sion closures and on the contact between foundation
and core.
There are three categories of internal erosion modes
in a typical analysis. These were developed by Foster &
Fell (1999a) from work by Von Thun (1996) and are
as follows:
1. Internal erosion in the dam embankment.
2. Internal erosion in the foundation.
3. Internal erosion from the dam embankment into the
foundation.
Internal erosion in the foundation is only an issue
for soil and erodible rock foundations. Internal erosion

8

1 Reservoir level rises
Full supply level
Rockfill
2 Erosion initiates in crack
3 Erosion continues
(no filter above FSL)
4 Erosion progresses
x to form a pipe
5 Seepage detected
when pipe is formed
6 Slope instability
leading to loss
of freeboard
Earthfill core Rockfill
5
Filter

Figure 10. Example of internal erosion and piping in the embankment (to be read in conjunction with Table 2).

Table 3. Examples of loading conditions to be considered for assessing the likelihood of internal erosion.

Reservoir level Earthquake Example of return period-years

Frequent water level No 1:1

Flood of record No 1:100
Flood level reaching cracks No 1:1000
in the core or overtopping the core
Dam crest level or PMF No 1:10,000
Full supply level OBE 1:150 to 1:500
Full supply level Earthquake sufficient to cause 1:1000
cracking to below full supply level
Full supply level MDE 1:10,000

Table 4. Location of possible initiating events according to the loading condition.

Above the top

Loading condition Along outlet conduit Through cracks in the core of the core Adjacent spillway wall

Full supply level X X (3A, B) X

Flood 1:100 year X X (3A, B) X
Dam Crest flood X X (3A, B, C) X X
Earthquake X X (3A, B) X

Note. See Figures 11 and 12 for explanation of flood levels relative to the level of the top of the core, and the locations of 3A,
B and C.

1:10,000 YEAR FLOOD

1:100 YEAR FLOOD

FULL SUPPLY LEVEL

CORE
UPSTREAM FILTER DOWNSTREAM
SHOULDER SHOULDER

Figure 11. Relationship between flood levels and top of the core for an example dam.

9
 1. Spillway wall interface 5. Embankment to foundation
2. Adjacent to conduit 6. Foundation (if the foundation is soil or erodible rock)
3. Crack associated with steep abutment profile 7. Embankment through poorly compacted layer, crack,
4. Desiccation on top of core (or by backward erosion if the core is cohesionless)

Figure 12. Example of possible locations of initiation of internal erosion.

from the embankment into the foundation may occur
where there are coarse soils such as gravels or open
jointed rock in the foundation.
There can be multiple failure modes in different
parts of the embankment in each of these categories
for any dam so it is important to identify all these by
a thorough failure modes analysis, and to assess the
likelihood of failure of each separately to identify the
most critical ones.
4.1.3 Initiation by suffusion
Internal erosion by suffusion can apply to the embank-
ment and to soils in the foundation. Table 5 is a record
of the discussions which took place at the workshop,
and details the methods available for assessing the sus-
ceptibility of soils to suffusion. For each method, the
reference, the area of application (i.e. types of soils)
and some comments from workshop participants are
provided.

10
Table 5. Methods available for assessing the susceptibility of soils to suffusion.

Reference Area of application Comments

Identifying internally unstable soils

Kenney & Lau (1985, 1986)
Burenkova (1993)
Wan and Fell (2004a,b, 2005)
Lafleur et al (1989)
Schuler (1995)
Critical gradient at which suffusion may initiate
Skempton & Brogan (1994)
Wan & Fell (2004a,b, 2005)
Quantity of erosion
Wan & Fell (2004a,b, 2005)
Burenkova (1993)
Lubochkov (1965)
Broadly graded and gap
graded sand-gravel soils
Silt-sand-gravel soils
Gap-graded and broadly-graded
silt-sand-gravel and clay-silt-
sand-gravel soils
Sand-gravel soils
Silt-sand-gravel soils
Sand-gravel soils
Silt-sand-gravel soils
Silt-sand-gravel-soils
Silt-sand-gravel soils
Sand-gravel soils
Wan & Fell (2004a,b, 2005) indicates that this method
is probably conservative, particularly for silt-sand-
gravel soils
When applied to broadly graded cohesionless moraines
(fines around 40%), which are typical Swedish
embankment dam core materials, the method appears
to present conservative results (H Rönnqvist)
When applied to existing Swedish zoned embankment
dams where internal erosion has been detected,
all dams are assessed to have ‘internally unstable’ core
material and most of the dams in question have
‘internally unstable’ filters as well (H Rönnqvist)
Wan & Fell (2004a, b, 2005) indicate that this method
is more reliable for silt-sand-gravel soils than Kenney &
Lau (1985,1986). However some soils classified as
shown to be non suffusive are shown to be suffusive
in laboratory tests
Extends Burenkova (1993) to silt-sand-gravels and
clay-silt-sand-gravels with limited clay size particles
and gives a method for assessing the probability that
soils are internally unstable
Conceptual approach, no criteria defined
Recommends Sherard (1979) for gap-graded soils
and Burenkova (1993) for broadly-graded soils
Limited testing (only two internally unstable soils)
shows suffusion initiates at gradients as low as 0.2
Limited testing shows suffusion initiates at gradients
as low as 0.2; the critical gradient is dependent
on the porosity, soil plasticity and whether
the soil is gap graded
Method based on Kenney & Lau (1985, 1986)
Wan & Fell (2004a,b, 2005) shows the method
underestimates the size of the largest particle eroded
Wan & Fell (2004a,b, 2005) shows the method
overestimates the size of the largest particle eroded soil

Detailed comments arising from discussion in the
workshop include:
1. BC Hydro testing has shown that the critical gradi-
ent is influenced by the stresses on the soil (more
likely at low stresses), and the direction of flow
(horizontal versus vertical).
2. Their testing also showed that gradients vary locally
within the test sample, and that erosion occurred
locally within the sample, rather than globally.
3. Participants indicated that plastic soils would not be
subject to suffusion. Lafleur indicated soils with a
Plasticity Index (PI) greater than about 10% would
not be subject to suffusion, Wan indicated soils with
clay size content up to 10% and a PI of up to 13%
had been tested at UNSW and had been subject to
suffusion. Bellendir indicated Russian experience
was that soils with a PI not greater than 7% were
potentially subject to suffusion.
4. The term ‘suffosion’ has been applied to situations
described in this paper as ‘soil contact erosion’.
Suffosion has also been used in some literature to
describe backward erosion in broadly graded soils
with a finer fraction which is too large to satisfy the
requirements for suffusion. That is in soils which
are not internally unstable as defined here, but will
not self filter.
5. It was suggested by R Bridle that the Vaughan &
Soares (1982), Vaughan and Bridle (2004) ‘perfect
filter’ concept could be applied to assess whether
soils would be internally unstable. However this is
at the conceptual stage at this time.
6. There would appear to be valuable data on suffusion
in the Russian literature.

11
Table 6. Methods available for assessing the susceptibility of soils to backward erosion.

Reference Area of application Comments

Weijers & Sellmeijer (1993)
Schmertmann (2000)
Kézdi (1969)
German research in
Karlsruhe University
Monnet (1998)
Fine-medium sand
Uniformity coefficient (Cu) 1.6–3.5; gives
the gradient for initiation and progression
Fine to medium sands Cu up to 6.8
Sand-gravel soils
Based on flume tests, some large scale, exit
surface horizontal
Critical gradient depends on permeability, d70 ,
angle of repose and test geometry
Critical gradient is dependent on Cu,
gradients as low as 0.1 for Cu 1.2 and
1 for Cu approximately 6
Threshold criteria is dependent upon
permeability

4.1.4 Initiation by backwards erosion.
Table 6 is a record of the discussions which took place
at the workshop, and details the methods available
for assessing the susceptibility of soils to backward
erosion. For each method, the reference, the area of
application (i.e. types of soils) and some comments
from workshop participants are provided.
Detailed comments arising from discussion in the
workshop:
1. The Schmertmann (2000) method indicates that
for soils with a uniformity coefficient greater than
6, backward erosion would not occur unless the
hydraulic gradient was greater than 1.0. How-
ever many Swedish dams, with broadly graded
silty-sandy-gravel core materials have experienced
internal erosion at gradients from 0.5 to 1.0 and this
would seem to contradict the Schmertmann method
if it is due to backward erosion. For these dams
the exit surface is steeper than for the Schmert-
mann tests which may help explain the difference.
However the fill in these dams was placed in thick
(700 mm) layers so the internal erosion process may
be that of a concentrated leak in poorly compacted
soil, not backward erosion.
2. There was concern from some that the flume tests
by Weijers & Sellmeijer (1993) and Schmertmann
(2000) involve a planar smooth surface along which
the water flows and therefore they simulate phe-
nomena that are somewhat different from those
illustrated by Figure 1. The tunnel forms a pipe
because the overlying ‘roof’is the plexi-glass cover,
a situation different from those in Figure 1 where
the overlying soil may collapse and self-heal the
erosion process. In a dam this roof would have to be
provided by a clay soil inter-bedded with the sand,
the clay core of the dam, or for spillway structures
concrete of the spillway. It is noted that the tests
involved sands having uniformity coefficient val-
ues substantially smaller than dam cores material
made of finer and more broadly graded material.
3. The participants considered that backward erosion
was probably restricted to cohesionless soils or soils
with only limited plasticity at gradients likely to
occur within a dam. However, the limits of plasticity
at which backward erosion could occur were not
known. Laboratory tests by Sun (1989) and Marot
et al (2005) showed that backward erosion could
occur in more cohesive soils, but initiated at very
high gradients which were not likely to occur in
dams or their foundations.
4. When assessing seepage gradients in the cores of
embankment dams account should be taken of the
variation in permeability of the soil with effective
stress (as detailed in Vaughan, 1994) and degree
of saturation (Le Behan & Leroueil, 2002). These
variations will tend to give higher pore pressure
gradients at the downstream side of the core than
would be estimated using uniform permeability’s.
5. There was a suggestion that there was literature
from the petroleum industry which could be useful.
4.1.5 Initiation by soil contact erosion
Soil contact erosion can apply to erosion of the
embankment into a coarse gravel layer in the foun-
dation or erosion of a fine soil in the foundation into
a gravel layer.
Table 7 is a record of the discussions which took
place at the workshop, and details the methods avail-
able for assessing the susceptibility of soils to soil
contact erosion. For each method, the reference, the
area of application (i.e. types of soils) and some
comments from workshop participants are provided.
Detailed comments arising from discussion in the
workshop:
1. There are difficulties to determine the critical
hydraulic gradient depending on the layering and
the angle of the contact, direction of the flow,
intensity of stress and influence of time.
2. This is a phenomenon which has received relatively
little attention from researchers and the methods are
not well developed.

12
Table 7. Methods available for assessing the susceptibility of soils to soil contact erosion.

Reference Area of application Comments

Bakker (1993)
Brauns & Witt (1987)
Briaud et al (1999a,b)
Fry (2005)
Vaughan & Soares (1982)
Sand and gravel
Sand and gravel
Silt overlying sandy gravels
Silt, sand, gravel
Threshold depending on d50 of the base soil and
filter porosity and two charts one for parallel
flow and the other for perpendicular flow to contact
Very similar to Bakker (1993)
Method developed for estimating erosion of soil at bridge piers
Limiting Darcy velocity in the order of 2 × 10−2 m/s for the
cases assessed so far
EDF laboratory testing program commencing
Threshold of erosion based on permeability and the smallest
particle size

Table 8. Methods available for assessing the susceptibility of embankments to erosion in concentrated leaks.

Reference Area of application Comments

Numerical modelling to predict the presence of cracking

Bui et al (2004, 2005)
Sherard (1979), Kjaernsli et al (1992)
Detection of cracking
Prediction of whether erosion will initiate
Arulanandan et al (1980), Arulanandan &
Perry (1983)
Chapuis (1992), Chapius et al (1996)
Wan & Fell (2002, 2004a,b)
Lim (2005 unpublished information
UNSW)
CEMAGREF (2005 unpublished)
2-D cross-valley and dam
section analysis and 3-D analysis
to identify low stress zones
2D cross valley section analyses
Attendees indicated that cross-hole
seismic, acoustic and temperature
measurement have been successful
Fine-grained cohesive soils
Fine-grained cohesive soils
Cohesive and silty soils
(CL-CH-SC-SM)
Cohesive soils
Sand-kaolin soils
Shows that 2-D cross-valley modelling is
useful in assessing the locality and depth
of possible cracking
Shows low stress zones due to settlement
during construction, with examples of
these coinciding with internal erosion and
piping incidents
BC Hydro experience with WAC Bennett
Dam for sinkhole investigations
Rotating cylinder tests
Rotating cylinder tests
Critical shear stress can be determined
in the Hole Erosion Test (HET) and Slot
Erosion Tests (SET)
Depends on soil classification, particle
size distribution, mineralogy, degree of
compaction and degree of saturation
Rotating cylinder and HET show that the
degree of saturation and sample
preparation influence the critical
shear stress
The HET provides the critical shear stress
at which significant erosion begins, but the
rotating cylinder tests show that some
erosion occurs at lower hydraulic stresses
The critical shear stress for dispersive
soils is affected by water chemistry
Testing about to begin in a modified SET

4.1.6 Initiation by concentrated leak
Internal erosion initiating in a concentrated leak can
apply either to internal erosion in embankment or
foundation soils.
Table 8 is a record of the discussions which took
place at the workshop, and details the methods avail-
able for assessing the susceptibility of embankments
to concentrated leaks. For each method, the reference,
the area of application (i.e. types of soils) and some
comments from workshop participants are provided.
Detailed comments arising from discussion in the
workshop:
1. It was noted that it was necessary to clearly
distinguish between the critical hydraulic shear

13
 stress at which erosion begins and the rate of ero-
sion. The Sherard pinhole test, crumb tests, and
USDA-SCS double hydrometer test are indices of
dispersivity, and the general likelihood that erosion
may initiate in a soil. The results are dependent on
the chemical composition of the water used in the
test, with some soils showing more likely disper-
sion in water with low dissolved salt content. The
critical hydraulic shear stress is discussed in Wan
& Fell (2005), and is the hydraulic shear stress in
a crack or hole in the soil at which erosion begins.
The rate of erosion can be quantified in hole and
slot erosion tests, and is the mass rate of erosion
per unit hydraulic shear stress of the soil from the
walls of the crack or hole. The critical shear stress
and erosion rate are dependent on water quality,
with lower critical shear stresses and higher rates
of erosion in dispersive soils with low salts content
water.
2. The Briaud et al (1999 a, b) contact erosion test, the
jet erosion test (Hanson 1991, 1992; and ASTM
D5852-95), and flume tests (e.g. Shaikh et al
1988a,b) all measure erosion properties, but model
different erosion mechanisms.The erosion test used
should be selected to model the mechanism being
considered.
3. The critical shear stress is difficult to define in
laboratory tests. CEMAGREF will be using sen-
sitive equipment to detect particles of eroded soil
in the water in the slot erosion tests they will be
doing.
4. The results from hole and slot erosion tests can be
used in conjunction with the hydraulics of flow in
cracks and holes to assess whether erosion will ini-
tiate, but the hydraulics are complicated by variable
crack geometry and surface roughness and the pres-
ence of multiple zones in the embankment which
affect the hydraulic gradients. It should be recog-
nised that the presence of a crack or a soil with a
low resistance to initiation of erosion does not of
itself mean initiation will occur. There must be suf-
ficient erosive shear stress from the water flowing
in the crack. In some cases soil adjacent the crack
may swell and the crack may close before erosion
can begin.
5. Experience in Finland is that the water in the pores
of silts and moraines in near surface situations of
dams during construction and in service freezes and
ice lenses are formed. On thawing these become a
zone of concentrated leakage in which erosion can
initiate.
6. Some participants are aware of dams where voids
or low density zones had formed just below the
phreatic surface. This is thought to be due to set-
tlement of the soil below the phreatic surface on
saturation. The voids or low density zones are a
potential location for initiation of erosion.
14
4.2 Continuation
Table 9 is a record of the discussions which took place
at the workshop, and details the methods available for
assessing continuation of internal erosion. For each
method, the reference, the area of application (i.e.
types of soils) and some comments from workshop
participants are provided.
Detailed comments arising from discussion in the
workshop:
1. It was pointed out that the French Committee on
Large Dams was about to recommend a filter design
method for small dams which, for widely graded
soils, recommends that the filter size be determined
using the Sherard & Dunnigan (1989) method, but
splitting the soil on the change of slope at the
fine end of the gap grade, and on the change in
slope for broadly graded soils, rather than using the
more empirical approach of re-grading the soil on
the 4.75 mm sieve before applying the filter rules.
It was agreed by Workshop participants that this
was reasonable, particularly if the soil was inter-
nally unstable. The majority of participants used
Sherard & Dunnigan (1989) or related criteria for
design and assessment of existing dams.
2. It was noted that the Vaughan & Soares (1982)
method could lead to a very fine first filter, and
in some situations, three filters might be needed
using this method, while the Sherard & Dunni-
gan (1989) method might require two filters. Given
the good performance of filters designed using
Sherard & Dunnigan (1989) and similar methods, it
would seem unnecessary to require finer filters than
required by Sherard & Dunnigan (1989) in most
situations, particularly if the Sherard & Dunnigan
(1989) criteria were met with some margin of safety.
3. There was concern by some participants that Sher-
ard & Dunnigan (1989) criteria are not conservative
enough for dispersive soils. An example of where
erosion had occurred for filters which apparently
satisfied the criteria was mentioned but no details
are available. Other participants had not heard of
an example of a dam with filters designed and
constructed to satisfy modern filter design cri-
teria experiencing internal erosion and piping. The
extensive study of case histories by Foster & Fell
(2000) supports this experience. It was noted that
Foster & Fell (2001) recommend somewhat finer
filters than Sherard & Dunnigan (1989) for disper-
sive soils. A number of participants including those
from USBR suggest doing laboratory no-erosion
filter tests for important projects where dispersive
soils are present.
4. It was noted that the excessive and continuing ero-
sion criteria proposed by Foster & Fell (1999b,
2001) were based on laboratory tests simulating a
concentrated leak. It was suggested by some that
Table 9. Methods available for assessing continuation of internal erosion.

