Breeding

PLANT BREEDING
PRINCIPLES OF PLANT BREEDING - BREEDING METHODS - MODERN TOOLS IN

CROP IMPROVEMENT - HYBRID PRODUCTION - LATEST VARIETIES OF MAJOR
CROPS IN TAMIL NADU
Principles of plant breeding
 Plant breeding - Art, Science and Technology
 Prime objective - Develop agronomically and economically desirable varieties
 Science of crop improvement
History of Plant Breeding

 Thomas Fairchild (1717) - First developed inter-specific hybrid between
Sweet William and Carnation species of Dianthus.
 Knight (1759-1835) – First used artificial hybridization in fruit crops.
 John Le Couteur and Sherriff (1840) developed the concept of progeny test
and individual plant selection in cereals.
 Vilmorin (1856) used progeny test in improvement of sugar-beets.
 Mendel (1866) – Principles of inheritance working with garden pea.
 Rimpu (1890) - Made first intergeneric cross between Bread wheat and rye
to produce triticale.
 De Vries, Correns and Tschermark (1900) - Rediscovered Mendels law of
inheritance.
 Johannson - Developed pure-line concept, coined the term genotype,
phenotype.
 Shull and East (1908) - Over-dominance hypothesis of heterosis in maize.
 G.H. Shull (1914) - Inbreeding in maize.
 Vavilov (1926) - Centres of crop diversity and law of homologous series of
variation.
 Stadler (1928) - First used x-rays for induction of mutations in crop plants.
 F.H. Hull (1945) - Coined the term recurrent selection.
 Norman.E.Borlaug (1964) – Developed high yielding semi-dwarf varieties
of wheat – Father of Green revolution.
 C.T. Patel (1970) – World’s first cotton hybrid for commercial cultivation in
India
 Yuan Long Ping (1976) – World’s first rice hybrid (CMS) in China
 Fraley (1983) – Developed first transgenic tobacco in USA
 ICRISAT (1991) - World’s first pigeon pea hybrid (ICPH GMS) for
commercial cultivation in India.
History of Plant Breeding in India

 1871- Govt. of India created Dept. of agriculture
 1892- Appointed Agricultural Chemist (First scientist in the department)
 Imperial Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) in Pusa, Bihar (1905) -
damaged by an earthquake (1934) and shifted to New Delhi (1936) and renamed as
Indian Agricultural Research Institute (1946).
 1929- Imperial Council of Agricultural Research and re-named as Indian
Council of Agricultural Research (1946)
AO/Plant Breeding/Page 1
 1921- Indian Central Cotton Committee established
 1956- Project for Intensification of Regional Research on Cotton, Oilseeds
and Millets (PRICOM) initiated in 17 centres.
 1957- All India Coordinated Maize Improvement Project.
Objectives of plant breeding
1. Higher yields: Dee-Gee Woo-Gen in rice and Norin 10 in wheat;
Hybrids- Maize, Sorghum, Cumbu, etc.
2. Improving quality
 Rice - Milling, Cooking quality, aroma, grain color and size
 Wheat - Baking quality and Gluten content
 Barley - Malting quality
 Lysine content deficit in cereals
 Methionine & Tryptophan deficit in pulses
 PUFA content in oilseeds
3. Disease and insect resistance: Blast resistant varieties in rice : IR 20 (Medium duration),
CO 37 (short duration), CO 25 - Long duration; Stem borer donor – TKM 6, IR 20 (IR 262
x TKM 6).
4. Changing the maturity duration of varieties
Wheat varieties suitable for late planting. Ex. Sonalika wheat variety suitable for rice
-wheat rotation.
5. Agronomic characteristics
Dwarfness in cereals - Lodging resistance and fertilizer responsiveness
6. Photo and thermo insensitive varieties
7. Synchronous maturity and non-shattering - Greengram
8. Determinate growth varieties – Greengram, Redgram, cotton
9. Varieties for new seasons
10. Moisture stress and salt tolerance
11. Elimination of toxic substances

 HCN content in sorghum plants.
 Lathyrogen content in Lathyrus sativus (β-N - Oxalyl amine alanine BOAA)
causes paralysis
 Erucic acid in Brassicas
 Cucurbitacin in cucurbits.
Genetic Engineering
IMPORTANT ACHIEVEMENTS
1. Production of semi-dwarf rice and wheat varieties
 In wheat, Norman.E.Borloug developed semidwarf wheat variety derived from
Japanese variety Norin 10 as a source of dwarfing gene
E.g. Sonara 63, Sonara 64, Lerma Rajo were introduced in India (1963) - led to the
development of Kalyan Sona and Sonalika.
 In rice, semidwarf rice variety are derived from Dee-gee-woo-gen- Dwarf, early
maturing variety of japonica rice from Taiwan.
 E.g. TN1(Taiwan), IR 8 (peta x DGWG) -Wonder rice first semidwarf variety
(IRRI, Philippines) were introduced in India (1966)
 Semi dwarf varieties are lodging resistant, fertilizer responsive and high yielding.
2. Nobilisation of Indian canes (C.A.Barber and T.S. Venkatraman, SBI, Coimbatore)

Saccharum officinarum x Saccaharum barberi.
3. Development of hybrids
List of released hybrid varieties of different crops in India
Crop Hybrid /variety Type of hybrid Year
Maize Ganga 101, Ganga 1, Deccan, Ranjit Double cross 1961
(First hybrid)
Composites: Manjari, Vikram, Sona,
Vijay, Kisan, CO1, NLD, Renuka,
Kanchan and Diara
Sorghum CSH1(CK 60A x IS 84) – first hybrid Male sterile line combined 1964
Kafir 60A
CSH 2,3,4,5,6,9,10,11
Cumbu HB1(First hybrid) Single cross 1965
male sterile line Tift 23A
PHB 10,14, BJ 104 and BK560
Castor GCH3 Single cross 1968
Cotton First hybrid H4 (Gujarat 67x Single cross G. hirsutum 1970
American nectariless) –intraspecific
JKHY-1, Godavary, Suguna, H6, Intraspecific hybrids
AKH468
Varalaxmi, CBS156, Savitri, Interspecific (G.hirsutum x
Jayalaxmi, H2HC G. barbadense)
G-cot. DH-7 and G-cot. DH-9 Desi cotton hybrids
Pigeon pea ICPH-8 Single cross- GMS 1991
Undesirable effects of Plant Breeding

1. Genetic erosion
Gradual loss of variability from cultivated species and their wild forms and wild relatives
(i) Replacement of heterogeneous local varieties by few dominant, more homogeneous varieties
(ii) Use of similar/related varieties as parents in breeding programmes
Eg. Introduction of IR 20 rice led to disappearance of land races of samba rice - GEB 24 (From
Athur samba – KONAMANI, fine grain and quality rice).
2. Narrow genetic base: Genetic vulnerability to pest and diseases.

 Tift 23A – Bajra - Susceptible downy mildew
 T cytoplasm – Maize - Susceptible to Helminthosporium.
3. Minor disease and pest become major due to intensive resistance breeding.
RTV (Rice Tungro Virus)
Grey mold in Bengal gram.
4. Attainment of yield plateau - No more further increase in yield
DOMESTICATION
Process of bringing wild species under human management. Eg. Shattering in rice was
eliminated.
GERMPLASM
Sum total of hereditary material, i.e., all the alleles of various genes, present in a crop species
and its wild relatives
Germplasm consists of 5 types
(i) Land races
(ii) Obsolete varieties- Improved varieties of recent past
(iii) Varieties in cultivation
(iv) Breeding lines
(v) Wild forms and wild relatives
1) Land races: Primitive cultivars