Reference Area of application Comments

Particle size distribution

Sherard & Dunnigan (1989)
Kenney & Lau (1985, 1986)
and Kenney et al (1985)
Foster & Fell (1999b, 2001)
Opening size and particle size distribution
Lafleur et al (1989, 1993)
Brauns & Witt (1987), Schuler &
Brauns (1993, 1997)
and Witt (1993)
Particle size – permeability
Vaughan & Soares (1982),
Vaughan and Bridle (2004)
Clay-silt-sand and Based on extensive no erosion tests using a sample with a
fine gravel soils pre-formed hole and also slot and slurry tests by the USDA-SCS
Widely adopted for dam design and assessing existing dams
throughout the world
Dams constructed with filters designed using these criteria and
earlier similar criteria (e.g. USBR, 1977, 1987,2004) have
performed well in practice
Sand-gravel soils Recommends use of controlling constriction size
Clay-silt-sand-fine Used Sherard & Dunnigan (1989) test results and further no
gravel soils erosion tests
Recommended modification of Sherard & Dunnigan (1989)
design criteria, particularly for dispersive soils
Introduced the concept of excessive and continuing erosion
criteria
Clay-silt-sand- Particularly applicable to broadly-graded soils; has designed
gravel soils rules for linearly graded, gap graded and concave upward
grading distributions, and separate rules for dispersive soils
Clay-silt-sand Propose the use of probabilistic analysis
gravel soils
Clay-silt-sand- Based on filter tests with flocs of the clay size soil in a dilute
gravel soils suspension; the floc size is determined from hydrometer tests
in the reservoir water, with no dispersant added (this test
provides the so called ‘perfect filter’)
The method potentially gives very fine filters

methods such as Lafleur et al (1989, 1993) and
Schuler (1995) using opening size, percentage fines
and D95 might also be useful.
5. There was a consensus that filters with more than
5% non plastic fines were undesirable because they
might sustain a crack. Filters with more than 12%
non plastic fines were highly likely to hold a crack,
at least in the unsaturated condition. If the fines
were plastic the situation would be significantly
worsened.
6. The ‘bucket’ or ‘sandcastle’ test, (Vaughan &
Soares, 1982) in which a cylinder of the filter was
placed in a container at the density it was placed in
the embankment, and slowly flooded to see if the
soil collapsed, was used by some participants. It was
noted that the degree of compaction of the filter was
important, with examples known where densely
compacted filters had not collapsed on flooding,
whereas the same material loose had collapsed. It
was noted that Virginia Tech was doing research on
this topic.
4.3 Progression
Table 10 is a record of the discussions which took place
at the workshop, and details the methods available
for assessing progression of internal erosion. For each
method, the reference, the area of application (i.e. types
of soils) and some comments from workshop partici-
pants are provided Detailed comments arising from
discussion in the workshop:
1. There were a number of case studies presented
including Matahina Dam, Porjus Dam, Suova Dam
and Coursier Dam, where upstream zones in con-
junction with downstream transition zones and
shoulder zones had acted to reduce the flow rate
through a pipe in the core. The upstream zones
had washed into the pipe to assist in controlling the
progression process before flows became too large
for the downstream zone to discharge safely. It was
clearly important to consider these zones as poten-
tial flow limiters and crack stoppers in the progres-
sion phase when assessing the likelihood of failure.
2. There was a consensus that sand boils in the foun-
dation at the downstream toe of a dam were an
indication of a potential for failure, and they should
be treated with care. There were examples cited
e.g. Sills & Vroman (2005) of progressive ero-
sion from sand boils with headwater levels cycling
to the same or lower levels. Attendees were also
concerned at the presence of sinkholes in the floor

15
Table 10. Methods available for assessing progression of internal erosion.
Reference Area of application
Backward erosion
Weijers & Sellmeijer (1993) Fine-medium sand
Schmertmann (2000) Fine-medium sand
Suffusion
Schuler (1993)
Rönnqvist (2005)
Concentrated leak
Wan & Fell (2002, 2004a,b) Clay-silt-sand soils
of the reservoir, and felt that it was necessary to
understand the mechanism leading to their devel-
opment, but knew of many cases where these had
not progressed.
3. There was a consensus that suffusion was not gen-
erally likely to lead to a piping failure, because the
flows were unlikely to be sufficient to erode the
coarse soil remaining after suffusion had occurred.
However slope instability might result from a rise
in the phreatic surface level in the downstream
slope of the embankment due to the increase in
seepage flows in the soil in which suffusion had
occurred.
4. Sinkholes in the dam crest and upstream of the crest
were an indication of erosion of the core, and of
washing into the pipe of the upstream filter or other
material upstream of the core. The data available on
sinkholes seemed to show that they did not gener-
ally lead to failure of the dam by overtopping, but
attendees warned that for those which did fail, the
evidence was washed away, so one should not be
too confident.
5. The rate of progression of backwards erosion can
be restricted by the existence of layers of soil or
embankment materials into which the seepage is
flowing which act as filters. If the material acts
as a no-erosion filter backwards erosion will not
progress. If some erosion is possible into the mater-
ial it may slow the process. Backwards erosion
can be very rapid when no filters are present
(i.e. when water and eroded particles exit to the
atmosphere).
4.4 Breach
Table 11 is a record of the discussions which took place
at the workshop, and details the methods available
for assessing breach mechanisms caused by internal
erosion. For each method, the reference, the area of
application (i.e. types of soils) and some comments
Comments
See initiation
Method predicts initiation and progression for an unfiltered exit
See initiation
Method predicts initiation and progression for an unfiltered exit
HET, SET determine the rate of erosion, this can be coupled with
the hydraulics of flow in cracks or holes to allow estimation of the
rate at which a pipe will enlarge
from workshop participants are provided. Detailed
comments arising from discussion in the workshop:
1. There is an example of breach due to a sinkhole
which occurred in a test embankment in Norway
(6 m high zoned embankment with clay core, rock-
fill shoulders and no filters). The embankment was
constructed with defects in the core, which lead
to the formation of a pipe and in turn, a sinkhole
developed in the upstream side of the crest of the
embankment. The sinkhole in itself did not cause
breach, but when the reservoir level was raised
above the level of the sinkhole, the sinkhole filled
with water and the dam breached.
4.5 Detection & Intervention
Table 12 is a record of the discussions which took place
at the workshop, and details the methods available
for the detection and intervention of internal erosion
incidents. For each method, the reference, the area of
application (i.e. types of soils) and some comments
from workshop participants are provided.
Detailed comments arising from discussion in the
workshop:
1. There was a consensus that there was a need to
link the instrumentation and surveillance to the
critical failure modes. It was agreed that the suc-
cess of detection and intervention depended on the
time to develop a failure, after a concentrated leak
developed in a pipe and the time available is very
short (i.e. hours). For other breach mechanisms,
days or weeks might be available.
Temperature methods for analysing seepage vari-
ations are promising and gaining wider usage.
However some methods such as optical fibres were
best suited if installed in the embankment during con-
struction. Other methods required drilling of holes into
the embankment to install the instruments or to provide
access for temperature probes. They were therefore by
16
Table 11. Methods available for assessing breach mechanisms caused by internal erosion.

Reference Area of application Comments

Gross enlargement
Wahl TL (1998) Breach width, duration and outflow Compared various available equations to case
history data
Blais, J.P. (2005) Breach duration Validated on 11 case studies
Unravelling
Sölvig (1991) Unravelling of rockfill at the downstream Höeg et al (2004) and workshop participants indicate
toe of an embankment that Norwegian model tests have sown that the
Sölvig method is conservative
New criteria are being proposed but were not
available at the time of the workshop
Slope instability
Fell et al (2004, 2005) Instability of downstream slope Uses conventional stability analysis and estimates the
of an embankment displacement using Khalili et al (1996) or numerical
analysis to assess whether freeboard is lost
Settlement and loss of freeboard
Fry (2005) Settlement due to suffusion or backward erosion in
broadly graded materials and foundations and
embankments Up to 1 cm/year has been observed
on dykes (Fry, 2005)
Sinkhole and loss of freeboard
Foster & Fell (1999a), Database of sinkhole events
Fell et al (2004) Sinkholes historically have seldom lead to failure

Table 12. Methods available for the detection and intervention of internal erosion incidents.

Reference Area of application Comments

Detection
Dornstädter (1996,2005)
Johansson (1996,1997,2005),
Johansson et al (2000), USEPA
(2000), Aufleger et al (2000)
Fauchard & Meriaux (2004),
Fauchard et al (2005)
Time available for intervention
Brown (2005)
Fell et al (2001, 2003)
Intervention
Chopin (2005)
Embankments and foundations
Embankments and foundations
Embankments and foundations
Embankments and interfaces between
embankments and structures such as walls
Time from observation of a concentrated
leak to failure of embankment dams
Embankments and foundations
Review available temperature techniques
Review available temperature and
geophysical techniques and methods for
determination of flow discharge rates
Based on expert elicitation
Based on analysis of historic data
Reviewed defects of diaphragm walls

their nature best able to measure conditions locally
(e.g. where leakage was observed or suspected. Care
must be taken in drilling holes into embankments and
grouting around casing or to backfill drill holes so as to
avoid hydraulic fracture. Dry drilling methods should
be used and grouting done in short stages with time
for grout to cure before the next stage.
4.6 Assessment of the likelihood of failure
In order for the dam to breach, all of the phases
of internal erosion must occur and detection and
intervention must have been unsuccessful. The
assessment of the likelihood of failure can be
determined by:
1. Engineering judgement, considering each of the
individual phases.
2. Quantitative risk analysis, usually based on event
trees. Methods for doing this are described in
Brown & Gosden (2004), Foster & Fell (1999a),
Fell et al (2004, 2005), Cyganiewicz & Smart
(2000), USBR (2000) and Cyganiewicz et al
(2005).

17
3. Qualitative risk analysis based on event trees
but without formal quantification e.g. Bell et al,
(2002).
5 RESEARCH NEEDS
5.1 Initiation due to suffusion
5.1.1 Soils which are susceptible to internal
instability
Suggestions for future research include:
• Laboratory testing on a wide range of soils to
better define the particle size distribution character-
istics of internally unstable soils and to understand
the effects of the plasticity of fines and the com-
paction of material on the likelihood of suffusion
occurring.
• Multi-variable discriminate analysis to better define
the boundaries between internally stable and inter-
nally unstable soils.
• Investigate whether the Vaughan & Soares (1982)
concept can be applied to assessing whether a soil
is internally unstable.
5.1.2 Critical hydraulic gradient
Not a great deal of testing has been conducted to date
to determine the critical hydraulic gradient required
to initiate suffusion. Suggestions for future research
include:
•
Testing the effect of seepage flow direction (e.g.
upwards, horizontal, downwards).
• Testing whether the critical hydraulic gradient is
affected by stresses in the soil.
• Determining the mechanism of material movement
(as this is affected by gradient, velocity, influence
of turbulence).
• Testing the effect of void ratio on critical
gradient.
These need to be done for a range of particle size
distributions and plasticity.
5.1.3 Size and quantity of material eroded
Relating to the size and quantity of material mobilized
in suffusive processes, suggestions for future research
include:
• Estimating the maximum soil particle sizes which
are mobilised in suffusive processes, the total quan-
tity of material mobilized and the rate of their
movement.
• Using discrete element models to better under-
stand the movement of soil particles in suffusive
processes.
18
5.2 Initiation due to soil contact erosion
5.2.1 Critical hydraulic gradient
Not a great deal of testing has been conducted to date
to determine the critical hydraulic gradient required
to initiate soil contact erosion. Suggestions for future
research include:
• Extrapolating Bakker (1993) charts to silt-gravel
materials.
• Testing the effect of seepage flow direction (e.g.
upwards, horizontal, downwards).
• Testing whether the critical hydraulic gradient is
affected by stresses in the soil.
• Determining the mechanism of material move-
ment – can critical shear stress be applied in a
laboratory flume situation?
• Determining a correlation between critical hydraulic
gradient and particle size distribution and other
properties such as soil plasticity and degree of
compaction.
• Determining a correlation between seepage velocity
at which erosion initiates and particle size distribu-
tion and other properties such as soil plasticity and
degree of compaction.
• Investigation of the effect of the contact between
the core and open joints in the foundation on the
likelihood of initiation due to soil contact erosion.
5.2.2 Size and quantity of material in
internal erosion
Relating to the size and quantity of material mobilized
in soil contact erosion processes, suggestions for future
research include:
• Estimating the maximum soil particle sizes which
are mobilised in soil contact erosion processes and
the rate of their movement.
• Testing the influence of cycles (e.g. regularly fluc-
tuating hydrostatic load) and the rate of increase of
hydraulic gradient or seepage velocity on the move-
ment of particles in soil contact erosion processes.
• Using numerical modelling to better understand
the movement of particles in soil contact erosion
processes.
5.3 Initiation due to backward erosion
Suggestions for future research include:
• Laboratory testing needs to be extended to include
silty sands and well graded soils including soils
which are internally stable but do not self filter. Wei-
jers and Sellmeijer (1993) and Schmertmann (2000)
methods are based on poorly graded soils.
• Testing the effect of exit condition (i.e. exit angle) on
the likelihood of initiation due to backward erosion
and the likely presence of locally low effective stress
conditions.
• Testing the effect of cohesion on the likelihood of
initiation due to backward erosion. (While many
believed that backward erosion could not develop
in cohesive soils under gradients normally experi-
enced in dams and their foundations there was not
a unanimous view).
• Investigation into the rate at which backward
erosion occurs. Schmertmann (2000) showed that
backward erosion can occur rapidly in laboratory
scale models.
5.4 Initiation due to a concentrated leak
Research needs relating to the understanding of initi-
ation due to a concentrated leak can be separated into
two separate issues.
5.4.1 Predicting or detecting the presence of
cracking and high permeability zones
Suggestions for further research include:
• Development and trialing of geophysical techniques
for locating cracks in an embankment including
acoustic and seismic techniques.
• Research on the occurrence of cracks due to desic-
cation, including the effect of shrinkage limit and
water content profile.
• Research into the development of ice lenses in dam
cores.
• Using numerical models to assess the conditions
required to induce cracking and validation of these
against case studies where cracking is known to have
occurred.
• Research into whether the stresses in low stress
zones are influenced by seasonal effects including
rainfall and temperature.
5.4.2 Predicting the initiation of erosion in cracks
and high permeability zones
Suggestions for further research include:
• Using parallel laboratory testing and possibly
numerical models to compare the different methods
available for determining the hydraulic shear stress
(e.g. erosion function apparatus (contact erosion),
jet erosion test, rotating cylinder and hole erosion
test).
• Linking the mechanics of erosion in open channels
and river beds to erosion in cracks in dams.
• Determine the effect of test scale on the results of
laboratory testing using numerical modelling and
back-analysis of case studies.
• Further developments of test techniques to more
precisely define the critical shear stress for cracks
and in high permeability zones and the soil charac-
teristics which govern this.
• Determine a method of predicting the initiation of
erosion in cracks in silt-sand-gravel soil.
19
• Determine the effect of wetting-induced swelling
on the ability to close a crack and stop the con-
tinuation of internal erosion (experimental tests are
required in a laboratory first, followed by numerical
modelling).
5.5 Filter research (continuation of erosion)
5.5.1 Conventional filter design methods
Suggestions for further research relating to conven-
tional filter design methods include:
• Investigating the effects of clogging of filters by
eroded material and chemical and bacterial deposits.
• Investigating the conditions which can cause filters
to become cohesive (e.g. particle size, cement-
ing, degree of compaction, stress conditions, the
chemistry of circulating water and the presence of
limestone).
• Testing of the effect of fines content and plasticity
of fines on the ability of the filter to sustain cracks.
• Assessment of the filter criteria for widely graded
core materials, including those which are internally
unstable, and those which are internally stable but
will not self filter.
• Assessment of case studies of filter performance for
widely graded core materials.
• Testing of the effect of segregation of widely graded
core materials on filter performance.
5.5.2 Assessment of the applicability of the Vaughan
and Soares so called ‘Perfect Filter’ concept
Suggestions for future research include:
• More extensive laboratory testing to confirm the
applicability of the method which to date has
been based on limited testing. This should include
comparison with conventional design methods and
review of case studies by both conventional and the
Vaughan & Soares (1982) method to see whether
filters designed using conventional methods are
sufficiently conservative as most assume.
• More extensive laboratory testing to check the
applicability of the concept to internally unstable
soils and to internally stable but non self filtering
soils.
• More extensive laboratory testing to determine the
uncertainty in the equations linking permeability of
the filter to the particle size of the filter and to the
smallest particle retained.
• Research to assess the influence of the permeability
of the downstream filter on the particle detachment
phenomena in the core.
5.6 Progression
Suggestions for further research relating to the under-
standing of progression of internal erosion include:
• Investigations into the mechanics of the size
of internal erosion pipes that can develop and
 relation to pipes that have developed in case
histories.
• The validation of sediment transport laws used in
sedimentology for pipes (i.e. the ability to remove
the large particles under high velocities).
• Investigation of the effect of upstream and down-
stream zones in limiting progression of internal
erosion.
• Development of a theoretical hydraulic approach to
progression phenomena including the potential for
turbulent flow in the pipe and porous media flow in
the upstream and downstream zones.
• Research into a multi-disciplinary approach of mod-
elling progression of internal erosion – combining
soil mechanics, moveable boundary hydraulics and
hydraulics.
• Improving the understanding of the progression
phase of internal erosion initiated by backward
erosion and suffusion.
5.7 Breach
Suggestions for further research relating to the under-
standing of the breach phase of internal erosion
include:
• Modelling all the phases of the process leading to
breaching and validating them on real case studies
(e.g. Teton).
• Modelling of the interaction between the rate of
enlargement of the pipe and reservoir drawdown
during breach, particularly for small reservoirs.
• Better understanding of the unravelling processes
relating to small sized rockfill and gravely material.
To date most unravelling research has focussed on
large sized rockfill material.
• Development of a ‘threshold leakage’ through the
downstream shoulder of a dam (specific for differ-
ent types of dams) at which we should begin to be
concerned for the safety of the dam and intervention
is required dams.
• Extrapolating the application area of the Sölvig
(1991, 1995) method for rockfill to finer sized
material such as gravels and sandy gravels.
5.8 Detection and intervention
Suggestions for further research relating to the under-
standing of detection and intervention of internal
erosion incidents include:
•
Review of case studies of failed detection or inter-
vention.
• Investigations of methods for early detection of
internal erosion incidents, using conventional and
unconventional methods (e.g. temperature, resistiv-
ity, self-potential [SP]).
20
5.9 Overall system
Suggestions for further research relating to the under-
standing of the overall system of internal erosion
include:
• Research into the decision analysis process for
assessing the likelihood of internal erosion for an
existing dam in quantitative and qualitative terms.
• Development of quantification of uncertainty, use
of fuzzy logic, probabilistic approaches.
• Refinement of event trees and fault trees for use in
quantified analyses.
• Refinement of decision-making criteria based on
back-analysis of internal erosion incidents where
good quality data is available.
• Development of surveillance and monitoring tech-
niques to be more closely targeted to identified
internal erosion modes of failure natural gamma and
cross hole seismic).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The support of Electricité de France (EDF) and
The Institut pour la Recherche Appliquée et
l’Expérimentation, (IREX) for the Workshop in Aus-
sois are acknowledged. The considerable contribution
of attendees to this paper is also acknowledged.
REFERENCES
Arulanandan, K., Gillogley, E. & Tully, R. 1980. Develop-
ment of a quantitative method to predict critical shear
stress and rate of erosion of natural undisturbed cohesive
soils. Technical Report, GL-80-5, US Army Engineers,
Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS EU.
Arulanandan, K. & Perry, E. B. 1983 Erosion in relation to fil-
ter design criteria in earth dams. Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering, ASCE Vol 109, No 5, 682–696.
Aufleger, M., Strobl, T. & Dornstader, J. 2000 Fibre optic tem-
perature measurements in dam monitoring-four years of
experience. 20th Congress on Large Dams, Beijing 2000.
Q78-R.1, 157-17-. International Commission on Large
Dams, Paris.
Bakker, K.J. et al 1993.Filters in de water bouw. C.U.R.
Rapport 161, ISBN 9037600298.
Blais, J.P. 2005 Presentation at Workshop on Internal Erosion
of Embankment Dams and their Foundations, Aussois,
France.
Brauns, J. & Witt, K.J. 1987.Proposal for an advanced concept
of filter design, Proc.9th European Conference on Soil
Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Dublin.
Briaud, J.L., Ting, F.C.K.,Chen, H.C., Gudavalli, R., Perugu,
S., & Wei, G. 1999a SRICOS: prediction of scour rate
in cohesive soils at bridge piers. Journal of Geotechnical
and Geoenvironmental Engineering,ASCE, Vol 125, No 4,
237–246.
Briaud, J.L., Ting, F.C.K., Chen, H.C., Gudavalli, R., Kwak,
K., Philogene, B., Han, S.W., Perugu, S., Wei, G.,
Nurtjaho, P., Cao, Y., & Li, Y 1999b SRICOS: Prediction
 of scour rates at bridge piers, Report 2937-F to the Texas
Department of Transportation, Texas A and M University,
Civil Engineering, College Station,TX 77843-3136, USA.
Bridle, R.C 2005. Assessing the vulnerability of dams to
internal erosion. In Proceedings of Workshop on Internal
Erosion of Embankment Dams and their Foundations,
Aussois, France Editors R Fell and JJ Fry, 25–27 April
2005.Balkema
Brown, A.J., Gosden J.D 2004 Interim guide to quantitative
risk assessment for UK reservoirs. Thomas Telford. ISBN:
0 7277 3267 6.
Brown, A.J. 2005 Issues in the management of internal ero-
sion in UK embankment dams In Proceedings ofWorkshop
on Internal Erosion of Embankment Dams and their Foun-
dations, Editors R Fell and JJ Fry, Aussois, France, 25–27
April 2005. Balkema.
Bui, H., Fell, R. & Song, C. 2004. Two and three dimen-
sional numerical modeling of the potential for crack-
ing of embankment dams during construction. UNICIV
Report No. 426, The School of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, The University of New South Wales, Sydney.
Bui, H., Tandjiria, V., Fell, R., Song, C. & Khalili, N. 2005.
Two and three dimensional numerical analysis of the
potential for cracking of embankment dams – supplemen-
tary report. UNICIV Report R438, The University of New
South Wales, ISBN:85841 405 8.
Burenkova, V.V. 1993.Assessment of suffosion in non-
cohesive and graded soils. Proceedings, the First
International Conference “Geo-Filters”, Karlsruhe, Ger-
many, 20–22 October 1992. Filters in Geotechnical and
Hydraulic Engineering, Brauns, Heibaum and Schuler
(editors), 1993 Balkema, Rotterdam,. 357–360.
Chapuis, R.P. 1992. Similarity of internal stability criteria for
granular soils. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 29,
1992, 711–713.
Chapuis, R.P., Constant, A. & Bass, K.A. 1996 Migration
of fines in 0–20 mm crushed base during placement,
compaction, and seepage under laboratory conditions.
Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 33, 1996, 168–176.
Chopin, M.2005. Presentation at Workshop on Internal Ero-
sion of Embankment Dams and their Foundations.
Cyganiewicz. J. & Smart, J. 2000 US Bureau of Reclamation’s
use of risk analysis and risk assessment in dam safety
decision making. 20th International Congress on Large
Dams, Beijing, Q. 76, 351–369, International Commission
on Large Dams, Paris.
Cyganiewicz JM, Engemoen WO & Redlinger CG 2005)
Bureau of Reclamation experience with evaluating inter-
nal erosion of embankment dams. In Proceedings of
Workshop on Internal Erosion and Foundations, Aussois
France Editors R Fell and JJ Fry, April 25–27, 2005.
Balkema.
Dornstadter, J. 1996.Sensitive monitoring of embankment
dams. Proceedings Symposium on repairing and upgrad-
ing of dams, Stockholm. Editors Johansson and Ceder-
strom, KTH Trych och Kopiering, 259–268.
Dornstädter, J. 2005. Presentation at Workshop on Internal
Erosion of Embankment Dams and their Foundations,
Aussois, France.
Fauchard, C. and Meriaux, P. 2004. Methodes geophysiques
et geotechniques pour le diiagnostic des digues de pro-
tection contre les crues- Guide pour la mise in oeuvre et
l’interpretation. CEMAGREF ISBN: 2-85362-643-1.
21
Fauchard, C., Cote, P. and Meriaux, P. 2005. High output
geophysical methods for dyke testing. GEOLINE 2005,
Lyon, France.
Fell, R., Wan, C.F., Cyganiewicz, J. & Foster, M.A.
2001. The time for development, and detecaibility of
internal erosion and piping in embankment dams and
their foundations. UNICIV Report No. R-399. School
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, the Univer-
sity of New South Wales, Sydney 2052 Australia,
ISBN: 84841 366 3.
Fell, R., Wan, C.F., Cyganiewicz, J. & Foster, M.A. 2003.
Time for development of internal erosion and piping
in embankment dams. ASCE Journal of Geotechnical
and GeoEnvironmental Engineering, Vol. 129, No.4,
307–314.
Fell, R., Wan, C. F. & Foster, M.A. 2004 Methods for esti-
mating the probability of failure of embankment dams by
internal erosion and piping-piping through the embank-
ment. UNICIV Report No R-428, The University of New
South Wales, Sydney, 2052 Australia. ISBN: 85841 395 7.
Fell, R., & Wan, C.F. 2005 Methods for estimating the
probability of failure of embankment dams by internal
erosion and piping-piping through the foundation and
from embankment to foundation. UNICIV Report No R-
436, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, 2052
Australia. ISBN: 85841 403 1.
Fell, R., Foster, M.A. & Wan, C.F. 2005. A framework for
assessing the likelihood of internal erosion and piping of
embankment dams and their foundations. In Proceedings
of Workshop on Internal Erosion of Embankment Dams
and their Foundations, Aussois, France Editors R Fell and
JJ Fry, 25–27 April 2005. Balkema
Foster, M.A. 1999 The probability of failure of embankment
dams by internal erosion and piping. PhD thesis, School
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The University
of New South Wales.
Foster, M.A. & Fell, R. 1999a A framework for estimating the
probability of failure of embankment dams by piping using
event tree methods. UNICIV Report No. R-377. School of
Civil and Environmental Engineering, The University of
New South Wales, Sydney, Australia 2052. ISBN: 85841
343 4.
Foster, M.A. & Fell, R. 1999b.Assessing embankment dam fil-
ters which do not satisfy design criteria. UNICIV Report
No R-376, School of Civil and Environmental Engineer-
ing, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
2052. ISBN: 85841 343 4, ISSN: 0077-880X.
Foster, M.A. & Fell, R. 2000. Assessing embankment dam fil-
ters which do not satisfy design criteria. UNICIV Report
No R-376, the University of New South Wales, Sydney
Australia 2052, ISBN: 85841 343 4.
Foster, M.A. & Fell, R. 2001. Assessing embankment dam,
filters that do not satisfy design criteria. Journal of
Geotechnical and GeoEnvironmental Engineering, ASCE,
Vol. 127, No. 5, May 2001, 398–407.
Fry, J.J. 2005, Presentation at Workshop on Internal Ero-
sion of Embankment Dams and their Foundations,Aussois
France.
Hanson, G.J. 1991 Development of a jet index to charac-
terise erosion resistance of soils in earthen spillways.
Transactions of the ASAE, Vol 34, No 5, 2015–2020.
Hanson, G.J.1992 Erosion resistance of compacted soils.
Transportation Research Record 1369, 26–30.
Høeg, K., Løvoll, A. & Vaskinn, K.A. 2004. Stability and
breaching of embankment dams: field tests on 6m high
dams. Hydropower and Dams, Issue 1, 2004.
Johansson, S. 1996 Seepage monitoring in embankment dams
by temperature and resistivity measurements. Symposium
on repairing and upgrading of dams, Stockholm, June 5–
7, 1996. Editors Johansson and Cederstrom. KTH, Tryck
och Koperiering, 288–306.
Johansson, S. 2005. Detection of internal erosion in embank-
ment dams using temperature, resistivity and SP measure-
ments. In Proceedings of Workshop on Internal Erosion of
Embankment Dams and their Foundations,Aussois France
Editors R Fell and JJ Fry, 25–27 April 2005. Balkema
Johansson, S. 1997 Seepage monitoring in earth embankment
dams. Doctoral Thesis, Royal Institute of Technology,
Stockholm, Sweden.
Johansson, S., Claesson, J., Dahlin, T., Friborg, J., Hellstrom,
G., & Bing, Z., 2000. A parameter study for internal ero-
sion monitoring. A DSIG study in Press.www.ceati.com.
Kenney, T.C., Chahal, R., Chiu, E., Ofoegbu, I., Omange,
G.N. & Ume, C.A. 1985 Controlling constriction sizes of
granular filters. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 22,
32–43.
Kenney, T.C. & Lau, D. 1985. Internal stability of granular
filters. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 22 No. 2, pp.
215–225.
Kenney, T.C. & Lau, D. 1986. Internal stability of granular
filters: Reply. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 23,
pp. 420–423.
Kézdi, Á. 1969. Increase of protective capacity of flood con-
trol dikes (in Hungarian). Department of Geotechnics,
Technical University of Budapest, Report No. 1.
Khalili, N., Fell, R. & Tai, K.S. 1996. A simplified method
for estimating failure induced deformation. Proc. Seventh
Int. Symp. On Landslides. Editor Sennesett, K., Balkema,
Rotterdam, 1263–1268.
Kjaernsli, B., Valstad, T. & Hoeg, K. 1992 Rockfill dams
design and construction, Hydropower Development Vol
10, Norwegian Institute of Technology, Division of
Hydraulic Engineering.
Lafleur, J., Mlynarek, J. & Rollin, A.L. 1989. Filtration of
broadly graded cohesionless soils. Journal of Geotech-
nical Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 115, No. 12, December
1989, 1747–1768.
Lafleur, J., Mlynarek, J. & Rollin, A.L. 1993. Filter criteria
for well graded cohesionless soils. Proceedings, the First
International Conference “Geo-Filters”, Karlsruhe, Ger-
many, 20–22 October 1992, Filters in Geotechnical and
Hydraulic Engineering, Brauns, Heibaum and Schuler
(editors), 1993 Balkema, Rotterdam, 97–106.
Le Bihan, J.P. & Leroueil, S. 2002 A model for gas and
water flow through the core of earth dams .Canadian
Geotechnical Journal, Vol 39, No 1, 90–102.
Lim S.S 2005 – unpublished information, The University of
New South Wales, Sydney, Australia 2052.
Lubochkov, E.A. 1965. Graphical and analytical methods
for the determination of the properties of non-cohesive
soils characterising suffusion. Izvestia VNIIG, No. 78 (in
Russian).
Marot, D. Alexis, A. & Bendahmane, F. 2005 A specific
triaxial device for the study of internal erosion on
cohesive soils. In Proceedings of Workshop on Internal
Erosion of Embankment Dams and their Foundations,
22
Aussois, France Editors R Fell and JJ Fry, 25–27 April
2005.Balkema
Monnet, A. 1998) Boulance, erosion interne, renard. Les
instabilités sous écoulemen (in french)t. Revue Française
de Géotechnique, N◦ 82 pages 3–10.
Rönnqvist, H. 2005 Prediction on Swedish Embankment
Dams Internal Instability and Risk of Internal Erosion by
using currently available methods in Correlation to Oper-
ative History. In Proceedings of Workshop on Internal
Erosion of Embankment Dams and their Foundations,
Aussois France Editors R Fell and JJ Fry, 25–27 April
2005. Balkema.
Schmertmann, J.H. 2000 The non-filter factor of safety
against piping through sands. ASCE Geotechnical Special
Publication No. 111, Judgment and innovation. Edited by
F. Silva and E. Kavazanjian, ASCE, Reston.
Schuler, U. 1995. How to deal with the problem of suffusion.
Research and development in the field of dams, Swiss
National Committee on Large Dams, 145–159.
Schuler, U. & Brauns, J. 1993. Behaviour of coarse and well
graded filters. In Filters in geotechnical and hydraulic
engineering, Editors Brauns and Schuler, Balkema.
Schuler, U. & Brauns, J. 1997 The safety of geotechnical
filters. Hydropower and dams, Issue 6, 72–74.
Shaikh, A., Ruff, J.F. & Abt, S.R. 1988a Erosion rate of com-
pacted Na-montmorillonite soils. Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering, ASCE, Vol 114, No 3, 296–305.
Shaikh, A., Ruff, J.F., Charlie, W.A. & Abt, S. R. 1988b
Erosion rate of dispersive and non-dispersive clays. Jour-
nal of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, Vol 114, No 5,
589–600.
Sherard, J.L. 1979. Sinkholes in dams of coarse, broadly
graded soils. Transactions, 13th Congress on Large Dams,
New Delhi, India, Vol. 2, 25–35.
Sherard, J.L. & Dunnigan, L.P. 1989. Critical filters for
impervious soils. J. Geotech. Eng. ASCE, Vol.115, No.7,
927–947.
Sills, G.L. & Vroman, N. 2005 A review of Corps of Engi-
neers levee seepage practices in the United States. In
Proceedings of Workshop on Internal Erosion of Embank-
ment Dams and their Foundations, Aussois France Editors
R Fell and JJ Fry, 25–27 April 2005. Balkema.
Skempton, A.W. & Brogan, J.M. 1994 Experiments on piping
in sandy gravels. Geotechnique 44, No.3, 449–460.
Sölvig, O. 1991.Through flow and stability problems in rock-
fill dams exposed to exceptional loads. 16th International
Congress on Large Dams, Q.67 R.20, International Com-
mission on Large Dams, Paris.
Solvik, O. (1995). Stenfyllningsdammars stabilitet vid
genomströmning, VASO Dam Committee, Report No.17.
Sun, B.C.B. 1989. Internal Stability of Clayey to Silty Sands.
A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Civil
Engineering) in the University of Michigan 1989.
USBR 1977. Design of Small Dams. US Bureau of Reclam-
ation, Denver.
USBR 1987. Design standards No.13, Embankment dams.
Chapter 8, Seepage analysis and control. US Bureau of
Reclamation, Denver.
USBR 2000 Risk analysis methodology-Appendix E-
estimating risk of internal erosion and material trans-
port failure modes for embankment dams. US Bureau of
Reclamation, Denver.
USBR 2004 Design Standard No 13, Protective Filters. US APPENDIX A
Bureau of Reclamation, Denver.
USEPA 2000 Innovations in site characterization: geophys- LIST OF THOSE WHO ATTENDED THE
ical investigation at hazardous waste sites, August 2000, WORKSHOP
USEPA, Washington DC.
Vaughan, P.R 1994 Assumptions, prediction and reality in
geotechnical engineering. Geotechnique Vol 44, No 4, Barker, Gregg, Electricité de France
573–609. Bartsch, Maria ,Vattenfall, Sweden
Vaughan, P.R. & Soares, H.F. 1982. Design of filters for clay Bellendir, Evgeny, Russia
cores of dams. Jr. Geotech. Benahmed, Nadia, CEMAGREF, France
Div., A. S. C. E. Vol. 108, GT1, 17–32. Blais, Jean-Pierre, Electricité de France
Vaughan, P.R. & Bridle, R.C. 2004. An update on perfect Brown, Alan, Jacobs, United Kingdom
filters. Long-term benefits and performance of dam. Pro- Bridle, Rodney, Consultant, United Kingdom
ceedings 13th conference of the British Dam Society and Chopin, Michel, Consultant, France
European Club of ICOLD. University of Canterbury, UK,
Courivaud, Jean-Robert, Electricité de France
22–26 June 2004; Thomas Telford, London, 516–531.
Von Thun, J.L. 1996. Understanding Piping and Seepage Cyganiewicz, John, Bureau of Reclamation, USA
Failures – The No.1 Dam Safety Problem in the West. Pro- Dornstädter, Juergen, GTC, Germany
ceedings of ASDSO Western Regional Conference, Lake Engemoen, William, Bureau of Reclamation, USA
Tahoe; Nevada. Fell, Robin, University of New South Wales, Australia
Wahl, T. L. 1998. Prediction of Embankment Dam Breach Foster, Mark, URS, Australia
Parameters. Dam Safety Office Research Report No. Fry, Jean-Jacques, Electricité de France
DSO-98-004, Water Resources Research Laboratory, Garner, Steve, BC Hydro, Canada
Bureau of Reclamation, Denver. Gillon, Murray, DamWatch, New Zealand
Wan, C.F. & Fell, R. 2002. Investigation of internal erosion
Johansson, Sam, HydroResearch, Sweden
and piping of soils in embankment dams by the slot erosion
test and the hole erosion test. UNICIV Report No. R-412, Kahawita, René, Ecole Polytechnique de Montréal,
ISBN: 85841 379 5, School of Civil and Environmental Canada
Engineering, The University of New South Wales. Lafleur, Jean, Ecole Polytechnique de Montreal,
Wan, C.F. & Fell, R. 2004a. Investigation of rate of erosion of Canada
soils in embankment dams.ASCE Journal of Geotechnical Lopes, Sergio, Laboratoire Central des Ponts et
and GeoEnvironmental Engineering,Vol. 130, No. 4, 373– Chaussées, France
380. Marot, Didier, University GeM, UMR CNRS, France
Wan, C.F. & Fell, R. 2004b. Laboratory tests on the rate of pip- Nguyen, Huu-Phong, Hydro-Québec, Canada
ing erosion of soils in embankment dams. Geotechnical
Nilsson, Ake, Vattenfall, Sweden
Testing Journal, vol.27, No.3, 295–303.
Wan, C.F. & Fell, R. 2005. Investigation of Internal Ero- Perzlmaier, Sebastian,Technical University of Munich,
sion by the Process of Suffusion in embankment Dams Germany
and their Foundations. In Proceedings of Workshop on Reboul, Nadege, ECL, France
Internal Erosion of Embankment Dams and their Foun- Reiffsteck, Philippe, LCPC, France
dations, Aussois, France editors R Fell and JJ Fry, 25–27 Ronnqvist, Hans, Vattenfall, Sweden
April 2005.Balkema Royet, Paul, CEMAGREF, France
Weijers, J.B.A. & Sellmeijer, J.B. 1993. A new model to Sills, George, US Army Corps of Engineers, USA
deal with the piping mechanism in “Filters in Geotech- Taisant, R, CNR, France
nical and Hydraulic Engineering. Brauns, Herbaum and
Vuola, Pekka. Finnish Environment Institute, Finland
Schuler (editors), Balkema, Rotterdam.
Witt, K.J. 1993 Reliability study of granular filters. In fil- Wan, Chi Fai, GHD, Australia
ters in geotechnical and hydraulic engineering. Editors
Brauns, Helbaum and Schuler. Balkema. 3–17.