 High level of genetic diversity – diseases, pests
 Broad genetic base
 Less uniform
 Low yielders
2) Obsolete cultivars
 Improved varieties of recent past
 Replaced by new varieties
 Wheat varieties K68, K65, pb591 – Traditional Tall before Mexican wheat attractive grain
color and good chapatti making.
3) Modern cultivars
 Currently cultivated high yielding varieties
 High yield potential, uniformity, parents in breeding program Narrow genetic base
 Low adaptability
4) Advanced breeding lines
Pre-released plants developed by plant breeders. Not yet ready for release.
5) Wild forms of cultivated species
Wild species from which crop species were directly derived. High degree of resistance.
6) Wild relatives
It includes all other species, which are related to the crop species by descent during their
evolution.
7) Mutants
Mutant gene pool Dee-Geo-Woo-Gen in rice and Norin 10 in wheat. Valuable genetic
resources. In seed propagated crops, 410 varieties have been released.
GENE POOL CONCEPT

 Proposed by Harlan and De Wet (1971)
 Gene pool consists of all the genes and their alleles present in all such individuals, which
hybridize with each other
 Gene pool is classified into three groups
(i) Primary gene pool GP1: Intermating is easy – production of fertile hybrids. Same species or
closely related.
(ii) Secondary gene pool GP2: Partial fertility on crossing with GP1 plants related species.
(iii) Tertiary gene pool GP3: Sterile hybrids on crossing with primary gene pool. Needs
special techniques
Global Level
 IPGRI – Supervised by consultative group on international Agricultural Research
(CGIAR), Rome, Italy.
 CGIAR – 1972 by FAO, world bank.
 IPGRI established by CGIAR in 1994.
Conducting research and to promote an International Net work of plant Genetic
Resources.
 IBPGR Till 1993 – IBPGR 1974. Renamed as Bioversity International in 2006
National level
 NBPGR – by ICAR – 1976 – New Delhi
 1946 – Plant introduction started at IARI, New Delhi.
 1961 – Separate division of Plant Introduction – Dr. H.B. Singh
 1976 – NBPGR (Agri and horticultural crops.
 Nodal agency for activities and services related to plant genetic resources.
Quarantine
 Quarantine means to keep materials in isolation to prevent the spread of diseases present in
them to the other materials.
 Destructive Insects and Pests Act, 1914
 Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine and Storage (1946) located in Faridabad.
 Plant Quarantine Order, 2004
 NBPGR, FRI – Dehradun and Botanical survey of India. Calcutta
Activities in germplasm conservation

(i) Collection of germplasm
(ii) Conservation
(iii) Evaluation
(iv) Cataloguing
(v) Multiplication and distribution
(vi) Utilization
1. Collection of germplasm
Process of obtaining the various germplasm accessions for a germplasm collection
This is done in two chief ways (i) Exploration (ii) Procurement from other agencies, individuals,
companies
2. Germplasm conservation
Two types i) in situ ii) ex situ
i) In situ germplam- conservation under natural habitat
Natural park, biosphere reserve, gene sanctuary- Meghalaya for citrus;
ii) Ex situ germplasm- Conservation of germplasm away from its natural habitat
Seed gene banks, plant or field gene banks, shoot-tip gene banks, cell and organ gene
banks, DNA gene banks
Seeds are classified on the basis of their storability into two major groups i) Orthodox and
ii) recalcitrant (Roberts, 1973)
i) Orthodox seeds
 Seeds of this type can be dried to a moisture content of 5% or lower without lowering their
viability.
 Rice, wheat, carrot, chickpea, soybean, cotton, sunflower, brinjal,etc.
ii) Recalcitrant seeds
 Viability of this group of seeds drop drastically if their moisture content is reduced below
12-30%.
 Seeds of forest and fruit trees, citrus, cocoa, coffee, rubber, oil palm, mango, jackfruit, etc.
The conditions for seed storage depend mainly on duration of storage. They are classified
into three groups:
1) Base collections:
 The seeds are stored at -200C with 5% seed moisture content
 The germination tests are done every 5-10 years
 The seeds can maintain good viability upto 100 years
 They are distributed only for regeneration
2) Active collections:
 The seeds are stored below 15oC (often near 0oC) and seed moisture is 5%
 The storage is for medium storage (10-15 years)
 They are used for evaluation, multiplication and distribution of accessions
3) Working collections:
 The seeds are stored at less than 15o C and 10% seed moisture
 The seeds are stored for 3-5 years
 They are maintained by breeders
3. Germplasm evaluation
Bioversity International developed model lists of descriptors for which germplasm
accessions of various crops should be evaluated.
4. Germplasm cataloguing
Each germplasm accession is given an accession number. In India, the number is prefixed
either IC (Indigenous collection) or EC (Exotic collection).
5. Multiplication and utilization
Germplasm can be used in the breeding programme in three ways
i) Directly released as a variety- Coriander variety ‘Sudha’ in 2006
ii) Selection for developing a variety
iii) Used as a parent in hybridization programme
Core collection
Set of minimum number of accessions that together represent the genetic diversity of the
concerned crop and its wild relatives.
Centres of origin
 Crop plants evolved from wild species in the area showing great diversity and that place is
termed as primary centre of origin.
 There are certain areas where some crops exhibit maximum diversity of forms but this may
not be the centre of origin for that particular crop. Such centres are known as secondary
centres of origin. Eg. Sorghum
 Law of Homologous series in variation- characters found in one species also occur in other
related species- N.I.Vavilov
 In 1926, Vavilov proposed eight main centres of origin
1) China, 2) Hindustan 3) Central Asia, 4) Asia Minor, 5) Mediterranean, 6) Abiyssinia, 7)
Central and 8) South America.
 Later, in 1935 Vavilov divided Hindustan centre into two- Indo-Burma and Siam-Malaya-
Java centres; South American centre into three cenres viz., Peru, Chile and Brazil-Paraguay
Centres; New centre- U.S.A centre.
 The centres of origin may be more appropriately called the centres of diversity.
 Within the large centres of diversity, small areas may exhibit much greater diversity than
the centre as a whole. These areas are known as Microcentres.
Centre of origin Primary centre of origin Secondary

centre of origin
Abyssynian Centre Barley, Triticum spp, jowar, bajra, gram, lentil, pea, Broad bean
sem, khesari, linseed, safflower, sesame, castor, (Vicia faba)
coffee, onion, okra,etc
Asia Minor centre Triticum spp, rye, alfalfa, carrot, cabbage, oat, B.campestris, B.
(Near East or Persian lettuce, apple, Pyrus spp, Prunus spp, grape, nigra, turnip,
Centre) almonds, chesnut, Persian clover apricot
Central American Maize, rajma, lima beans, melons, pumpkin, sweet
Centre (Mexican potato, arrowroot, chillies, G. hirsutum, papaya,
centre) guava, avocado, etc.
Central Asia Centre T.aestivum, pea, mung, linseed, sesame, safflower, Rye (Secale
(Afghanistan Centre) hemp, G.herbaceum, radish, muskmelon, carrot, cereale)
onion, garlic, spinach, pear, almond, grape, apple
China centre Soybean, radish, bunda, prosomillet, buckwheat, Maize, rajma,
opium poppy, brinjal, pear, peach, apricot, plum, cowpea, turnip,
orange, Chinese tea sesame
Hindustan Centre Rice, pigeonpea, chickpea, chickpea, cowpea,
(Divided into: (1) Indo- mung, brinjal, cucumber, Indian radish, noble canes,
Burma, and (2) Siam- G.arboreum, mango, orange, coconut, banana
Malaya-Java Centres)
Mediterranean Centre Triticum spp., barley, Avena spp., lentil, pea, broad
bean, lupins, Lathyrus spp., chickpea, clovers,
Brassica spp., onion, garlic, beets, lettuce,
asparagus, lavender, peppermint, etc
South American Centre Potato, maize, lima bean, peanut, pineapple,
(Divided into (1) Peru, pumpkin, G.barbadense, tomato, tobacco, guava,
(2) Chile, and (3) quinine tree, cassava, rubber
Brazil- Paraguay
Centres)
U.S.A Centre Sunflower, Jerusalem artichoke
Plant Introduction
Plant introduction consists of taking a genotype or a group of genotypes of plants into a
new area or region where they were not being grown before.
Types of plant introduction
Plant introduction may be classified into two categories i) Primary and ii) Secondary
introductions.
i) Primary Introductions
 When the introduced variety is well adapted to the new environment, it is released for
commercial cultivation without any alteration in the original genotype.
 Introduction of semidwarf wheat variety – Sonora 64, Lerma Rojo
 Semidwarf rice variety – Taichung Native 1, IR 8, IR 28 and IR 36.
ii) Secondary Introductions
 The introduced variety may be subjected to selection to isolate a superior variety.
 Kalyan Sona and Sonalika selected from materials introduced from CIMMYT, Mexico.
Acclimatization
The process that leads to the adaptation of a variety, line or population to a new
environment.
Achievements
1. Direct Release as Varieties
 Semi dwarf varieties in wheat - Sonara 64 and Lerma Rojo;
 In rice, TN 1 - Taiwan; IR 8, IR21 and IR36 - IRRI, Phillipines
 Ridley wheat and Kent Oat- Australia;
 Delcrest and Virginia Gold Tobacco; Bragg, Lee, Clark 63 and Hill Davis –Soybean all
from USA.
2. Varieties selected from introductions