23
References

The state of the art of assessing the

likelihood of internal erosion of
embankment dams, water retaining
structures and their foundations.

Bridle, R.C 2005. Assessing the vulnerability of dams to

internal erosion. In Proceedings of Workshop on Internal
Erosion of Embankment Dams and their Foundations, Aussois,
France Editors R Fell and JJ Fry, 25–27 April 2005.Balkema

Brown, A.J., Gosden J.D 2004 Interim guide to quantitative

risk assessment forUK reservoirs.ThomasTelford. ISBN: 0
7277 3267 6.

Brown, A.J. 2005 Issues in the management of internal

erosion inUKembankment dams InProceedings ofWorkshop on
Internal Erosion of Embankment Dams and their Foundations,
Editors R Fell and JJ Fry,Aussois, France, 25–27 April
2005. Balkema.

Bui, H., Fell, R. & Song, C. 2004. Two and three

dimensional numerical modeling of the potential for
cracking of embankment dams during construction. UNICIV
Report No. 426, The School of Civil and Environmental
Engineering,TheUniversity ofNewSouthWales, Sydney.

Bui, H., Tandjiria, V., Fell, R., Song, C. & Khalili, N.

2005. Two and three dimensional numerical analysis of the
potential for cracking of embankment dams – supplementary
report. UNICIVReport R438,TheUniversity of New South Wales,
ISBN:85841 405 8.

Burenkova, V.V. 1993.Assessment of suffosion in noncohesive

and graded soils. Proceedings, the First International
Conference “Geo-Filters”, Karlsruhe, Germany, 20–22 October
1992. Filters in Geotechnical and Hydraulic Engineering,
Brauns, Heibaum and Schuler (editors), 1993 Balkema,
Rotterdam,. 357–360.

Chapuis, R.P. 1992. Similarity of internal stability

criteria for granular soils. Canadian Geotechnical Journal,
Vol. 29, 1992, 711–713.

Chapuis, R.P., Constant, A. & Bass, K.A. 1996 Migration of

fines in 0–20mm crushed base during placement, compaction,
and seepage under laboratory conditions. Canadian
Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 33, 1996, 168–176.
Chopin, M.2005. Presentation at Workshop on Internal
Erosion of Embankment Dams and their Foundations.

Cyganiewicz. J.&Smart, J. 2000USBureau ofReclamation’s use

of risk analysis and risk assessment in dam safety decision
making. 20th International Congress on Large Dams,
Beijing,Q. 76, 351–369, InternationalCommission on Large
Dams, Paris.

Cyganiewicz JM, Engemoen WO & Redlinger CG 2005) Bureau of

Reclamation experience with evaluating internal erosion of
embankment dams. In Proceedings of Workshop on Internal
Erosion and Foundations, Aussois France Editors R Fell and
JJ Fry, April 25–27, 2005. Balkema.

Dornstadter, J. 1996.Sensitive monitoring of embankment

dams. Proceedings Symposium on repairing and upgrading of
dams, Stockholm. Editors Johansson and Cederstrom, KTH
Trych och Kopiering, 259–268.

Dornstädter, J. 2005. Presentation at Workshop on Internal

Erosion of Embankment Dams and their Foundations, Aussois,
France.

Fauchard, C. and Meriaux, P. 2004. Methodes geophysiques et

geotechniques pour le diiagnostic des digues de protection
contre les cruesGuide pour la mise in oeuvre et
l’interpretation. CEMAGREF ISBN: 2-85362-643-1. Fauchard,
C., Cote, P. and Meriaux, P. 2005. High output geophysical
methods for dyke testing. GEOLINE 2005, Lyon, France. Fell,
R., Wan, C.F., Cyganiewicz, J. & Foster, M.A. 2001. The
time for development, and detecaibility of internal erosion
and piping in embankment dams and their foundations. UNICIV
Report No. R-399. School of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, the University of New South Wales, Sydney 2052
Australia, ISBN: 84841 366 3. Fell, R., Wan, C.F.,
Cyganiewicz, J. & Foster, M.A. 2003. Time for development
of internal erosion and piping in embankment dams. ASCE
Journal of Geotechnical and GeoEnvironmental Engineering,
Vol. 129, No.4, 307–314. Fell, R., Wan, C. F. & Foster,
M.A. 2004 Methods for estimating the probability of failure
of embankment dams by internal erosion and piping-piping
through the embankment. UNICIV Report No R-428, The
University of New SouthWales, Sydney, 2052Australia. ISBN:
85841 395 7. Fell, R., & Wan, C.F. 2005 Methods for
estimating the probability of failure of embankment dams by
internal erosion and piping-piping through the foundation
and from embankment to foundation. UNICIV Report No R436,
The University of New South Wales, Sydney, 2052 Australia.
ISBN: 85841 403 1. Fell, R., Foster, M.A. & Wan, C.F. 2005.
A framework for assessing the likelihood of internal
erosion and piping of embankment dams and their
foundations. In Proceedings of Workshop on Internal Erosion
of Embankment Dams and their Foundations, Aussois, France
Editors R Fell and JJ Fry, 25–27 April 2005. Balkema
Foster, M.A. 1999 The probability of failure of embankment
dams by internal erosion and piping. PhD thesis, School of
Civil and Environmental Engineering, The University of New
South Wales. Foster, M.A. & Fell, R. 1999aA framework for
estimating the probability of failure of embankment dams by
piping using event tree methods.UNICIVReport No. R-377.
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The
University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia 2052.
ISBN: 85841 343 4. Foster,M.A.&Fell,R. 1999b.Assessing
embankment dam filters which do not satisfy design
criteria. UNICIV Report No R-376, School of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, University of New South Wales,
Sydney, Australia 2052. ISBN: 85841 343 4, ISSN: 0077-880X.
Foster, M.A. & Fell, R. 2000.Assessing embankment dam
filters which do not satisfy design criteria. UNICIV Report
No R-376, the University of New South Wales, Sydney
Australia 2052, ISBN: 85841 343 4. Foster, M.A. & Fell, R.
2001. Assessing embankment dam, filters that do not satisfy
design criteria. Journal of Geotechnical
andGeoEnvironmental Engineering,ASCE, Vol. 127, No. 5, May
2001, 398–407. Fry, J.J. 2005, Presentation at Workshop on
Internal Erosion ofEmbankmentDams and their
Foundations,Aussois France. Hanson, G.J. 1991 Development
of a jet index to characterise erosion resistance of soils
in earthen spillways. Transactions of the ASAE, Vol 34, No
5, 2015–2020. Hanson, G.J.1992 Erosion resistance of
compacted soils. Transportation Research Record 1369,
26–30. Høeg, K., Løvoll, A. & Vaskinn, K.A. 2004. Stability
and breaching of embankment dams: field tests on 6m high
dams. Hydropower and Dams, Issue 1, 2004. Johansson, S.
1996Seepagemonitoring in embankment dams by temperature and
resistivity measurements. Symposium on repairing and
upgrading of dams, Stockholm, June 5– 7, 1996. Editors
Johansson and Cederstrom. KTH, Tryck och Koperiering,
288–306. Johansson, S. 2005. Detection of internal erosion
in embankment dams using temperature, resistivity and
SPmeasurements. In Proceedings ofWorkshop on Internal
Erosion of EmbankmentDamsand theirFoundations,AussoisFrance
Editors R Fell and JJ Fry, 25–27 April 2005. Balkema
Johansson, S. 1997 Seepagemonitoring in earth embankment
dams. Doctoral Thesis, Royal Institute of Technology,
Stockholm, Sweden. Johansson, S., Claesson, J., Dahlin, T.,
Friborg, J., Hellstrom, G., & Bing, Z., 2000. A parameter
study for internal erosion monitoring. A DSIG study in
Press.www.ceati.com. Kenney, T.C., Chahal, R., Chiu, E.,
Ofoegbu, I., Omange, G.N. & Ume, C.A. 1985 Controlling
constriction sizes of granular filters. Canadian
Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 22, 32–43. Kenney, T.C. & Lau,
D. 1985. Internal stability of granular filters.Canadian
Geotechnical Journal,Vol. 22 No. 2, pp. 215–225. Kenney,
T.C. & Lau, D. 1986. Internal stability of granular
filters: Reply. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 23, pp.
420–423. Kézdi, Á. 1969. Increase of protective capacity of
flood control dikes (in Hungarian). Department of
Geotechnics, Technical University of Budapest, Report No.
1. Khalili, N., Fell, R. & Tai, K.S. 1996. A simplified
method for estimating failure induced deformation. Proc.
Seventh Int. Symp. On Landslides. Editor Sennesett, K.,
Balkema, Rotterdam, 1263–1268. Kjaernsli, B., Valstad, T. &
Hoeg, K. 1992 Rockfill dams design and construction,
Hydropower Development Vol 10, Norwegian Institute of
Technology, Division of Hydraulic Engineering. Lafleur, J.,
Mlynarek, J. & Rollin, A.L. 1989. Filtration of broadly
graded cohesionless soils. Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 115, No. 12, December 1989,
1747–1768. Lafleur, J., Mlynarek, J. & Rollin, A.L. 1993.
Filter criteria for well graded cohesionless soils.
Proceedings, the First International Conference
“Geo-Filters”, Karlsruhe, Germany, 20–22 October 1992,
Filters in Geotechnical and Hydraulic Engineering, Brauns,
Heibaum and Schuler (editors), 1993 Balkema, Rotterdam,
97–106. Le Bihan, J.P. & Leroueil, S. 2002 A model for gas
and water flow through the core of earth dams .Canadian
Geotechnical Journal,Vol 39, No 1, 90–102. Lim S.S 2005 –
unpublished information, The University of New South Wales,
Sydney, Australia 2052. Lubochkov, E.A. 1965. Graphical and
analytical methods for the determination of the properties
of non-cohesive soils characterising suffusion. Izvestia
VNIIG, No. 78 (in Russian). Marot, D. Alexis, A. &
Bendahmane, F. 2005 A specific triaxial device for the
study of internal erosion on cohesive soils. In Proceedings
of Workshop on Internal Erosion of Embankment Dams and
their Foundations, Aussois, France Editors R Fell and JJ
Fry, 25–27 April 2005.Balkema Monnet, A. 1998) Boulance,
erosion interne, renard. Les instabilités sous écoulemen
(in french)t. Revue Française de Géotechnique, N ◦ 82 pages
3–10. Rönnqvist, H. 2005 Prediction on Swedish Embankment
Dams Internal Instability and Risk of Internal Erosion by
using currently available methods in Correlation to
Operative History. In Proceedings of Workshop on Internal
Erosion of Embankment Dams and their Foundations, Aussois
France Editors R Fell and JJ Fry, 25–27 April 2005.
Balkema. Schmertmann, J.H. 2000 The non-filter factor of
safety against piping through sands.ASCEGeotechnical
Special Publication No. 111, Judgment and innovation.
Edited by F. Silva and E. Kavazanjian, ASCE, Reston.
Schuler, U. 1995. How to deal with the problem of
suffusion. Research and development in the field of dams,
Swiss National Committee on Large Dams, 145–159. Schuler,
U. & Brauns, J. 1993. Behaviour of coarse and well graded
filters. In Filters in geotechnical and hydraulic
engineering, Editors Brauns and Schuler, Balkema. Schuler,
U. & Brauns, J. 1997 The safety of geotechnical filters.
Hydropower and dams, Issue 6, 72–74. Shaikh,A., Ruff, J.F.
&Abt, S.R. 1988a Erosion rate of compacted
Na-montmorillonite soils. Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering, ASCE,Vol 114, No 3, 296–305. Shaikh, A., Ruff,
J.F., Charlie, W.A. & Abt, S. R. 1988b Erosion rate of
dispersive and non-dispersive clays. Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, Vol 114, No 5, 589–600.
Sherard, J.L. 1979. Sinkholes in dams of coarse, broadly
graded soils.Transactions, 13th Congress on LargeDams, New
Delhi, India,Vol. 2, 25–35. Sherard, J.L. & Dunnigan, L.P.
1989. Critical filters for impervious soils. J. Geotech.
Eng. ASCE, Vol.115, No.7, 927–947. Sills, G.L. & Vroman, N.
2005 A review of Corps of Engineers levee seepage practices
in the United States. In Proceedings ofWorkshop on Internal
Erosion of Embankment Dams and their Foundations,Aussois
France Editors R Fell and JJ Fry, 25–27 April 2005.
Balkema. Skempton,A.W.&Brogan, J.M. 1994 Experiments on
piping in sandy gravels. Geotechnique 44, No.3, 449–460.
Sölvig, O. 1991.Through flow and stability problems in
rockfill dams exposed to exceptional loads. 16th
International Congress on Large Dams, Q.67 R.20,
International Commission on Large Dams, Paris. Solvik, O.
(1995). Stenfyllningsdammars stabilitet vid genomströmning,
VASO Dam Committee, Report No.17. Sun, B.C.B. 1989.
Internal Stability of Clayey to Silty Sands. A dissertation
submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for
the degree ofDoctor of Philosophy (Civil Engineering) in
the University of Michigan 1989. USBR 1977. Design of Small
Dams. US Bureau of Reclamation, Denver. USBR 1987. Design
standards No.13, Embankment dams. Chapter 8, Seepage
analysis and control. US Bureau of Reclamation, Denver.
USBR 2000 Risk analysis methodology-Appendix Eestimating
risk of internal erosion and material transport failure
modes for embankment dams. US Bureau of Reclamation,
Denver.

USBR 2004 Design Standard No 13, Protective Filters. US

Bureau of Reclamation, Denver.

USEPA 2000 Innovations in site characterization:

geophysical investigation at hazardous waste sites, August
2000, USEPA, Washington DC.
Vaughan, P.R 1994 Assumptions, prediction and reality in
geotechnical engineering. Geotechnique Vol 44, No 4,
573–609.

Vaughan, P.R. & Soares, H.F. 1982. Design of filters for

clay cores of dams. Jr. Geotech. Div., A. S. C. E. Vol.
108, GT1, 17–32.

Vaughan, P.R. & Bridle, R.C. 2004. An update on perfect

filters. Long-term benefits and performance of dam.
Proceedings 13th conference of the British Dam Society and
European Club of ICOLD. University of Canterbury, UK, 22–26
June 2004; Thomas Telford, London, 516–531.

Von Thun, J.L. 1996. Understanding Piping and Seepage

Failures –TheNo.1 DamSafety Problem in theWest.Proceedings
of ASDSO Western Regional Conference, Lake Tahoe; Nevada.

Wahl, T. L. 1998. Prediction of Embankment Dam Breach

Parameters. Dam Safety Office Research Report No.
DSO-98-004, Water Resources Research Laboratory, Bureau of
Reclamation, Denver.

Wan, C.F. & Fell, R. 2002. Investigation of internal

erosion and piping of soils in embankment dams by the slot
erosion test and the hole erosion test.UNICIV Report No.
R-412, ISBN: 85841 379 5, School of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, The University of New South Wales.

Wan, C.F. & Fell, R. 2004a. Investigation of rate of

erosion of soils in embankment dams.ASCEJournal
ofGeotechnical andGeoEnvironmentalEngineering,Vol. 130,No.
4, 373– 380.

Wan,C.F.&Fell, R. 2004b. Laboratory tests on the rate of

piping erosion of soils in embankment dams. Geotechnical
Testing Journal, vol.27, No.3, 295–303.

Wan, C.F. & Fell, R. 2005. Investigation of Internal

Erosion by the Process of Suffusion in embankment Dams and
their Foundations. In Proceedings of Workshop on Internal
Erosion of Embankment Dams and their Foundations, Aussois,
France editors R Fell and JJ Fry, 25–27 April 2005.Balkema

Weijers, J.B.A. & Sellmeijer, J.B. 1993. A new model to

deal with the piping mechanism in “Filters in Geotechnical
and Hydraulic Engineering. Brauns, Herbaum and Schuler
(editors), Balkema, Rotterdam.
Witt, K.J. 1993 Reliability study of granular filters. In
filters in geotechnical and hydraulic engineering. Editors
Brauns, Helbaum and Schuler. Balkema. 3–17. APPENDIXA LIST
OF THOSEWHOATTENDED THE WORKSHOP Barker, Gregg, Electricité
de France Bartsch, Maria ,Vattenfall, Sweden Bellendir,
Evgeny, Russia Benahmed, Nadia, CEMAGREF, France Blais,
Jean-Pierre, Electricité de France Brown, Alan, Jacobs,
United Kingdom Bridle, Rodney, Consultant, United Kingdom
Chopin, Michel, Consultant, France Courivaud, Jean-Robert,
Electricité de France Cyganiewicz, John, Bureau of
Reclamation, USA Dornstädter, Juergen, GTC, Germany
Engemoen, William, Bureau of Reclamation, USA Fell, Robin,
University of New SouthWales,Australia Foster, Mark, URS,
Australia Fry, Jean-Jacques, Electricité de France Garner,
Steve, BC Hydro, Canada Gillon, Murray, DamWatch, New
Zealand Johansson, Sam, HydroResearch, Sweden Kahawita,
René, Ecole Polytechnique de Montréal, Canada Lafleur,
Jean, Ecole Polytechnique de Montreal, Canada Lopes,
Sergio, Laboratoire Central des Ponts et Chaussées, France
Marot, Didier, University GeM, UMR CNRS, France Nguyen,
Huu-Phong, Hydro-Québec, Canada Nilsson, Ake, Vattenfall,
Sweden Perzlmaier, Sebastian,TechnicalUniversity ofMunich,
Germany Reboul, Nadege, ECL, France Reiffsteck, Philippe,
LCPC, France Ronnqvist, Hans, Vattenfall, Sweden Royet,
Paul, CEMAGREF, France Sills, George, US Army Corps of
Engineers, USA Taisant, R, CNR, France Vuola, Pekka.
Finnish Environment Institute, Finland Wan, Chi Fai, GHD,
Australia
Assessing the vulnerability of dams to
internal erosion

Vaughan P R & Bridle R C (2004). An update on perfect

filters. Long-term benefits and performance of dams.
Proceedings 13th conference of the British Dam Society and
European Club of ICOLD, University of Canterbury, UK, 22–26
June 2004, Thomas Telford, London, 516–531 (the ‘original’
paper, corrected in the version above. Please contact
rodney.bridle@damsafety.co.uk for additional copies of the
corrected paper if required). Vaughan P R & Soares H F
1982. Design of filters for clay cores of dams.ASCEJournal
ofGeotechnicalEngineering Division, January,Vol 108 (GT1)
17–31. Vaughan P R, Kluth D J, Leonard M W & Pradoura H H M
1970. Cracking and erosion of the rolled clay core of
Balderhead dam and the remedial works adopted for its
repair. Transactions of 10th International Congress on
Large Dams, Montreal,Vol 1, 73–93.
Internal erosion in Porjus dam – risk
assessment and proposal for upgrading

Fell, R. et al. 2004. Methods for estimating the

probability of failure of embankment dams by internal
erosion and piping – piping through the embankment. UNICIV
report No. R-428.The University of New South Wales, Sydney.

Foster, M. & Fell, R. 1999.Assessing embankment dam filter

which do not satisfy design criteria. UNICIV report No.
R-376. The University of New South Wales, Sydney.

Foster, M.A. & Fell, R. 2001. Assessing embankment dam,

filters that do not satisfy design criteria. Journal of
Geotechnical andGeoEnvironmental Engineering,ASCE, Vol.
127, No. 5, May 2001, 398–407.

Nilsson, Å. 2006. The Susceptibility Of Internal Erosion in

the Suorva Dam. (This publication; Workshop Aussois, France
25–27 April 2005).

Nilsson, Å. & Bartsch, M. 2004. Leakage Through Embankment

Dams – Failure Modes and Design of Toe Berms. 72nd Annual
General Meeting of ICOLD, Seoul, Korea.

Nilsson, Å. & Norstedt, U. 2004. Reverse filters on the

downstream slope as one way to compensate for too coarse
filters in Swedish dams, 2004 CDA Conference – “Guidance to
good practice” – Ottawa.

Nilsson, Å.&Rönnqvist, H. 2004.Measures to strengthening

Embankment Dams in order to stop or control a possible
through-flowprocess. International Seminar, Stability and
Breaching of Embankment Dams, Oslo, Norway.

Kenney, T.C. & Lau, D. 1985. Internal stability of granular

filters. Canadian Geotechnical Journal. Vol 22, No. 3,
pp215–225, and Vol.22, No. 1, pp32–43.

Rönnqvist, H. 2006. An evaluation of the internal stability

of embankment dams owned by Vattenfall AB. (This
publication;WorkshopAussois, France 25–27April 2005).
Issues in the management of internal
erosion in UK embankment dams

Fell, R., Wan, C.F., Cyganiewicz, J. & Foster M. 2003. Time

for development of internal erosion and piping in
embankment dams. ASCE Journal of Geotechnical and
GeoEnvironmental Engineering,Vol. 129, No.4, 307–314

Gardiner, K, Hughes, A & Brown, A.J. 2004. Lessons from an

incident at Upper Rivington reservoir. Dams and Reservoirs.
September. 35–37

ICE. 2000.AGuide to the ReservoirsAct 1975. PublsThomas

Telford

KBR. 2002.: Reservoir safety – Floods and Reservoir safety

Integration. Research Report on Contract In 3 volumes.
Available at www.defra.gov.uk/environment/water/rs

KBR. 2003.Task B : Early detection of internal erosion.

Feasibility Report. In three volumes. Volume 1 available on
Defra website; other two volumes on application to Defra

Moffat,A.I.B. 2002.The characteristics ofUKPuddleClays – A

Review. Proc BDS Conference. 581–601 Poskitt, F.F. 1974.
Paper 5.4Assessment of Selected Dams in Northern Ireland.
BNCOLD Newcastle Vaughan, P.R. 2000a. Filter design for dam
cores of clay, a retrospect.Conf Filters andDrainage
inGeotechnical and Environmental Engineering. Balkema.
189–196 Vaughan, P.R. 2000a. Internal erosion of dams –
assessment of risks. Conf Filters and Drainage in
Geotechnical and Environmental Engineering. Balkema.
349–356 Wan, C.F. & Fell, R. 2002. Investigation of
internal erosion and piping of soils in embankment dams by
the slot erosion test and the hole erosion test. University
of NSW research report No R-412 July 2002. ISBN 85841 379 5
Wan, C.F. & Fell, R. 2004. Investigation of rate of erosion
of soils in embankment dams. ASCE Journal of Geotechnical
and GeoEnvironmental Engineering, Vol. 130, No. 4, 373–380
Bureau of Reclamation experience with
evaluating internal erosion of embankment
dams

Von Thun, J.L., 1996. Understanding Piping and Seepage

Failures –TheNo. 1DamSafety Problem in theWest.Proceedings
of ASDSO Western Regional Conference, Lake Tahoe, Nevada.

Wan, C.F., and Fell, R. July 2002. Investigation of

Internal Erosion an Piping of Soils in Embankment Dams by
the Slot Erosion Test and the Hole Erosion Test. UNICIV
Report No. R-412, ISBN: 85841 379 5. School of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, The University of New South
Wales, Sydney, Australia. Wan, C.F. and Fell, R. (2004a).
Investigation of rate of erosion of soils in embankment
dams. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering, ASCE, Vol.130, No.4, 373–380. Wan, C.F. and
Fell, R. (2004b). Laboratory tests on the rate of piping
erosion of soils in embankment dams. ASTM Geotechnical
Testing Journal, Vol 27, No 3, 295–303.
A framework for assessing the likelihood
of internal erosion and piping of
embankment dams and their foundations

Fell, R., Wan, C.F., Cyganiewicz, J. & Foster, M. 2001. The

time for development and detectability of internal erosion
and piping on embankment dams and their foundations.
UNICIVReportNo.R-399, ISBN: 84841 366 3. School of Civil
and Environmental Engineering, University of New South
Wales. Fell, R., Wan, C.F., Cyganiewicz, J. & Foster, M.
2003. Time for development of internal erosion and piping
in embankment dams. ASCE Journal of Geotechnical and
GeoEnvironmental Engineering,Vol. 129,No.4, 307–314. Fell,
R.WanC.F.&FosterM. 2004Methods for estimating the
probability of failure of embankment dams by internal
erosion and piping-piping through the embankment. UNICIV
Report No R 428, University of New South Wales, ISBN 85841
395 7. Fell, R. &Wan CF 2005Methods for estimating the
probability of failure of embankment dams by internal
erosion and piping in the foundation and from embankment to
foundation. UNICIV Report No R 436, The University of New
South Wales. ISBN 85841 403 1. Foster, M.A. 1999. The
probability of failure of embankment dams by internal
erosion and piping. PhD thesis, School of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, University of New South Wales.
Foster,M.A.& Fell, R. 1999a.A framework for estimating the
probability of failure of embankment dams by piping using
event tree methods.UNICIVReport No. R-377. School of Civil
and Environmental Engineering, University of New South
Wales. ISBN: 85841 343 4. Foster, M.A. & Fell, R. 1999b.
Assessing Embankment Dam Filters Which Do Not Satisfy
Design Criteria. UNICIV Report No. R-376, School of Civil
and Environmental Engineering, University of New South
Wales. ISBN: 85841 343 4, ISSN 0077-880X. Foster, M. &
Fell, R. 2001. Assessing embankment dams, filters which do
not satisfy design criteria, J. Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, Vol.127, No.4, May
2001, 398–407. ICOLD 1994. Embankment Dams Granular Filters
and Drains. Bulletin 95 International Commission on Large
Dams, Paris. Sherard, J.L. 1979. Sinkholes in dams of
coarse, broadly graded soils. 13th Int. Congress on Large
Dams, New Delhi. Q47, R2, 325–334. International Commission
on Large Dams, Paris. Sherard, J.L. & Dunnigan, L.P. 1989.
Critical filters for impervious soils. J. Geotech. Eng.
ASCE, Vol.115, No.7, 927–947. USBR 1987. Design standards
No.13, Embankment dams. Chapter 8, seepage analysis and
control. US Bureau of Reclamation, Denver. USDA-SCS 1994.
Gradation Design of Sand and Gravel Filters. United States
Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, Part
633, Chapter 26, national Engineering handbook. Von Thun,
L. 1996. Understanding seepage and piping failures –
theNo.1 dam safety problem in thewest.ASDSO Western
Regional Conference, Lake Tahoe, Nevada. Wan, C.F. & Fell,
R. 2002. Investigation of internal erosion and piping of
soils in embankment dams by the slot erosion test and the
hole erosion test.UNICIV Report No. R-412, ISBN: 85841 379
5, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The
University of New South Wales. Wan, C.F. & Fell, R. 2004.
Investigation of rate of erosion of soils in embankment
dams. ASCE Journal of Geotechnical and GeoEnvironmental
Engineering,Vol. 130, No. 4, 373–380.
Assessment of the likelihood of
initiation of erosion in embankment dams

Fell, R. &Wan, C.F. 2005Methods for estimating the

probability of failure of embankment dams by internal
erosion and piping in the foundation and from embankment to
foundation. UNICIV Report No R 436, The University of New
South Wales. ISBN 85841 403 1.