 Wheat- Kalyan Sona and Sonalika- selected from introductions from CIMMYT, Mexico;
 Jamnagar Giant and Improved Ghana bajra; Pusa Lal and Pusa Sunehari sweet potato;
Pusa Basmati vegetable cowpea; Japanese white and 40 days radish.
3. Varieties developed through hybridisation
 Pusa Ruby tomato Meeruti x Sioux;
 Pusa early dwarf tomato Meeruti x Red cloud;
 Pusa Kesar carrot, Pusa Kanchan turnip.
MODE OF REPRODUCTION AND POLLINATION CONTROL
In crop plants, the mode of reproduction may be broadly grouped into two categories.
1) Asexual
2) Sexual
Asexual Reproduction - Multiplication of plants without fusion of male and female gametes
Two types viz., vegetative reproduction and apomixes.
Vegetative reproduction
 New plant develops from a portion of the body of the parent plant.
 Underground stems:
Tuber - Potato;
Bulb - Onion, Garlic;
Rhizome – Ginger, Turmeric;
Corm – Bunda, Gloriossa
 Sub-aerial stems:
Runner – Strawberry;
Stolon – Mint;
Offset – Water hyacinth;
Sucker – Banana, Chrysanthemum
Apomixis
 Seeds are formed but the embryos develop without fertilization
 When apomixis is the only method of reproduction in a plant species, it is known as obligate
apomixis.
 On the other hand, if gametic and apomictic reproduction occur in the same plant, it is known as
facultative apomixis.
 When embryos arise from diploid cells, apomixes is termed as recurrent apomixis; Progeny
perpetuated indefinitely
 When embryo arise from haploid cells, non-recurrent; progeny cannot be maintained further
a) Adventive embryony – Embryo develop directly from vegetative cells of the ovule such as
nucellus, integument and chalaza and does not involve production of embryosac. Eg.
Mango, Citrus, Orchids
b) Apospory – Some vegetative cells of ovule develop into unreduced embryo sacs through a
series of mitotic division and without meiosis. The embryo may develop from egg cell or
some other cells of such an embryo sac. Eg. Hieracium, Malus, crepis, Ranunculus
c) Diplospory – Embryosac is produced from megaspore which may be haploid or diploid.
This leads to parthenogenesis and apogamy
d) Parthenogenesis - Development of embryo from egg cell without fertilization. Two types of
parthenogenesis.
(i) Haploid parthenogenesis – Embryo develops from a haploid egg cell
eg. Solanum nigrum
(ii) Diploid parthenogenesis – Embryo develops from diplod egg cell eg. Taraxacum
e) Apogamy - Development of embryo either from synergids or antipodal cells. eg. Allium, Iris
f) Parthenocarpy - Seedless fruits are formed from ovary without fertilization.
g) Androgenesis – Development of embryos from pollens or anthers cultured on a suitable
nutrient medium. Rice, Datura, Tobacco
Sexual reproduction:
Fusion of male and female gametes to form a zygote, which develops into an embryo.
Male and female gametes are produced in specialized structures known as flowers.
Flower
 A flower containing both stamen and pistil – perfect or hermaphrodite flowers
 Flower contains only stamens – Staminate and only pistil id present - pistillate
 Male and female occurs on the same plant – Monoecious eg. Maize, castor, coconut
 Male and female occurs on the different plant – Dioecious eg. Papaya, Datepalm.
Sporogenesis
 Production of microspores and megaspores is known as sporogenesis
 Microspores are produced in anthers (Microsporogenesis) and megaspores are produced in
ovules (Megasporogenesis)
(i) Microsporogenesis
 Each anther has four pollen sacs – contain numerous pollen mother cells.
 PMC undergoes meiosis to produce four haploid cells – Microspores
(ii) Megasporogenesis
 Occurs in ovule, inside the ovary
 A single cell in ovule differentiates into megaspore mother cell.
 MMC undergoes meiosis to produce four haploid megaspores. Three of the
megaspores degenerate only one survive.
Gametogenesis
Production of male and female gametes in microspores and megaspores
(i) Microgametogenesis
 Production of male gamete or sperm.
 Microspore divide mitotically to produce generative and tube or vegetative nucleus
 When the pollen lands on stigma – pollination
 After pollination, the pollen tube grows and generative nucleus undergoes mitotic
division to produce two sperms
(ii) Megagametogenesis
 Megaspore under three mitotic divisions to produce eight nuclei
 Three of the nuclei move to one pole, central one is egg cell and either side synergids
present
 Another three moves to the opposite poles – Antipodal cells
 The two nuclei in the centre, polar nuclei fuse to form secondary nucleus
Fertilisation
 Fusion of one of the sperm with egg cell, producing diploid zygote – fertilization
 Fusion of another sperm with secondary nucleus – Primary endosperm nucleus (Triple
fusion) Double fertilization
Anthesis: In the process of flowering, the first opening of flower.
Modes of pollination
Pollination - Transfer of pollen grains from anthers to stigmas. They are classified as follows
i) Autogamy - Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigmas of the same flower
ii) Allogamy - Pollen grains from flowers of one plant are transmitted to the stigmas of flower of
another plant
iii) Geitonogamy - When pollen from of one plant falls onto the stigmas of other flowers of the
same plant. Eg. Maize
I) Self pollination/Autogamy:
 Closest form of inbreeding
 Leads to homozygosity
 Does not produce inbreeding depression
Mechanisms promote autogamy
1) Bisexuality - Presence of male and female flowers in the same flower
2) Homogamy - Maturation of anthers and stigma of a flower at the same time
3) Cleistogamy - Pollination and fertilization occur in unopened flower bud. e.g. wheat, barley, oats
4) Chasmogamy - Fertilization after opening of flower e.g. wheat, rice
5) Position of anthers - Stigmas are surrounded by anthers
II) Cross pollination/Allogamy
 Outbreeding
 Leads to heterozygosity
 Exhibit inbreeding depression on selfing
Mechanisms promote allogamy
1) Dicliny: Unisexual flowers. Two types
1a). Monoecy - Male and flowers are separate but present in same plants e.g. Maize
Male and female flowers in same inflorescence e.g. Mango, castor, banana
1b). Dioecy - Staminate and pistillate flowers on different plants e.g. Papaya,
date palm, spinach and asparagus
2) Dichogamy: Maturation of anthers and stigma of the same flower at different times
i) Protogyny - pistil matures before anthers e.g. pearlmillet
ii) Protandry - anthers mature before pistil e.g. maize, sunflower, sugarbeet
3) Heterostyly - styles and filaments in a flower are of different lengths e.g. Linseed
4) Herkogamy - Hindrance to self pollination by physical barriers (hyline memebrane around
anthers) e.g. Alfalfa
5) Self incompatability - Inability of the fertile pollens to fertilize the flowers of the same flower.
e.g. Brassica, Radish, Nicotiana.
6) Male sterility - Non-functional pollen grains.
Classification of crop plants based on mode of pollination and mode of reproduction
Mode of pollination and Examples of crop plants
reproduction
A. Autogamous Species
1. Seed Propagated Rice, Wheat, Barley, Oats, Chickpea, Pea, Cowpea, Lentil, Green gram,
Black gram, Soybean, Common bean, Moth bean, Linseed, Sesame,
Khesari, Sunhemp, Chillies, Brinjal, Tomato, Okra, Peanut, etc.
2. Vegetatively Potato
Propagated
B. Allogamous Species Corn, Pearlmillet, Rye, Alfalfa, Radish, Cabbage, Sunflower,

1. Seed Propagated Sugarbeet, Castor, Red clover, White clover, Safflower, Spinach, Onion,
Garlic, Turnip, Squash, Muskmelon, Watermelon, Cucumber, Pumpkin,
Kenaf, Oilpalm, Carrot, Coconut, Papaya, etc.
2. Vegetatively Sugarcane, Coffee, Cocoa, Tea, Apple, Pears, Peaches, Cherries, grapes,
propagated Almond Strawberries, Pine apple, Banana, Cashew, Irish, Cassava, Taro,
Rubber, etc.
C. Often Allogamous Sorghum, Cotton, Triticale, Rai, Pigeonpea, Tobacco.

Species
(seed propagated)
Mechanism of pollination control in crop plants

Two important mechanisms
1) Self incompatability - coined by Stuout (1917)
i) Heteromorphic system
Distyly- Primula; Tristyly-Lythrum
ii) Homomorphic system
a) Gamtophytic control – East and Mangelsdorf (1925)
 Incompatability reaction of pollen is determined by its own genotype.
 Nicotiana sanderae, Lucerne, Tomata, Solanum, pearlmillet.
b) Sporophytic control – Hughes and Babcock (1950)
 Incompatability reaction is governed by genotype of the plant on which the
pollen is produced.
 Brassica oleraceae, sunflower
Overcoming Self incompatibility

1. By bud pollination : Application of matured pollen to immature stigma.
2. By surgical technique : Removal of the stigmatic surface E.g. Brassicas or removal of style
E.g. Petunias.
3. End of season pollination : In some cases self incompatibility is reduced towards the end of
flowering period. Pollination at that time may be successful.
4. Use of high temperature : Exposure of pistil to 600C will induce pseudo fertility.
5. Irradiation :
6. Grafting : Grafing of a branch to another branch.
7. Double pollination : Application of a mixture of incompatible and compatible pollen grains.
2) Male sterility
Male sterility may be conditioned due to cytoplasmic or genetic factors or due to
interaction of both. Environment also induces male sterility. Depending on these factors male
sterility can be classified in to
a) Cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS)
b) Genetic male sterility (GMS)
c) Cytoplasmic-genetic male sterility (CGMS)
d) Environmental induced male sterility which is again subdivided into
i) TGMS (Theromosensitive) - Higher temperature favours male sterility (e.g.
23.3oC or higher for rice TGMS line Pei-Ai645)
ii) PGMS (Photo sensitive) - Long day conditions favours male sterility (day length
more than 13 hr 45 min)
This type of male sterility is being used to develop hybrid rice in China.
(a) Cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS)

 It occurs due to the mutation of mitochondria or some other cytoplasmic factors outside the
nucleus
 Nuclear genes are not involved here
 CMS may be transferred to a given strain by using that strain as a pollinator (recurrent
parent) in backcross programme
Uses: Used only in asexually propagated species such as sugarcane, potato, forage crops and
certain ornamental species
Difficulties: If seed is an economic part, it is of no value
(b) Genetic male sterility
 Pollen sterility is governed by nuclear recessive genes ‘msms’
 Dominant gene e.g. Safflower
 Two types of lines- A line (Male sterile) and B line (Maintainer)
 Both are isogenic lines except fertility/sterility locus
 Maintained by crossing recessive male sterile plants with heterozygous male fertile plants
Uses: In Redgram and castor for production of hybrids.
Difficulties
1. Maintenance of GMS requires skilled labour to identify fertile and sterile line. Labelling is
time consuming and costly.
2. In hybrid seed production plot identification of fertile line and removing them is costly.
3. Use of double the seed rate of GMS line is costly.
4. In crops like castor high temperature leads to break down of male sterility.
(c) Cytoplasmic genetic male sterility

 Pollen sterility is controlled by both cytoplasmic and nuclear genes where dominant
nuclear gene restores fertility.
 First discovered by Jones and Davis (1944) in Onion
 It includes A, B and R line
 A line- Male sterile
 B line- Maintainer line
 R line- Restorer line
Uses: Utilised for the production of hybrids in bajra, jowar, maize, rice, wheat and many
other crops.
Limitations of CGMS lines.
1. Fertility restoration is a problem. E.g. Rice.
2. Seed set will be low in crops like Rice where special techniques are to be adopted to increase
seed set.
3. In crops like wheat having a polyploidy series it is difficult to develop effective R line.
4. Undesirable effect of cytoplasm. E.g. Texas cytoplasm in maize became susceptible to
Helminthasporium. In bajra, Tift 23A cytoplasm became susceptible to downy mildew.
5. Modifier genes may reduce effectiveness of cytoplasmic male sterility.
Transgenic male sterility:
 Barnase/Barstar system
 This male sterility is induced in tobacco and rapeseed by transferring a gene from Bacillus
amyloliquefaciens.
 Barnese – Male sterility (A line)
 Barstar – Fertility restoration (R line)
Limitations
 Expensive method
 Maintaining male sterility is a problem
Chemically induced male sterility
The chemicals affect the function of male reproductive organs are called male
gametocides/ male sterilants/pollen suppressants/pollenocide/chemical hybridizing agents.
e.g., Etherel @ 700- 1500 mg/l for Barley
Selective gametocides:
 FW 450 - Cotton;
 Maleic Hydrazide – Onion
 Gibberellins – Sunflower
 Sodium Methyl & Zinc Methyl Arsenate – Rice.
BREEDING METHODS FOR SELF-POLLINATED CROPS
BREEDING METHODS PROCEDURE APPLICATION/ACHEIVEMENTS/USES
1. PURELINE SELECTION - Only for self pollinated crops
Progeny of a single self - Selection based on individual plants -Improvement of local varieties
pollinated homozygous plant - Selected progenies are evaluated in Eg. NP4 &NP52- wheat;
field trials and released as a variety NP11 &NP12- Linseed; T1 (Cowpea) & T1 (Mung bean); Pusa Sawani- Bhindi local
- Variation is due to environment and variety collected from Bihar.
non-heritable - Pureline selection in Introduced varieties
Eg. Kalyan Sona - Leaf rust resistant from an introduced material- CIMMYT
-Improves old varieties
Eg. Dwarf off-types selected from tall scented pureline variety of rice Kalimoonch 64-
released as a pureline variety Shyama
2. MASS SELECTION - Selection based on appearance or - Improves Local varieties
Individual plants are selected on the phenotype - Purifies existing pureline varieties
basis of phenotype from a mixed -Mixture of several purelines Eg. Nucleus seed of pureline variety
phenotype and their seeds are mixed (Homozygous, heterogenous)
together to constitute a new variety
Oldest method of crop improvement
(Both these methods not used for segregating materials F2, F3, etc. obtained from crosses)
Methods for handling segregating
generations
3. PEDIGREE METHOD
Genetic improvement of self -Selection of parents -Development of new varieties in self pollinated varieties
pollinated species in which superior - Hybridisation among the selected Eg. In Rice, two outstanding varieties Jaya & Padma (Shorter duration & fine grains) were
genotypes are selected from parents developed from TN1.
segregating generations and proper - Selection is practiced until it attains Other varieties: Bala, Cauveri, Karuna, Krishna, Ratna, Sabarmati.
record of ancestry of selected plants are homozygous . In tomato, Pusa early dwarf (Short statured early maturing variety) from Meeruti x Red
maintained in each generation - Tested in yield trials and released as a Cloud.
-Chances of recovering Transgressive variety Wheat, KRL1-4 (Salt tolerant) from Kharchia 65 x WL 711
segregants In cotton, Laxmi (Resistant to leaf blight).
BULK METHOD (Nilsson-Ehle,
1908) -Bulking In India, only one variety Narendra Rai (B.juncea) developed for bold seed size in 90
- Selection procedure in which - Progeny selection and isolation of crosses.
segregating generation of self superior progeny
pollinated species is grown in bulk plot -Multilocation trials of superior progeny
with or without and individual -Release of best best progeny as a variety
selection is practiced in later -6-10 years (Short term bulk) and 20-30
generations. years (Long term bulk)
-Mass or population or evolutionary
method of crop improvement
-Used in self pollinated crops
SINGLE SEED DESCENT -Modified of bulk breeding method. - Goulden (1939) –suggested in advancing segregating generations of self pollinated crops
METHOD - Only one seed is randomly selected in - Grafius (1965)- Oats
Segregating populations of self each plant in F2 & subsequent - Brim (1966)- Soybean
pollinated species in which plants are generations
advanced by single seeds from one -Selected seed is bulked – next
generation to the next generation
-After attaining homozygosity, selection
is practiced and superior progenies are
tested in trials and released as a variety
BACKCROSS METHOD -Recurrent/recipient parent is repeatedly - Intervarietal transfer of simply inherited characters like disease resistance, seed colour,
Cross between a hybrid and one of its used in crossing plant height, etc.
parents - Non recurrent/donar parent used only Eg. ‘Transfer’- first commercial wheat variety with rust resistance
-Objective is to improve one or two once in breeding programme -Transfer of cytoplasm
specific defects of a high yielding -Backcross method depend upon the Eg. Transfer of T. timopheevii to T.aestivum- cytoplasmic male sterile line of T .aestivum
variety. gene being transferred is recessive or E.g. Sesamum malabariucum x S.indicum
- Used in self and cross pollinated dominant. Female parent Recurrent parent.
crops -In case of recessive gene transfer, each
- Commonly used for transfer of backcross is followed by one selfing, -Production of Near isogenic lines (One gene difference)
monogenic or oligogenic characters whereas in dominant gene continuous - Germplasm conversion : E.g. Production of photo insensitive line from photo Sensitive
than polygenic characters backcross are made and at last one germplasm thro’ back crossing. This was done in the case of sorghum. Popularly known as
selfing is needed. conversion programme.
OTHER APPROACHES
1.MULTILINE VARIETIES -In wheat, Kalyan Sona is susceptible to leaf rust. Rust
Mixture of several purelines of similar height, -Selection of recurrent parent resistance has been transferred and three multiline
flowering and maturity dates, seed colour and agronomic -Selection of donar parent varieties viz., KSML3 (8 lines), MLKS11 (8 lines) and
characteristics, each one having different gene for -Transfer of resistance genes into recurrent parent KML7406 (9 lines).
resistance to the given disease. - Mixing of seed of isogenic lines - Sonalika multiline -1 was released for cultivation in
- The use of multilines was first suggested in oats punjab.
by Jensen (1952)
- Borlaug and Gibler (1953) outlined the method
for developing multilines in wheat.
2. POPULATION BREEDING APPROACH Transgressive segregants recovered