Foster, M.A. 1999 The probability of failure of embankment

damsby internal erosion andpiping. PhDThesis School of
Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of New
South Wales.

Foster, M.A. & Fell, R. 1999.A framework for estimating the

probability of failure of embankment dams by piping using
event tree methods. UNICIVReport No. R-377. School of Civil
and Environmental Engineering, University of New South
Wales. ISBN: 85841 343 4.

Høeg, K., Johansen, P.M., Kjærnsli, B. & Torblaa, I. 1998.

Internal erosion in embankment dams. Research project
sponsored by Norwegian Electricity Federation (EnFO). (In
Norwegian with English summary).

Hunter, G. 2003The Deformation Behaviour of Embankment Dams

and landslides in Natural and Constructed Soil Slopes. PhD
Thesis. School of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
University of New South Wales.

Hunter, G. & Fell, R. 2003 The Deformation Behaviour of

Embankment Dams. UNICIV Report No. R-416. ISBN: 0077-880X,
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University
of New South Wales.

Kenney, T.C. & Lau, D. 1986 Closure to: internal stability

of granular filters. Canadian Geotech. J., Vol. 23,
420–423.

Kjaernsli, B., Valstad, T. & Hoeg, K. 1992. Rockfill Dams,

Design and Construction. Norwegian Institute ofTechnology,
Oslo.

Koenders,M.A.&Sellmeijer, J.B. 1992.Mathematicalmodel for

piping. Journal of Geotech. Eng., ASCE, Vol.118, No.6,
943–946.

Kovacs, G. 1981. Seepage Hydraulics. Elsevier Scientific,

Amsterdam.
Lane,E.W.1935. Security fromunder-seepagemasonrydams on
earth foundations. ASCE Transactions, paper 1919,
1235–1351.

Maniam, M. 2004. Critical seepage gradients beneath

embankment dams. Bachelor of Civil Engineering thesis,
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The
University of New South Wales, Sydney.

Müller-Kirchenbauer, M., Rankl, M. & Schlötzer, C. 1993.

Mechanism for regressive erosion beneath dams and barrages
in Filters in Geotechnical and Hydraulic Engineering,
Editors Brauns, Helbaum and Schuler. Balkema, Rotterdam,
369–376.

Pells, S. & Fell, R. 2002. Damage and Cracking of

Embankment Dams by Earthquakes, and the Implications for
Internal Erosion and Piping. UNICIV Report No. R406, School
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of New
South Wales, ISBN: 85841 375 2.

Pells, S. & Fell, R. 2003. Damage and Cracking of

Embankment Dams by Earthquake and the Implications for
Internal Erosion and Piping. Proceedings 21st Internal
Congress on Large Dams, Montreal. ICOLD, Paris Q83-R17,
International Commission on Large Dams, Paris. Schmertmann,
J.H. 2000. The non-filter factor of safety against piping
through sands.ASCEGeotechnical Special Publication No. 111,
Judgment and innovation. Edited by F. Silva and E.
Kavazanjian, ASCE, Reston. Sellmeijer, J.B. & Koenders,
M.A. 1991. A mathematical model for piping. Applied
Mathematical Modeling, Vol. 115, 646–661.
Buterworth-Heinemann. Sherard, J.L. 1973. Embankment Dam
Cracking, in Embankment Dam Engineering, Hirschfeld, R.C.,
& Poulos, S.J. (eds.), John Wiley & Sons, 308–312. Sherard,
J.L. 1979. Sinkholes in dams of coarse, broadly graded
soils. 13th Int. Congress on Large Dams, New Delhi. Q47,
R2, 325–334. International Commission on Large Dams, Paris.
Sherard, J.L. 1985. Hydraulic Fracturing in Embankment
Dams, in Seepage and Leakage from Dams and Impoundments.
ASCE Geotechnical Engineering Division Conference. Sherard,
J.L., Woodward, R.J., Gizienski, S.F., & Clevenger, W.A.
1963. Earth and Earth-Rock Dams, John Wiley & Sons.
Skempton,A.W.&Brogan, J.M. 1994. Experiments on piping in
sandy gravels. Geotechnique 44, No. 3, 449–460. Sun, B.C.B.
1989. Internal stability of clayey to silty sands.A
dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Civil
Engineering) in the University of Michigan 1989.
Swindon,A.,Griggs,T.,Herweynan,R.&Fell,R. 2004.Cairn Curran
Dam upgrade – investigations and geotechnical modeling.
ANCOLD Bulletin No. 120, 27–40, Australian National
Committee on Large Dams, Melbourne. Talbot, J.R. 1994. The
mechanics of cracking in embankment dams. Proceedings,
Fracture Mechanics Applied to Geotechnical Engineering,
ASCE, 118–130. USDA-SCS 2002. Workshop on cracking of
homogeneous earth dams in semi-arid environments, USDA-SCS
January 29–30, 2002. Phoenix, Arizona. Van Zyl, D. & Harr,
M.E. 1981. Seepage erosion analyses of structures. Proc.
10th Int. Conf. Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering.
Balkema, Rotterday, 503–509. Wan, C.F. & Fell, R. 2002.
Investigation of internal erosion and piping of soils in
embankment dams by the slot erosion test and the hole
erosion test. UNICIV Report No. R-412, ISBN: 85841 379 5,
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The
University of New South Wales. Wan, C.F. & Fell, R. 2004.
Experimental investigation of internal instability of soils
in embankment dams and their foundations. UNICIV Report
No.429, School of Civil and Environmental
Engineering,University of New South Wales, Sydney, ISBN
85841 396 5. Wan, C.F. & Fell, R. 2004a. Investigation of
rate of erosion of soils in embankment dams.ASCEJournal
ofGeotechnical andGeoEnvironmentalEngineering,Vol. 130,No.
4, 373– 380. Wan,C.F.&Fell, R. 2004b. Laboratory tests on
the rate of piping erosion of soils in embankment dams.
Geotechnical Testing Journal, vol. 27, No. 3, 295–303.
Weijers, J.B.A & Sellmeijer, J.B. 1993. A new model to deal
with the pipingmechanism in “Filters inGeotechnical and
Hydraulic Engineering. Brauns, Herbaum and Schuler
(editors), Balkema, Rotterdam.
Application of no, excessive and
continuing erosion criteria to existing
dams

Fell, R. 2003. Australian Practice in Dam Safety Risk

Assessment, USSD Conference.

Fell, R.,Wan, C.F. & Foster, M. 2004.Methods for estimating

the probability of failure of embankment dams by internal
erosion and piping – piping through the embankment. UNICIV
Report No. R-428,The University of New South Wales, Sydney,
Australia. ISBN 85841 395 7.

Fell, R. &Wan, C.F. 2005.Methods for estimating the

probability of failure of embankment dams by internal
erosion and piping in the foundation and from embankment to
foundation.UNICIV Report No R-436, The University of New
South Wales, Sydney, Australia 2052.ISBN: 85841 403 1.

Foster, M.A. 1999. The probability of failure of embankment

dams by internal erosion and piping. PhD thesis, School of
Civil and Environmental Engineering, The University of New
South Wales.

Foster, M. & Fell, R. 2000. Use of Event Trees to Estimate

the Probability of Failure of Embankment Dams by Internal
Erosion and Piping. 20th Congress on Large Dams, Beijing.
Vol. 1, 237–260. ICOLD, Paris.

Foster, M. & Fell, R. 2001. Assessing embankment dams,

filters which do not satisfy design criteria, J.
Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE,
Vol.127, No.4, May 2001, 398–407.

Foster, M.A. & Fell, R. 1999a. A Framework for Estimating

the Probability of Failure of Embankment Dams by Piping
Using Event Tree Methods. UNICIV Report No. R-377. School
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The University of
New SouthWales. ISBN: 85841 343 4.

Foster, M.A. & Fell, R. 1999b. Assessing Embankment Dam

Filters Which Do Not Satisfy Design Criteria. UNICIV Report
No. R-376, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
University of New South Wales. ISBN: 85841 343 4, ISSN
0077-880X.

Kenney, T.C., Chahal, R., Chiu, E., Ofoegbu, G.I., Omange,

G.N. & Ume, C.A. 1985. Controlling constriction sizes of
granular filters. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 22 (1),
pp. 32–43.
Lafleur, J., Mlynarek, J. & Rollin, A.L. 1989. Filtration
of broadly graded cohesionless soils. Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering ASCE, 115 (12), pp. 1747–1768.
Park, Y. 2003. Investigation of the ability of filters to
stop erosion through cracks in dams. PhD Thesis, Faculty of
Civil Engineering,Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
University, Blacksburg, Virginia. Peck, R.B. 1990.
Interface between core and downstream filter. H.Bolton Seed
Memorial Symposium, Berkeley. BiTech Publishers, Vancouver,
Vol.2, 237–251. Sherard, J.L. 1979. Sinkholes in dams of
coarse, broadly graded soils. 13th Int. Congress on Large
Dams, New Delhi. Q47, R2, 325–334. International Commission
on Large Dams, Paris. Sherard, J.L. 1985. Hydraulic
Fracturing in Embankment Dams, in Seepage and Leakage
FromDams and Impoundments.ASCE Geotechnical Engineering
Division Conference. Sherard, J.L., Dunnigan, L.P. &
Talbot, J.R. 1984a. Basic properties of sand and gravel
filters. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, 110
(6), pp. 684–700. Sherard, J.L., Dunnigan, L.P. & Talbot,
J.R. 1984b. Filters for silts and clays. Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, 110 (6), pp. 701–718.
Sherard, J.L. & Dunnigan, L.P. 1989. Critical filters for
impervious soils. J. Geotech. Eng. ASCE, Vol.115, No.7,
927–947. SMEC 1999. “Eucumbene main and saddle dams, review
of dams under normal operating (static), earthquake and
flood loading categories with emphasis on the dam’s piping
potential”, SMEC International Pty Ltd Unpublished report
prepared for SMHEA, April 1999. Walker, J., Gillon, M.&
Mejia, L. 2005. Safety assessment for active faulting
within the Aviemore Dam foundation and Resrvoir, New
Zealand. ANCOLD Bulletin No 130, 51–66. Wan, C.F. & Fell,
R. 2004. Experimental investigation of internal instability
of soils in embankment dams and their
foundations.UNICIVReport No.429, School of Civil and
Environmental Engineering,TheUniversity ofNewSouth Wales,
Sydney, ISBN 85841 396 5. Vaughan, P.R., & Soares, H.F.
1982. Design of filters for clay cores of dams. Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering Division, ASCE, 108 (GT1), pp.
17–31.
Re-evaluation of internal erosion
incidents at Matahina Dam, New Zealand

Gillon, M.D. 1988. The observed seismic performance of the

Matahina Dam. In Proceedings 2nd International conference
on Case Histories in Geotechnical Engineering, paper 4.29.
St Louis, Missouri, 1988. ICOLD: Paris.

Gillon, M.D. 1996. Lessons from earthquake damage at the

Matahina Dam, New Zealand. In Proceedings ICOLD Symposiumon
Seismic andEnvironmentalAspects ofDam Design, Santiago,
October 1996. ICOLD: Paris.

Gillon, M., Mejia, L., Freeman, T. & Berryman, K. 1997.

Design criteria for fault rupture at the Matahina Dam, New
Zealand. International Journal on Hydropower and Dams 4(2).

Gillon, M.D. & Newton, C.J. 1988. Matahina Dam: the initial
lakefilling incident and the long term performance of the
repair. In Proceedings 5th Australia-New Zealand Conference
on Geomechanics: 585–590. Sydney, 1988. Gillon, M.D. &
Newton, C.J. 1991. Abutment repairs at the Matahina Dam. In
Proceedings 17th ICOLD Congress, (Q66, R50),Vienna 1991.
ICOLD: Paris. Mejia, L., Forrest, M., Bischoff, J., Gillon,
M. & Everitt, S., 1999. Upgrading of Matahina Dam for
Foundation Fault Displacement. In Proceedings ofWaterpower
’99,ASCE, Las Vegas, Nevada, July 1999. Sherard, J.L. 1973.
Embankment dam cracking.Embankment Dam Engineering,
Casagrande Volume,Wiley: USA. Sherard, J.L.&Dunnigan, L.P.
1989.Critical filters for impervious soils. Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, 115(7): 927–947.
Detection of internal erosion in
embankment dams using temperature,
resistivity and SP measurements

JohansenÖ. (1975).Varmeledningsevne av jordarter. Institutt

for kjøleteknikk, NTH, Trodheim, Norway.

Johansson, S. (1991) Localization and quantification

ofwater leakage in ageing embankment dams by regular
temperature measurements, Proc. ICOLD 17th Congress, Q65,
R54, Vienna, Austria.

Johansson, S., Barmen G., M. Bartsch, T. Dahlin, O. Landin,

Och P. Ulriksen, (1995), Nyare metoder för
tillståndskontroll av dammar, VASO Dammkommitté rapport nr
21, Stockholm, ISSN 1400–7827, 71p.

Johansson, S. 1997. Seepage Monitoring in an Earth

Embankment Dams, Doctoral Thesis, TRITA-AMI PHD 1014, ISBN
91-7170-792-1, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm.

Johansson, S., Dahlin, T. And Friborg J. 2000. Seepage

Monitoring by Resistivity and Streaming Potential
Measurements at Hällby Embankment Dam 1996–1999, Report
00:15, Elforsk, Stockholm, 47p.

Johansson, S., Claesson, J., Dahlin, T., Friborg, J.,

Hellström, G., Bing, Z., (2005). A Parameter Study for
Internal Erosion Monitoring, Canadian Electricity
Association – Dam Safety Interest Group (CEA-DSIG).

Johansson, S. and Sjödahl, P. (2004). Downstream Seepage

Detection using Temperature Measurements and Visual
Inspection – Monitoring Experiences from Røsvatn Field Test
Dam and Large Embankment Dams in Sweden, Procs. Stability
and Breaching of Embankment Dams, EBL, Oslo, 20p.

Johansson, S., Friborg, J., Dahlin, T. and Sjödahl, P.

(2005) Long Term Resistivity and Self Potential Monitoring
of Embankment Dams – Experiences from Hällby and Sädva
Dams, Sweden, Elforsk/Canadian Electricity Association –
Dam Safety Interest Group (CEA-DSIG), Elforsk report 05:15,
Stockholm, 123p.