-Outstanding F2 plants are mated among themselves Similar to recurrent selection in cross pollinated crops.
or in some other fashion. Purelines isolated and evaluated as in pedigree method
-The intermating of selected plants in F2 plants
provides greater opportunity for recombination
-First suggested by Palmer, 1953
DSM- Diallel Selective Mating Scheme (1) Vertically, through the selfing series leading to the
-A method of population improvement of self pollinated isolation of commercial varieties,
crop (2) Horizontally, through intermating among the selected
-The retention and / or the creation of large amounts of plant / lines; this generates the recurrent selection series.
variability for effective selection through several cycles, 3) New germplasm may be introduced at any stage of the
and the introduction of new genes in the breeding programme by intermating it with some of the selected
material, if so desired. plants of that stage.
3.RAPID ISOLATION OF HOMOZYGOUS LINES -Extraction of haploid plants from F1 plants using anther
cuture or distant hybridisation
- Chromosome doubling of haploids
4. Hybrid varieties - Heterosis is more common in CP than in SP Hybrid Jowar- CSH1, 2,3,4,5, and 6.
Superiority of F1 over its parents – Heterosis or hybrid - CP are well suited for the production of large Hybrid Cotton- H4 ,
vigour quantity of hybrid seeds Hybrid rice- CMS WA
- Difficulty in producing large quantity of hybrid Pusa Rice Hybrid 10- IARI, NewDelhi
seeds is employed by CGMS or by hand
emasculation and pollination
- In India, hybrid cotton is produced by hand
pollination and is commercially grown at a large
scale
BREEDING METHODS FOR CROSS POLLINATED CROPS

Populations of cross pollinated species are highly heterozygous and heterogenous.
The breeding methods of cross pollinated crops are grouped into two broad categories
1) Population Improvement- mass selection and its modifications are used to increase the frequency of desirable alleles
2) Hybrids and synthetics- Variable number of strains are crossed to produce a hybrid population
Methods of Population Improvement
The breeding methods are grouped into two categories
i) Methods without progeny testing - Selection is based on their phenotype and only maternal
a) Mass Selection parent is considered.
- Oldest method of breeding for cross pollinated crops - Random mating is allowed
- Plants are phenotypically and the open pollinated seed - No progeny test is conducted
from them is bulked to raise the next generation
b) Modifications of mass selection
i) Inferior plants in the field are detasselled and remaining
plants are allowed to open pollinate
ii) Pollen from selected is collected and bulked pollen is
used to pollinate the selected plants
iii) Stratified mass selection Field is divided into number of sub plots. Equal number
Also known as Grid method of mass selection of progenies are selected from each plot and seeds from
all the selected plants is composited to raise the next
generation.
-Mainly to reduce the variation due to environment and
heterogeneity in soil.
iv)Contiguous control Check variety is planted after two or three rows of plant
under selection
-Minimise the environmental influence on the plants
being selected
ii) Methods with progeny test
a) Half sib family selection
Half sibs are those which have one parent in
common. Here only superior progenies are planted and
allowed to open pollinate.
i) Ear to row method: A number of plants are selected on the basis of their
It is the simplest form of progeny selection. This phenotype.
method was developed by Hopkins, 1908 They are allowed to open pollinate and seeds are
harvested on single plant basis.
There is no replication of trials
ii) Modified ear to row method i) The selected progenies may be selfed instead of open
pollination in ear to row method
Proposed by Lonngquist, 1964 ii) The selected plants may be crossed to a tester parent.
The tester parent may be a open pollinated variety, or
inbred.
iii) The progeny test may be conducted in replicated trial.
Recurrent Selection - Single plants are selected based on their

One of the breeding methods followed for the phenotype or by progeny testing.
improvement of cross pollinated crop - The selected single plants are selfed. In the next
The recurrent selection schemes are modified forms of generation they are intermated (cross in all
progeny selection programmes. The main difference possible combinations) to produce population for
between progeny selection and recurrent selection
i) The manner in which progenies are obtained for next cycle of selection.
evaluation.
ii) Instead of open pollination, making all possible inter
crosses among the selected lines.
Simple Recurrent Selection Extension of mass selection

Also known as phenotypic recurrent selection
Recurrent selection for GCA (Broad based test cross) - Improve general combining ability of a population
- Heterozygous tester (Open pollinated variety,
synthetics)
Recurrent selection for SCA (Narrow based test cross) - Improve sca of a population
- Homozygous tester (inbred)
Reciprocal recurrent selection - Improves both gca and sca
- Heterozygous testers
Hybrid varieties
Two important features of cross pollinated species
1) Inbreeding depression
2) Heterosis
Inbreeding depression:
 Selfing of cross pollinated species leads to inbreeding depression
 Leads to decrease in fitness and vigour
Heterosis:
 Basis for breeding of hybrid and synthetic varieties
 Utilized fully in hybrids and partially in synthetics
Hybrids
 The progeny of a cross between genetically different plants
 They are the first generation from crosses between two pure lines (for self- pollinated
crops), inbreds, open pollinated varieties of other populations that are genetically not
similar (for cross pollinated crops).
Pure line hybrids : Tomato.
Inbred hybrids : Maize, Bajra.
Inbred: It a nearly homozygous line obtained through continuous inbreeding of cross pollinated
species with selection accompanying inbreeding.
 Hybrid varieties are first commercially exploited in Maize.
 First hybrid released in Maize (1961) - Ganga series
Kinds of hybrids
 Single cross hybrids - When two inbreds are crossed the
hybrid is known as single cross.
Eg. In Maize, COH 1, COH 2.
 Three way cross hybrids - The cross between single cross
and an inbred
Eg. Maize- Ganga -5
 Double cross hybrids - When the two single crosses are
crossed the resulting hybrids is called double cross Eg. Maize - COH 3
 Double top crop hybrid - White kernel hybrids – Cross
between single cross and an open pollinated variety. Eg. Maize - Ganga safed 2, Histarch,
Ganga 4.
 Polycross - Progeny of a line obtained by random mating
among selected genotypes
Eg. Lucerne.
Operation in production of hybrids.

Development of inbreds:
1. Selfing - heterozygous population (Open pollinated varieties, synthetics, etc.,)
2. Development of inbreds from doubling of haploids – Colchicine treatment (Rice, Sorghum,
Maize).
Evaluation of inbred lines

a) Phenotypic evaluation
b) Top cross test (General combining ability)- Parents (Jones, 1927)
c) Single cross test (Specific combining ability)- Hybrids
d) Prediction of double cross performance
Production of hybrids
Methods
1. Hand emasculation and dusting - Cotton, Tomato, Chillies, Bhendi
Detassaling - Maize
2. Use of male sterile lines:
a) Cytoplasmic male sterility - ornamentals
b) Genic male sterility - Redgram, Castor.
c) Cytoplasmic - genic male sterility - Jowar, Bajra, Rice
3. Use of self incompatibility
By planning cross compatible lines hybrids are produced. Here both are hybrids.
E.g. Brassicas.
Merits of Hybrid varieties

1. It exploits both GCA and SCA components of heterosis
2. Hybrids from single crosses are more uniform than open pollinated, synthetic or composite
varieties
3. Hybrids can be produced in both self and cross pollinated crops
4. The genetic constitution of hybrids does nor change when compared to OPV, synthetics
and composites
5. In SP crops, hybrids yield 25-30% higher yield than purelines
Demerits
1. Farmers have to use hybrid seed every year
2. Requires technical skill, seed production is tedious and costly
3. In cross pollinated crops, requires long isolation distance.
Achievements through hybrids varieties

 Self pollinated crops
Cotton – India; Tomato, Chillies and Rice - China
 Cross pollinated crops
Maize, Sorghum, Cumbu, Sugarbeet, Watermelon, Sunflower, Onion and Broad bean
 First hybrid variety in India released in Maize (1961)
 Ganga 1, Ganga 101, Ranjith Deccan-double cross hybrid
 Cumbu - First hybrid released in 1965 as HB 1; Two more hybrids - HB3 and HB 5 (these
hybrids were highly susceptible to downy mildew due to female parent Tift 23A).
 PHB 10, PHB 11, BJ 104 and BK 560 were released - resistant to downy mildew.
 In coconut, Tall-West coast tall x Chowghat dwarf orange - 175 nuts/plant /year
 Dwarf- West coast tall x Chowghat dwarf orange - 200 nuts/plant /year
Synthetic variety
 A variety which is developed by crossing in all possible combinations a number of lines
with good general combining ability.
 Once synthesized, they are maintained by open pollination in isolation.
 The use of synthetic varieties for commercial cultivation was first suggested in maize
(Hayes and Garber, 1919).
Composite variety
 It is produced by mixing the seeds of several phenotypically outstanding lines and
encouraging open pollination to produce crosses in all combinations among the mixed
lines.
 They are not tested for combining ability with each other.
Steps involved in production of synthetic variety

1. Isolation of source population- Inbreds, clones, open pollinated varieties, short term
inbreds (Population tested for GCA or combining ability)
2. Evaluation of lines for GCA- Top cross, single cross and polycross
3. Production of synthetic variety
4. Multiplication of synthetic variety
S.No. Synthetic Composite

1 Parental components are generally inbreds It is not so in composite. The lines are not
tested for their GCA tested for their GCA.
2 No of parental lines are limited to 4 - 6 No such limit.
inbreds
3 Synthetic produced with inbreds can be It is not possible.
reconstituted
4 Yield performance can be predicted Cannot be predicted.
Merits :
1. Utilizes heterosis where pollinatin control is difficult.
2. Less costly compared to hybrids.
3. Farmer can maintain his synthetic variety for more seasons which is not possible in hybrids.
3. Because of wider genetic base the synthetics are more stable over years and environments.
4. Seed production is more skilled operation in hybrids where as it is not so in synthetics.
Demerits :
1. Performance is little bit lower compared to hybrids because synthetics exploit only GCA while
hybrids exploit both GCA and SCA.
2. The performance may not be good when lines having low GCA are used.
3. Synthetics produced and maintained only for cross pollinated crops.
Achievements
- Mostly used in forage crops where pollination is difficult
- Maize breeding in CYMMIT, Mexico
- Pearlmillet breeding in ICRISAT
- In India, first maize composite released in 1967; Amber, Jawahar, Kisan, Vikram, Sona,
Vijay
- Recent composites: CO 1 (resistant to downy mildew), NLD (White seed), Renuka (Very
early), Kanchan (Very early), Diara 3.
- Opaque 2 composites: Ratan, shakti, protina (Rich in lysine and tryptophan)
- In Brassica, Composite-1 yields 11 q/ha.
CLONE :
A clone is a group of plants produced from a single plant through asexual reproduction.
All the members of a clone have same genotype as the parent plant.
Characters of Vegetatively propagated Crops.

1. Majority of them are perennials.
E.g. Sugarcane, Fruit trees.
Annual Crops are mostly tubers - Potato, Sweet potato, Yams.
2. Some crops show reduced flowering and seed set.
Many do not flower at all. Only fruit crops have shown regular flowering and seed set.
3. They are cross pollinated
4. Highly heterozygous and exhibit high inbreeding depression
5. Vegetatively propagated crops are mostly polyploids.
6. Many species are interspecific hybrids E.g. Banana, Sugarcane.
7. The variety is developed thro’ clones.
The advantage of asexual reproduction is that it preserves the genotype of the individual
indefinitely.
Characteristics of clones :
1. All the individuals belonging to a single clone are identical in genotype.
2. The phenotypic variation within a clone is due to environment only.
3. Theoretically clones are immortal i.e. a clone can be maintained indefinitely thro’ asexual
reproduction, provided there is no disease occurrence.
4. Generally clones are highly heterozygous and exhibit severe inbreeding depression.
5. Genetic variation within a clone may occur due to natural mutation or hybridization or due to
mechanical mixtures.
Achievements
Clonal selection
 In potato, Kufri red from Darjeeling Red Round, Kufri safed from Phulwa
 In banana, Bombay Green from Dwarf Cavendish; Pidi Monthan from Monthan and High
Gate from Gross Mitchel.
Hybridisation
 In potato, Kufri Jyoti is late blight resistant; Kufri Sheetman is frost resistant; Kufri
Alankar, Kufri Kuber, Kufri Sindhuri, K. Kundan, K. Chamatkar, K. Chandramukhi, etc.
 In Sugarcane, CO1148, CO1158, COS 510, CO 975, COS 109, CO 541.
MODERN TOOLS IN CROP IMPROVEMENT