Johansson, S. and Nilsson, Å. (2005 in press) Internal

Erosion Detection at the RøsvatnTest Site – Experiences
from blind test using Resistivity, Self Potential,
Temperature, and Visual inspection. Elforsk report 05:xx,
Stockholm. Landolt, Börnstein. (1967). Zahlenwerte und
Funktionen aus Physik, Chemie, Astronomie, Geophysik und
Technik, 6th edition, Springer Verlag, Germany. Loke, M.H.
(2001) Constrained time-lapse resistivity imaging
inversion. Procs. SAGEEP 2001 (Symposium on the Application
of Geophysics to Engineering and Environmental Problems),
Denver, Colorado, March 4–7 2001. Loke, M.H.,Acworth, I.And
Dahlin, T. (2003)A comparison of smooth and blocky
inversion methods in 2-D electrical imaging surveys,
Exploration Geophysics, 34(3), 182–187. Merkler, G.P.,
H.Militzer, H.Hötzl, H.Armbruster, J. Brauns, (1989),
Lecture Notes in Earth Sciences,Vol 27, Detection of
Subsurface Flow Phenomena, Springer Verlag Berlin,
Heidelberg. Palacky, G.J. (1987) Resistivity
characteristics of geologic targets, in Electromagnetic
methods in applied geophysics, ed. M.N. Nabighian, Soc. of
Expl. Geoph., Tulsa, p 53–130. Sheffer, M. (2002) Response
of the self-potential method to chaning seepage conditions
in embankment dams (M. Sc. Thesis). Dep of Civ eng,
University of British Columbia. Sjödahl P., Dahlin T., and
Johansson S. (2004) Resistivity monitoring for internal
erosion detection at Hällby embankment dam, Procs.
International Conference on Environmental and Engineering
Geophysics, Wuhan, China, 6–9 June 2004, 6p. Sjödahl, P.
(2006) Resistivity investigation and monitoring for
detection of internal erosion and anomalous seepage in
embankment dams (Ph.D Thesis). Engineering Geology, Lund
University, Lund 2006, 86p. ISBN-10: 91-973406-5-0.
Internal stability of particles in dam
cores made of cohesionless broadly graded
moraines

Burenkova, V.V. (1993). Assessment of suffosion in

noncohesive and graded soils. Filters in Geotechnical and
Hydraulic Engineering, edited by Brauns, Heibaum & Schuler.
Balkema, Rotterdam. (Proc. GEOFILTERS ’92 Conference,
Karlsruhe, Germany) pp. 357–360.

Kenney, T.C. & Lau, D. (1985). Internal stability of

granular filters. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 22,
No. 2, pp. 215–225.

Kenney, T.C. & Lau, D. (1986). Internal stability of

granular filters : Reply. Canadian Geotechnical Journal,
Vol. 23, pp. 420–423.

Lafleur, J. (1999). Selection of geotextiles to filter

broadly graded cohesionless soils. Geotextiles and
Geomembranes. Vol. 17, Nos. 5 & 6. Lafleur, J., Mlynarek,
J. & Rollin, A.L. (1989). Filtration of broadly graded
cohesionless soils. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering,
ASCE, Vol. 115, pp. 1747–1768. Loebotsjkov, E.A. (1969).
The calculation of suffosion properties of noncohesive
soils when using the nonsuffosion analog (in Russian).
International Conference on Hydraulic Research, Brno,
Czeckoslovakia. Publication of the Technical University of
Brno, Svazek, B-5, pp. 135–148. Schuler,U. (1995).How to
dealwith the problemof suffosion. Proc. of the SNCLD,
Crans-Montana, Switzerland, Sept. 7–9, 1995. Skempton, A.W.
& Brogan, J.M. (l994). Experiments on piping in sandy
gravel, Géotechique Vol. 44, No. 3, pp. 449–460. Verma,
N.S., Paré, J.J., Boncompain, B., Garneau, R. & Rattue,A.
(1985). Behaviour of the LG4 main dam. Proc. of the 11th
International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering, ICSMFE, San Francisco. Balkema (ed.) Vol. 4,
pp.2049–205.
A specific triaxial device for the study
of internal erosion in cohesive soils

Arulanandan K. & Perry E.B. 1983. Erosion in relation to

filter design criteria in earth dams. Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering, 109(5):682–696. Bendehmane, F.
2002. Influence de l’écoulement sur la résistance des sols:
étude expérimentale préliminaire. Master report, Université
de Nantes. Foster, M. Fell, R & Spannagle, M. 2000. The
statistics of embankment dam failures and accidents.
Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 37: 1000–1024. Hameiri,
A. & Fannin, R.J. 2002. A cyclic gradient ratio test
device. Geotechnical Testing Journal, 25(3):266–276.
Kenney, T.C & Lau, D. 1985. Internal stability of granular
filters. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 22:215–225. Kenney,
T.C. Van Ween, W.A. Swallow, M.A & Sungaila,M.A.
1992.Hydraulic conductivity of compactedsand mixtures.
Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 29: 364–374. Khilar,
K.C., Fogler H.S., & Gray, D.H. 1985. “Model for
piping-plugging in earthen structures”, Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering, 111(7):833–846. Lafleur J. 1999.
Selection of géotextiles to filter broadly graded
cohesionless soils. Geotextiles and Geomembranes;
17:299–312. MONNET, A. 1998. Boulance, érosion interne,
renard. Les instabilités sous écoulement. Revue Française
de Géotechnique; 82:3–10. Ojha, C.S.P., Singh, V.P. &
Adrian, D.D. 2003. Determination of critical head in soil
piping. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering; 129:511–518.
Papamichos, E., Vardolarkous, I., Tronvoll, J. &
Skjaerstein, A. 2001.Volumetric sand production model and
experiment. International Journal for Numerical and
Analytical Methods in Geomechanis; 25:789–808. Reddi, L.N.
& Bonala, M.V.S. 1997 Critical shear stress and its
relationshipwith cohesion for sand-Kaolinitemixtures.
Canadian Geotechnical Journal; 34:26–33. Reddi, L.N., Lee,
I. & Bonala, M.V.S. 2000.Comparison of internal and surface
erosion using flow pump test on a sand-kaolinite mixture.
Geotechnical Testing Journal; 23(1):116–122.
Skempton,A.W.&Brogan, J.M. 1994. Experiments on piping in
sandy gravels. Géotechnique; 44.(3):440–460. Tomlinson,
S.S. & Vaid, Y.P. 2000. Seepage forces and confining
pressure effects on piping erosion. Canadian Geotechnical
Journal; 37:1–13.
The susceptibility of internal erosion in
the Suorva Dam

Bartsch et al (2006). Alternative measures to improve the

resistance against internal erosion – upgrading of the
Suorva and the Porjus rockfill dams. 22nd ICOLD Congress,
18–23 June, Barcelona, Spain.

Foster, M.A. & Fell, R. (2001). Assessing embankment dam

filters that do not satisfy design criteria. Journal of
Geotechnical andGeoenvironmental Engineering,ASCE, Vol.
127, No. 5, May 2001, pp. 398–407.
Filters and internal erosion in Swedish
dams

Foster, M.A. & Fell, R. (2001). Assessing embankment dam

filters that do not satisfy design criteria. Journal of
Geotechnical andGeoenvironmental Engineering,ASCE, Vol.
127, No. 5, May 2001, pp. 398–407.

Kenney, T.C. & Lau, D. (1985) Internal stability of

granular filters. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 22:
215–225.

Nilsson,Å. (1995)Ageing of Swedish earth and rockfill dams

Report No. 16, from VASO Dam Committee (in Swedish, English
summary).

Nilsson, Å. & Bartsch, M. 2004. Leakage Through Embankment

Dams – Failure Modes and Design of Toe-Berms. 72nd Annual
General Meeting of ICOLD, Seoul, Korea.

Nilsson, Å. & Norstedt, U. (2004). Reverse filters on the

downstream slope as one way to compensate for too coarse
filters in Swedish dams, 2004 CDA Conference – “Guidance to
good practice” – Ottawa. Norstedt, U. et al. (1997)
Internal erosion and ageing in some of the Swedish earthand
rock-fill dams, Q.73, R.20, ICOLD, Florence. RIDAS (2002)
Swedish Dam Safety Guidelines, Swedish Power Association.
Rönnqvist, H. (2002) An evaluation of the internal
stability of embankment dams owned by Vattenfall AB, Royal
Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden. Solvik Ø,
(1982) Safe Remedies for Leaking Embankment Dam, ICOLD,
Q.52, R.78, Rio de Janeiro. Solvik Ø, (1995)
Stenfyllningsdammars stabilitet vid genomströmning,VASO Dam
Committee, Report No. 17, Swedish.
Hydraulic criteria for internal erosion
in cohesionless soil

Aufleger, M.; Conrad, M.; Perzlmaier, S.; Porras, P. 2005:

Improving a Fiber Optics Tool for Monitoring Leakage. HRW,
Volume 13, Number 4, Sept. 05.

Beyer, W. 1964: Zur Bestimmung der Wasserdurchlässigkeit

von Kiesen und Sanden aus der Kornverteilung.WWT, 14.
Jahrgang, Heft 6.

Bezuijen, A.; Klein-Bretteler, M.; Bakker, K.J. 1987:

Design criteria for placed block revetments and granular
filters. proceedings of the 2nd international conference on
coastal & port engineering in developing countries,
Beijing.

Bligh, W.G. 1912: The practical design of irrigation works.

2 ed. London.

Bonnefille, R. 1963: Essais des synthèse des lois de début

d’entrainement des sédiments sous l’action d’un courant en
régime continu. Bulletin du CREC Nr. 5, p. 67–72.

Brauns, J. 1985: Erosionsverhalten geschichteten Bodens bei

horizontaler Durchströmung. Wasserwirtschaft 75, Nr. 9.
377–383.

Busch K.-F.; Luckner, L.; Tiemer, K. 1993: Geohydraulik,

Lehrbuch der Hydrogeologie. 3. neubearbeitete Auflage,
Berlin; Gebrüder Bornträger.

Chugaev, R.R. 1962: Gründungsumriss von Wasserbauwerken (in

Russian). Moskau – Leningrad.

Davidenkoff, R. 1964: Deiche und Erddämme. WernerVerlag,

Düsseldorf.

Davidenkoff, R. 1970: Unterläufigkeit von Staubauwerken.

Werner-Verlag, Düsseldorf.

DWA in prep.: Merkblatt Deiche an Fließgewässern. Deutsche

Vereinigung f. Wasserwirtschaft, Abwasser u. Abfall e.V.

Ergun, S. 1952: Fluid flow through packed columns. Chem.

Eng. Prog. 48 1952, p. 89–94. Fand, R.M.; Kim, B.Y.K.; Lam,
A.C.C.; Phan, R.T. 1987: Resistance to the flow of fluids
through simple and complex porous media whose matrices are
composed of randomly packed spheres. Trans. ASME, J. Heat
Transfer, 109, S. 268–274, 1987. Fand, R. M.; Varahasamy,
M.; Greer, L.S. 1993: Empirical correlation equation for
heart transfer by forced convection from cylinders embedded
in porous media that accounts for wall effects and
dispersion. Int. J. Heat and Mass Transfer Vol. 36, No. 18,
p. 4407–4418. Fell, R.; Foster, M.; Wan, C.-F. 2005: A
framework for assessing the likelihood of internal erosion
and piping of embankment dams and their foundations.
Contribution to the Workshop of internal erosion and piping
of dams and their foundations. Aussoise, France, April
2005. Forchheimer, Ph. 1901: Wasserbewegung durch Boden.
Zeitschrift Verband deutscher Ingenieure 45 (1901), p.
1736–1741, 1781–1788. Foster, M.; Fell, R. 2001:Assessing
embankment dam filters that do not satisfy design criteria.
J. Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Eng.ASCE,Vol. 127, No.
4, 398–402. Hsu, C. T.; Cheng, P.; Wong, K. W. 1995: A
lumped parameter model for stagnant thermal conductivity of
spatially periodic porous media. ASME J. Heat Transfer,
Vol. 117, S. 264–269. Jessberger, H. L. 1990: Bodenfrost
und Eisdruck. In:Grundbautaschenbuch/Teil 1. edt.:
Smoltczyk, U. Verlag Wilhelm Ernst & Sohn. Berlin, München,
Düsseldorf. Johansen, O. 1975:Varmeledningserne AV
Jardarter – Thermal conductivity of soils. NTH Trondheim,
Dissertation. (CRREL Draft Translation 637, 1977).
Kanzanskij, J 1981: Über theoretische und praxisbezogene
Aspekte des hydraulischenFeststofftransportes.Mitteilungen
des Franzius – Instituts für Wasserbau und
Küsteningenieurwesen der Universität Hannover, H. 52.
Kezdi, A. 1976: Fragen der Bodenphysik. Verlag der
Ungarischen Akademie der Wissenschaft, Budapest.
Kristiansen, J.I. 1982:The transient cylindrical probe
method for determination of thermal parameters of earth
materials. Laboratory of Geophysics, Aarhus, Denmark.
GeoSkrifter No. 18, ISSN 0105-824X. Lane, E.W. 1935:
Security fromunder-seepagemasonry dams on earth
foundations. Transaction American Soc. of Civ. Eng., Vol
100, 1233–1351. Mallet, C.; Pacquant, J. 1951:
Erdstaudämme. Orig. Titel: Les Barrages en Terre. Übersetzt
aus dem Franz.: H. Ferchland. VEBVerlag Technik, Berlin,
DDR. Muckenthaler, P. 1989: Hydraulische Sicherheit von
Staudämmen. Lehrstuhl und der Versuchsanstalt für Wasserbau
und Wassermengenwirtschaft, TU München, Bericht Nr 61.
Müller-Kirchenbauer, H.; Rankl, M.; Schlötzer, C. 1993:
Mechanism for regressive erosion beneath dams and barrages.
In: Brauns, Heibaum & Schuler (edt.): Filters in
Geotechnical and Hydraulic Engineering, Balkema, 369–376.
Perzlmaier, S.; Aufleger, M.; Conrad, M. 2004: Distributed
Fiber Optic Temperature Measurements in Hydraulic
Engineering – Prospects of the Heat-up Method. Proceedings
of the 72nd Annual ICOLD Meeting. Seoul, Korea. Perzlmaier,
S. 2006: DerWärmeübergang vom Heizzylinder an gesättigte
und durchströmte Schüttungen. Tagungsband Workshop:
Anwendung und Grenzen physikalischer und numerischer
Modelle im Wasserbau. Wallgau, Sept. 05. Berichte des
Lehrstuhls und der Versuchsanstalt für Wasserbau und
Wasserwirtschaft der TU München, Heft 104. Perzlmaier,
S.;Aufleger,M. 2006:Verteilte
Filtergeschwindigkeitsmessung. Proceedings of
Wasserbausymposium Stauhaltungen und Speicher, von der
Tradition zur Moderne, Graz, 27–30 Sept. 06. Sauke, U.
2006: Nachweis der Sicherheit gegen innere Erosion für
körnige Erdstoffe. geotechnik 29, 2006 Nr. 1. Schäfer, P.;
Perzlmaier, S.; Conrad, M.; Strobl, Th.; Aufleger, M. 2003:
Rehabilitation of dam facings monitored by an advanced
technology for leakage detection. Proceedings of the 21st
ICOLD Congress, Montréal, Canada. Schmertmann, J.H. 2000:
The non-filter factor of safety against piping through
sands.ASCEGeotechnical Special Publication No. 111,
Judgement and innovation. Edited by F. Silva and E.
Kavazanjian, ASCE, Reston. Schuler, U. 1997: Bemessung von
Erdstoff-Filtern unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der
Parameterstreuung. Veröffentlichungen des Instituts für
Bodenmechanik und Felsmechanik der Universität Fridericiana
in Karlsruhe, Heft 143. Sherard, J.L.; Dunnigan, L.P. 1989:
Critical Filters for impervious soils. J. Geotech. Eng.
ASCE, Vol. 115, No. 7, 927–946. Shields, A. 1930:Anwendung
der Ähnlichkeitsmechanik und Turbulenzforschung auf die
Geschiebebewegung. Mitteilungen der Preußischen
Versuchsanstalt für Wasserbau und Schiffbau, Berlin, H. 26.
Vollmers, H.; Pernecker, L. 1967: Beginn des
Festsstofftransportes für feinkörnige Materialien in einer
richtungskonstanten Strömung.Wasserwirtschaft 6, p.
236–241. Wan, C.-F.; Fell, R. 2004: Experimental
investigation if internal instability of soils in
embankment dams and their foundations. UNICIV Report No.
R-429. School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The
University of New South Wales. ISBN: 85841 396 5. Weijers,
J.B.A.; Sellmeijer, J.B. 1993: A new model to deal with the
piping mechanism. In: Brauns, Heibaum & Schuler (edt..):
Filters in Geotechnical and Hydraulic Engineering,
Rotterdam, Balkema, 345–355. Wittmann, L. 1980:
Filtrationsund Transportphänomene in porösen Medien.
Veröffentlichungen des Instituts für Bodenmechanik und
Felsmechanik der Universität Fridericiana in Karlsruhe,
Heft 86. Zanke, U 1982: Grundlagen der Sedimentbewegung.
Springer – Verlag; Düsseldorf. Zehner, P.; Schlünder, E. U.
1970:Wärmeleitfähigkeiten von Schüttungen bei mäßigen
Temperaturen. Chemie – Ing. Technik, 42, S. 933–941. Ziems,
J. 1969: Beitrag zur Kontakterosion nichtbindiger
Erdstoffe. Dissertation, Technische Universität Dresden.
Evaluation of erosion of soil used in
dykes and earth embankments which are
subjected to flood

CFG, 2004. Recommandations pour l’utilisation des

géosynthétiques dans la lutte contre l’érosion,
www.cfg.asso.fr.