Hybridization: Mating or crossing of two plants or lines of dissimilar genotype.
Hybrid/F1: Seeds as well as progeny resulting from hybridisation
Segregating generations: the progeny of F1, obtained by selfing or intermating of plants and the
subsequent generations.
History:
 First artificial hybrid (Thomas Fairchild, 1717)- Dianthus barbatus x Dianthus caryophyllus
Sweet William Carnation
 First artificial hybridization in fruit crops (T.A. Knight, 1800)
Objectives of hybridization
1. To create genetic variation
2. To produce new gene combination
3. Combination breeding :
 Transfer of one or more characters into a single variety
 Characters governed by oligogenes/polygenes
 Backcross and pedigree method are employed (e.g. transfer disease resistance)
4. Trangressive breeding:
 Production of plants in F2 generation that are superior to both the parents for one or more
characters
 Pedigree method and its modifications (Population approach) (e.g. to increase yield)
Types of hybridization
(i) Intervarietal/ intraspecific hybridization
 Crossing between two varieties or strains of the same species
 In Rice, ADT 27 (Norin 8 x GEB 24)
(ii) Distant hybridization
 Crossing between two different species of the same genus- interspecific hybridization
 Crossing between two different genera of the same family – intergeneric hybridisation
e.g., Oryza sativa var. indica x O. perennis CO 31 (Rice)
Triticum spp. X Secale cereale Triticale
Procedure of hybridisation
1. Choice of parents
2. Evaluation of parents
3. Emasculation – removal of stamens or anthers or killing of pollen grains of a flower
a). Hand emasculation eg. Rice, wheat, barley
b). Suction method
c). Hot water emasculation: eg. Sorghum- 42-48oC for 10 min.; Rice- 40-44oC for 10 min.
d). Alcohol treatment- Sweet clover
e). Cold treatment eg. Rice- 0-6oC; Wheat- 0-2OC for 15-24 hours
f). Genetic emasculation
4. Bagging- to prevent random cross pollination of emasculated flowers
5. Tagging : 1) Date of emasculation
2) Date of pollination
3) Name of male and female parents
6. Pollination
7. Harvesting and storing of F1 seeds
Difficulties in hybridisation
 Lower seed set
 Hybrid necrosis eg. Wheat
Consequences of hybridization
i. Segregation and recombination
ii. Quantitative characters- effects of genes are masked by gene x environment interactions
iii. Linkage- reduces heterozygosity and increases homozygosity
Genetic composition of cross pollinated populations

 Cross pollinated crops are highly heterozygous due to free intermating.
 Each individual of the population has equal opportunity of mating with any other individual of that
population. These cross pollinated crops are referred as
a) Random mating population
b) Mendelian population.
c) Panmictic population.
Hardy - Weinberg Law

This law was independently developed by Hardy (1908) in England and Weinberg (1909) in
Germany. According to the law that “gene and genotypic frequencies in a random mating population
remains constant generation after generation provided there is no selection, mutation, migration or genetic
drift”.
Factors disturbing the equilibrium in the population:
1. Migration : In plant breeding migration is represented by inter varietal crosses, poly crosses, etc.,
wherein a single population two or more separate populations are introduced. Migration may introduce
new alleles into a population which may change the gene frequencies.
2. Mutation : It may produce a new allele not present in the population or it may change the frequencies
of the exhibiting alleles.
3. Random drift : It is other wise known as genetic drift. It is a random change in gene frequency due to
sampling error. In a smaller population if natural selection operates at random it will lead to sampling
error. This sampling error is greater in smaller population than in a large one.
Systems of mating
 The breeder has two tools to change the genetic composition of a population
i) Selection
ii) Mating system
 There are five basic mating schemes
1. Random mating
2. Genetic assortative mating
3. Genetic disassortative mating
4. Phenotypic assortative mating
5. Phenotypic disassortative mating.
1. Random mating :
Here the rate of reproduction of each individual is equal i.e. there is no selection and each male or
female is equally likely to combine at random. This random mating is useful in plant breeding for the
production and maintenance of synthetic and composite varieties, production of polycross varieties.
2. Genetic assortative mating:
 Here the mating will be between individuals that are closely related by ancestry ie. mating between
individuals having more or less similar genotype.
 It is otherwise known as inbreeding.
 The genetic assortative mating leads to
i) Increase in homozygosity
ii) Characters become fixed
iii) Lethals will be eliminated
iv) Separation of population into lines.
 Genetic assortative mating is useful for the development of inbreds.
3. Genetic disassortative mating
 It is mating between individuals that are not closely related by ancestry.
 It is otherwise known as outbreeeding
 E.g. Intervarietal and interspecific crosses.
4. Phenotypic assortative mating
 Mating between individuals which are phenotypically more similar.
 This type of mating leads to increase in homozygosity and division of population into two
extremes. i.e. there is highest and lowest phenotypes remain in the population and there is no
intermediate types.
5. Phenotypic disassortative meting
 Mating between phenotypically dissimilar individuals.
 This system is useful in making a stable population.
Heterosis and inbreeding depression

Cross pollinated species and species reproducing asexually are highly heterozygous. When
these species are subjected to selfing or inbreeding they show severe reduction in vigour and
fertility. This phenomenon is known as inbreeding depression. East in 1908 and Shull (1909)
studied inbreeding in maize
Inbreeding/ Consanguinous mating: It is mating between individuals related by descent or

having common ancestry. (Brother - Sister mating or sib mating). The highest degree of
inbreeding is obtained by selfing. It increases homozygosity in the progeny.
Effects of inbreeding
1. Appearance of lethal and sub lethal alleles: Chlorophyll deficiency, rootless seedlings and other
malformations.
2. Reduction in vigour : Appearance of dwarf plants.
3. Reduction in reproductive ability - Less seed set, sterility
4. Segregation of population in distinct lines.
5. Increase in homozygosity
6. Reduction in yield.
Degrees of inbreeding depression
Based on degree of depression, the plant species can be grouped into 4 broad categories.
1. High inbreeding depression :
E.g. Lucerne, Carrot. Loss of vigour and fertility is high.
Inbreeding leads to severe depression and exhibit lethal effects. After 3 or 4 generations of
selfing it is hard to maintain lines.
2. Moderate inbreeding depression
Maize, Jowar, Bajra.
Though lethal effects are there, lines can be separated and maintained.
3. Low inbreeding depression
E.g. Onion, rye, Cucurbits, Sunflower. Only a small degree of inbreeding depression is
observed.
4. No inbreeding depression
The self-pollinated crops do not show inbreeding depression.
Heterosis: Superiority (e.g. yield) or inferiority of F1 over both the parents (e.g. earliness)
Types of heterosis
1. Average heterosis: It is the heterosis where F1 is superior to mid parent value. In otherwords
superior to average of two parents. This type of heterosis is of no use in agriculture since the
superiority is below the better parent value
2. Heterobeltiosis: Superiority of F1 over the better parent.
3. Useful/ Economic heterosis
Superiority of the F1 compared to the high yielding commercial variety in a particular crop.
4. Negative heterosis
Performance of F1 inferior to better parent / mid parent value. - e.g. Duration.
Hybrid vigour:
 Synonym of heterosis, describes only superiority of F1 over both the parents.
 Koelreuter (1673) first reported hybrid vigour in artificial tobacco
Luxuriance: Increased vigour and size of interspecific hybrids, produce sterile or poorly sterile
plants.
Manifestation of heterosis
1. Increased yield.
2. Increased reproductive ability.(e.g. Potato, sugarcane)
3. Increase in size and vigour. (e.g. fruit size in tomato, head size in cabbage, cob size in maize,
head size in jowar)
4. Better quality (e.g. Onion)
5. Early flowering and maturity (e.g. Tomato)
6. Resistance to pest and diseases
7. Greater adaptability
8. Faster growth rate
9. Increase in number of plant part
Genetic basis of heterosis and inbreeding depression

There are two main theories of heterosis and inbreeding depression.
1. Dominant hypothesis
2. Overdominance hypothesis
1. Dominant hypothesis – First proposed (Davenport, 1908).