GuitonM., 1998.Ruissellement et risquemajeur,Phénomènes,

exemples et gestion spatiale des crues, Études et
recherches desLPC,SérieEnvironnement etGénieUrbain EG13.

Handy R.L. Fenton T.E., 1977. Particle size and mineralogy

in soil taxonomy,TransportationResearchBoard, Soil Taxonomy
and soil properties, TRR 642, 13–19.

Hanson G.J.,1988. Erosion rate of two cohesive soils ASAE

paper N ◦ 88–2127.

Hanson G.J.,1993. Soil erodibility testing, US Patent N ◦

5,243,850 5.

Henensal P., 1986. L’érosion externe des sols par l’eau,

Approche quantitative et mécanismes, Rapport de recherche
LPC N ◦ 138.

Henensal P., 1987. Le risque d’érosion hydrique des sols,

Bull. Lab. Ponts et Chaussées, BLPC 150/151: 117–129.

Henensal P. Duchatel F., 1990. L’érodimètre à jets mobiles

Bull. Lab. Ponts et Chaussées, BLPC 167: 47–53.

Henensal P., 1993. Lutte contre l’érosion avant, pendant et

après les travaux Les protections végétales et
structurelles des surfaces et des pentes, Études et
recherches des LPC, Série Géotechnique GT54.

HRB, 1973. Soil erosion: Causes and mechanisms, Prevention

and control, Highway research Board, Special report 135.

Khilar, K. C., Folger, H. S., and Gray, D. H. 1985. Model

for piping plugging in earthen structures. J. Geotech.
Engrg., ASCE, 111(7), 833–846.

LCPC, SETRA, 1992. Guide pour les Terrassements Routiers.

Vol 1 et 2.

Perry E. B., 1979. Susceptibility of dispersive clay at

Grenada dam,Mississippi, to piping and rainfall
erosion,Tech Rep. GL-79-14, U.S. Army Engineers, Waterways
Experiment station, Vicksburg, MS EU. Reiffsteck, P. Nguyen
Pham, P.T. 2005, Influence de la répartition
granulométrique sur le comportement mécanique d’un sol,16th
InternationalConference onSoilMechanics and Foundation
Engineering, Osaka, Balkema, Roth C.B., Nelson D.W.,
Rumkens M.J.M., 1974. Prediction of subsoil erodibility
using chemical., mineralogical and Physical parameters.
Technical Services, U.S. Environment Protection Agency.
Rousseva S., Torri D. Pagliai M. 2002. Effect of rain on
the macro-porosity at the soil surface, European Journal of
Soil Science, 53: 83–94. Sanchez R.L., StrutynskyA.I.,
SilverM.L., 1983. Evaluation of the erosion potential of
embankment core materials using the laboratory triaxial
erosion test procedure, Tech Rep. GL-83-4, U.S. Army
Engineers, Waterways Experiment station, Viksburg, MS EU.
Skempton A. W., 1953, the colloidal activity of clays,
proc. 3rd Int. Conf. Soil Mech., Zurich, Vol. 1, 57–61.
WanC.F. Fell R., 2004, Investigation of rate of erosion of
soils in embankment dams, Journal of Geotech. And Geoenv.
Eng., 30(4): 373–380. Warlouzel, K. 1999. Caractérisation
et comportement des géo-textiles pour la lutte contre
l’érosion pluviale des sols: étude des mécanismes de
protection et compatibilité avec la végétation, PhD, Univ.
J. Fourier Grenoble. Wishmeier W.H., Smith D.D., 1978.
Predicting rainfall erosion losses. A guide to conservation
planning U.S. Department of agriculture, Handbook n ◦ 537.
Wishmeier W.H., Johnson C.B., Cross V., 1971. Erodibility
nomograph for Farmland and construction sites, Journal of
soil and water conservation, 26(5): 189–193.
Evaluating internal instability and
internal erosion in a selection of
existing Swedish embankment dams

Foster, M.A. & Fell, R. 1999. Assessing embankment dam

filter which do not satisfy design criteria. UNICIVReport
R-376. The University of New South Wales, Sydney.

Foster, M.A. & Fell, R. 2001. Assessing Embankment Dam

Filters that do not satisfy Design Criteria, Journal of
Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering.ASCE,
398–407. Kenney, T.C. & Lau, D. 1985. “Internal stability
of granular filters”, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol
22, No. 2, 215–225. Kenney, T.C. Lau, D. 1986. Internal
Stability of Granular Filters: Reply, Canadian Geotechnical
Journal, Vol. 22 No. 2. 215–225. Nilsson, Å. Ekström, I. &
Söder, C. 1999. Sinkholes in Swedish embankment dams,
Elforsk Report 99:34, English summary. Rönnqvist, H. 2002.
“An Evaluation of Internal Stability of Embankment Dams
owned by Vattenfall AB”, The Royal Institute of Technology
Department of Land and Water Resources Engineering,
TRITA-LWR-EX-02-18, ISSN 1651-064X, English summary.
Sherard, J.L. & Dunnigan, L.P. 1989. “Critical filters for
impervious soils”, Journal for Geotechnical Engineering,
ASCE, 115 (7), 927–947. Wan, C. F. & Fell, R. 2004.
Experimental Investigation of Internal Instability of Soils
in Embankment Dams and their Foundation”,UNICIVReport
R-429TheUniversity of New South Wales, Sydney.
A review of Corps of Engineers levee
seepage practices in the United States

Bennett, P.T. 1946. “The Effect of Blankets on Seepage

through Pervious Foundations,” Transactions, ASCE, paper
No. 2270.

Glynn, M.E. and Kuszmaul, J. 2004. “Prediction of Piping

Erosion Along Middle Mississippi River Levees – An
EmpiricalModel,”Technical ReportTR-04-12,U.S.Army Corps of
Engineers, Engineer Research and Development Center,
Vicksburg, MS.

Hess, J.R. and Sills, G.L. 2004. “A Review of Corps of

Engineers Levee Seepage Practices in the Central California
Flood Control System, Working RiversBalanced Resource
Management,” 24th Annual USSD Conference, St. Louis, MO.

Kaufman, R.I. 1962. “Staff Study,” CEMVD, Mississippi River

Commission, Unpublished report.

Schmertmann, J.H. 2000. “The non-filter factor of safety

against piping through sands,” ASCE Geotechnical Special
PublicationNo. 111, Judgment and Innovation, edited by F.
Silva and E. Kavazanjian, ASCE, Reston, VA. Sills, G.L.
2000. “Sand Boils & Piping:A Cumulative Effect on Levee
Integrity,” presentation at the April 2000Workshopon
InnovativeTechnology forMonitoring,Evaluation and Flood
Fighting for Flood Protection Infrastructure in St. Louis,
MO. Sills, G.L. 2001. “Cumulative Effects of Flood Induced
Seepage on Piping Problems Associated with Levee Failures,”
presentation at the August 2001 Infrastructure Systems
Conference in Reno, NV. Sills, G.L. 2005. “A Review of
Corps of Engineers Levee Seepage Practices and Proposed
Future Changes,” presentation at the August 2005
Tri-Service Infrastructure Systems Conference in St. Louis,
MO. Turnbull, W.J. and Mansur, C.I. 1954. “Relief Well
Systems for Dams and Levees,” Transactions, ASCE, Vol. 119.
Turnbull, W.J. and Mansur, C.I. 1959. “Construction and
Maintenance of Underseepage Control Measures,” Journal of
the Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division, ASCE, December
1959. Turnbull, W.J. and Mansur, C.I. 1961. “Underseepage
and its Control—A Symposium,” Transactions, ASCE, Vol. 126.
U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station. 1949.
“Efficiency of Partial Cutoffs for Controlling Underseepage
Beneath Levees,”TechnicalMemorandum3-267, U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers, Vicksburg, MS. U.S. Army Engineer Waterways
Experiment Station. 1956a. “Investigation of Underseepage
and Its Control, Lower
MississippiRiverLevees,”TechnicalMemorandum3-424, U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers, Vicksburg, MS. U.S. Army Engineer
Waterways Experiment Station. 1956b. “Underseepage and its
Control, Mississippi River Levees, Alton to Gale,
Illinois,” Technical Memorandum 3-430, U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers, Vicksburg, MS. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
1999. Comprehensive Study, “Post-Flood Assessment,
Sacramento and San Joaquin River Basins, California,”
Report prepared by the Sacramento District. U.S.Army Corps
of Engineers. 2000. “Design and Construction of Levees,”
Engineer Manual EM 1110-2-1913. U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers. 2003. “Recommendations For Seepage Design
Criteria, Evaluation and Design Practices,” Report prepared
for the Sacramento District. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
2005. “Design Guidance for Levee Underseepage,” Engineer
Technical Letter ETL 1110-2-569. U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers web page. 2005. http://www.
hq.usace.army.mil/history/. Vicksburg District,
Geotechnical Branch. 1999. Memo to MVD, “Cumulative Effects
of Flood Induced Seepage on Piping Problems Associated with
Levee Failures.” Wolff, T.F. 1989. “LEVEEMSU: A Software
Package Designed for Levee Underseepage Analysis,”
Technical Report GL-89-13, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways
Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Investigation of internal erosion by the
process of suffusion in embankment dams
and their foundations

Burenkova, V.V. (1993) Assessment of suffosion in

noncohesive and graded soils. Proceedings, the First
International Conference “Geo-Filters”, Karlsruhe, Germany,
20–22 October 1992, Filters in Geotechnical and Hydraulic
Engineering, Brauns, Heibaum & Schuler (eds), 1993 Balkema,
Rotterdam, pp. 357–360.

Chapuis, R.P. (1992) Similarity of internal stability

criteria for granular soils. Canadian Goetechnical Journal,
Vol. 29, 1992, p. 711–713.

Chapuis, R.P., Constant, A. & Baass, K.A. (1996) Migration

of fines in 0–20mm crushed base during placement,
compaction, and seepage under laboratory conditions.
Canadian Goetechnical Journal, Vol. 33, 1996, p. 168–176.

de Mello, V.F.B. (1975) Some lessons from unexpected, real

and fictitious problems in earth dam engineering inBrazil.
Proceedings, Sixth Regional Conference for Africa on Soil
Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Durban, South Africa,
September 1975, Eds. Robertson, A.M.G. and Caldwell, J.A.,
Volume 2, pp. 285–304.

Istomina,V.S. (1957) Filtration stability of soils (in

Russian). Gostroizdat, Moscow, Leningrad.

Kenney, T.C., Lau, D. & Clute, G. (1983) Filter Tests on

235mm diameter specimens of granular materials. University
of Toronto, Department of Civil Engineering, Publication
84-07, October 1983, ISBN 0-7727-7060-3.

Kenney, T.C., Lau, D. & Clute, G. (1984) Stability of

Particle Gradations : Tests on Mixtures of Narrowly Graded
Materials. University of Toronto, Department of Civil
Engineering, Publication 84-08, February 1984.

Kenney, T.C. & Lau, D. (1984) Stability of Particle Grading

of Compacted Granular Filters. University of Toronto,
Department of Civil Engineering, Publication 84-06, August
1984, ISBN 0-7727-7058-1.

Kenney,T.C.,Chahal,R.,Chiu,E.,Ofoegbu, I.,Omange,G.N. &

Ume, C.A. (1985) Controlling constriction sizes of granular
filters. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 22, pp. 32–43.

Kenney, T.C. & Lau, D. (1985) Internal stability of

granular filters. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 22
No. 2, pp. 215–225. Kenney, T.C. & Lau, D. (1986) Internal
stability of granular filters: Reply. Canadian Geotechnical
Journal, Vol. 23, pp. 420–423. Kézdi, Á. (1969) Increase of
protective capacity of flood control dikes (in Hungarian).
Department of Geotechnics, Technical University of
Budapest, Report No. 1. Lafleur, J., Mlynarek, J. & Rollin,
A.L. (1989) Filtration of broadly graded cohesionless
soils. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering,ASCE,Vol. 115,
No. 12, December 1989, pp. 1747–1768. Lafleur, J.,
Mlynarek, J. & Rollin, A.L. (1993) Filter criteria for well
graded cohesionless soils. Proceedings, the First
International Conference “Geo-Filters”, Karlsruhe, Germany,
20–22 October 1992, Filters in Geotechnical and Hydraulic
Engineering, Brauns, Heibaum & Schuler (eds), 1993 Balkema,
Rotterdam, pp. 97–106. Lambe, T.W. &Whitman, R.V. (Eds.)
(1979) Soil Mechanics, S.I. Version, Eds. Lambe, T.W. and
Whitman, R.V., John Wiley & Sons, NewYork 1979. Lubochkov,
E.A. (1962) The self-filtering behaviour of noncohesive
soils (in Russian). IzvestiaVNIIG, No. 71. Lubochkov, E.A.
(1965)Graphical and analyticalmethods for the determination
of the properties of non-cohesive soils characterizing
suffusion (in Russian). Izvestia VNIIG, No. 78. Schuler, U
(1995) How to deal with the problem of suffosion. Research
and Development in the Field of Dams, Swiss National
Committee on Large Dams, 1995, pp. 145–159. Sherard, J.L.
(1979) Sinkholes in dams of coarse, broadly graded
soils.Transactions, 13th Congress on LargeDams, New Delhi,
India,Vol. 2, pp. 25–35. Skempton, A.W. & Brogan, J.M.
(1994) Experiments on piping in sandy gravels. Geotechniqué
44, No. 3, pp. 449–460. Sun, B.C.B. (1989) Internal
Stability of Clayey to Silty Sands. A dissertation
submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for
the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Civil Engineering) in
the University of Michigan 1989. Terzaghi, K. & Peck, R.B.
(1948) Soil mechanics in engineering practice. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York, 1948. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
(1953) Filter Experiments and Design Criteria. Technical
Memorandum No. 3-360, Waterways Experiment Station,
Vicksburg. Wan & Fell (2004) Experimental Investigation of
Internal Instability of Soils in Embankment Dams and Their
Foundations. UNICIV Report No. R-429, October 2004, ISBN
85841 396 5, The University of New South Wales, Sydney NSW
2052, Australia.
FIREBIRD_Breach: A numerical model for
breach formation in earthfill dams by
overtopping of the crest

McWhorter, J.C., Carpenter, T.G. & Clark, R.N. 1968)

Erosion Control Criteria for Drainage Channels Mississippi
StateHighwayDepartment, Jackson; FHWA,U.S.Department of
Transportation; Agricultural Experiment Station,
Mississippi State University.

Ponce, V. M. & Tsivoglou, A.J. 1981 Modeling Gradual Dam

BreachesASCE Journal of the Hydraulics Division, Vol. 107,
No: HY7, July.

Roberts, J., Jepsen, R., Gotthard, D. & Lick, Wilfred 1998

Effects of Particle Size and Bulk Density on Erosion of
Quartz Particles Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE,
Vol. 124, No. 12.

Smart, G.M. 1984 Sediment Transport in Steep Channels

Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE, 110, 267–276.

Smerdon, E.T.&Beasley, R.P. 1959aRelation of Compaction and

other Soil Properties to Erosion Resistance of Soils
Transactions of the ASCE, Vol.8. Smerdon, E.T. & Beasley,
R.P. 1959bTheTractive ForceTheory applied to Stability of
Open Channels in Cohesive Soils Research Bulletin 715,
Agricultural Station, College of Agriculture, University of
Missouri, Columbia, Missouri USA. Stelling, G.S., Kernkamp,
H.W.J. & Laguzzi, M.M. 1998 Delft Flooding System: A
powerful tool for inundation assessment based upon a
positive flow simulation Proceedings of the Third
International Conference on Hydroinformatics, Babovich &
Larsen, Copenhagen, Denmark. Wilson, K.C. 1987 Analysis of
Bed-Load Motion at High Speed Journal of Hydraulic
Engineering,ASCE,Vol. 113, 97–103.