 It was later on expanded by Bruce, Keeble and Pellow (1910)
 Heterosis results from the masking of harmful effects of recessive alleles by their
dominant alleles.
2. Overdominance /superdominance/stimulation of divergent alleles (East and Shull, 1908)
Heterozygous condition (Aa) is superioir to both the homozygotes (AA & aa)
Applications
 Heterosis is commercially used in the form of hybrids or synthetic varieties.
 In India, heterosis has been commercially exploited in maize, jowar, bajra, cotton,
pigeonpea, rice, and several vegetables, asexually propagated spp and fruit tress like
coccunut.
MUTATION IN CROP IMPROVEMENTS
 Sudden heritable change in the characteristics of an organism
 The term mutation was first coined by Hugo de vries (1901). E.g. Evening prime rose
(Oenothera lamarkiana).
 The scientific study of mutation was started in 1910 by Morgan and his workers. E.g. The
white eyed male in Drosphila.
 Mutagenic action of X-rays was discovered by Muller (1927) on Drosophilla and awarded
Nobel Prize in 1946
 Mutagenic action of gamma rays and X-rays by Stadler (1968) in barley and maize.
Types of mutations
(i) Macro mutations – Produce distinct morphological changes in the phenotype
E.g. Change in colours, shape etc.
(ii) Micro mutants – Produce invisible phenotypic changes and studied in terms of means and
variances
E.g. yield, plant height etc.
(iii) Gene/ point mutation – Changes in base sequences of genes
Base substitution- Transition (purine- purine);
Transversion (Purine- Pyrimidine/ pyrimidine- purine)
Base addition/deletion- frame shift mutation
(iv) Chromosomal mutations - Changes in chromosome structure or number
(v) Cytoplasmic mutation - The mutants shows cytoplasmic or extra nuclear inheritance
(vi) Bud/ somatic mutation - Mutations occur in buds or somatic tissues
(vii) Spontaneous mutations/ Natural Mutations - When mutations occur naturally at a low rate.
Eg. Double petunia - Freaks appearing in a population
(viii) Induced mutations - Produced artificially in the laboratory.
Characteristics of mutation
 Generally recessive
 Harmful to the organisms
 Random
 Recurrent (same mutation may occur again and again)
 Induced mutations show pleiotrophy
Effects of mutation on survival
(i) Lethal - Kills all the individual that carry them
(ii) Sublethal – Kills more than 50 per cent of the individuals
(iii) Subvital – kills less than 50 per cent
(iv) Vital - Do not reduce viability of the individual; Used for crop improvement.
MUTATION BREEDING
Mutagenic agents
Physical Chemical
1. Alkylating agents.
Ionizing Non ionizing MMS
radiation radiation EMS
DES
2. Acridine dyes
U.V.rays Ethidium bromide
Particulate Non- 3. Base analogues.
radiation Particulate 5- Bromo uracil
radiation.
4. Others – Nitrous acid,
Alpha rays X rays Sodium azide
Fast neutrons Gamma ray
Gamma garden
 It is an area subjected to gamma irradiation where ehole polants are irradiated.
 First gamma garden- Long Island (Newyork, USA)
 First gamma garden in India - Calcutta (Bose Research Institute, 1959)
 Source of gamma ray- 6g of 60Co.
Bud mutation
If the mutation occurs in the meristematic in the early stages of bud development, all the
cells of the bud will be mutant in nature, to the shoot developed from such bud will be a mutant
one. This type of mutation will be called as bud sport.
In vegetatively propagated species, mutations are expressed in the form of chimeras. The
chimera refers to the presence of genetically different tissues in an individual (one type of tissues
in one part and another type of tissues in another part).
Chimera is of two types
(i) Periclinal - Changes occur in the entire outer or inner layer
(ii) Sectorial - Part of inner or outer layer is altered
In seed propagated crops, inner chimera is important, because it takes part in the
formation of gametes. In clonal crops, inner periclinal chimera is important.
Achievements:
 Radiation was used to develop 89% of directly released varieties- 64% is due to gamma
rays, 22% induced by X-rays;
 Among the chemical mutagens, Ethyl Methane Sulphonate treatment resulted in the
development of maximum mutant varieties
 The first variety developed from a mutagenesis was Primax white mustard (Brassica hirta)
released in 1950
 Regima II summer rape (B. campestris) released in 1953
List of some varieties developed in India through mutation breeding
Crop Mutant variety Parent variety Mutagen
Rice Jaganath T141 ɣ-rays
Prabhavati Scented Variety EMS
Ambemohar Local
GEB 24 Konamani Spontaneous Mutant
Mohan ɣ-rays
Wheat Sharbati sonara Sonara-64 ɣ-rays
(Dr.M.S.Swaminathan)
Pusa Lerma Lerma Rojo ɣ-rays
Arhar TV1 T21 ɣ-rays
Chickpea BGM408 (Pusa G130
mutant 408)
Cotton MCU7 1143EE
MCU10 MCU4 ɣ-rays
Groundnut TG17 - ɣ-rays
TG1 (VIKRAM) - ɣ-rays
Pea HANS LS 263
Sugarcane Co8152 Co527 ɣ-rays
Co8153 Co775 ɣ-rays
Turmeri BSR-1
Green gram CO4 CO1 MMS (0.02%)
POLYPLOIDY IN CROP IMPROVEMENT

Haploids: Represents half of the somatic chromosome number of a species (n)
Monoploids: Represents the basic chromosome number of a species; Single copy of the genome
(x)
Genome : Basic set of chromosomes of an individual
Diploids: An organism having two copies of a single genome (2n)
Heteroploid: Any change in the chromosome from the diploid state
Aneuploidy : The change in chromosome number may involve one or few chromosomes of the
genome
Euploiody: Numerical change in the entire genome
Heteroploidy
Aneuploidy Euploidy
Monosomics Nullisomics Trisomics Tetrasomics 1. Monoploidy

2. Haploidy
3. Polyploidy
MONOPLIODS HAPLOIDS
Represents gametic chromosome number of a Represents gametic chromosome number of any
diploid species species
Denoted by x Denoted by n
Monoploids are always haploids Haploids cannot always be monoploids
Contain single set of genome May contain one or more copies of genome
Dihaploid: When a haploid develops from a tetraploid species

Amphidiploid: It is an allopolyploid that has two copies of each genome present in it and as a
consequence behaves as a diploid during meiosis.
Segmental allopolyploids: It contain two or more genomes, which are identical with each other,
except for some minor differences.
Lutz (1947) – first discovered variation on chromosome number in Oenothera
Blakeslee (1910)- first reported trisomics in Datura
Rimpau (1890)- first species synthesized is Triticale (Wheat x Rye)
Blakeslee and Nebel (1937) - Chromosome doubling action of chromosome
Term Type of change Symbol

Heteroploid A change from 2x
A) Aneuploid One or few chromosomes extra or 2n±few

missing from 2n
Nullisomic One chromosome pair missing 2n-2
Monosomic One chromosome missing 2n-1
Double monosomic One chromosome from each of two 2n-1-1
different chromosome pairs missing
Trisomic One chromosome extra 2n+1
Double trisomic One chromosome from each of two 2n+1+1
different chromosome pairs
Tetrasomic One chromosome pair extra 2n+2
B) Euploid Number of genomes or copies of a single

genome more or less than two
Monoploid One copy of single genome x

Haploid Gametic chromosome complement n
Polyploid More than 2 copies of one genome or 2

copies each of 2 or more genomes
1. Autopolyploid Genomes identical with each other

Autotriploid Three copies of one genome 3x
Autotetraploid Four copies of one genome 4x
2. Allopolyploid Two or more distinct genomes

Allotetraploid Two distinct genomes (2x1+2x2)
Allohexaploid Three distinct genomes (2x1+2x2+ 2x3)
Aneuploids
Among the aneuploids, monoploids (Polyploid species eg. Tobacco, wheat, oats) and trisomics
(Diploid species eg. Datura, maize, bajra, tomato, rye, pea, spinach) are the most commonly used
in genetic studies. Trisomics are divided into
(1) Primary trisomics- The extra chromosome is same as one of the haploid genome.
(2) Secondary trisomic- The additional chromosome is an isochromosome
(3) Tertiary trisomic- Extra chromosome is translocated one
Origin and production

- Spontaneous
- Autotriploid plants
- Asynaptic and desynaptic plants
- Translocation heterozygotes
- Tetrasomic plants
Morphological and cytological features
- Aneuploids are generally weaker than diploids
- Monosomics do not survive in diploid species
- Nullisomics not survive even in polyploidy species eg., tobacco
- Trisomics only survive in diploid species eg. Maize, barley, peas, tomato, cumbu, etc
- Tetrasomics - less regular
Application in crop improvement

1. Aneuploids are useful in locating a linkage group and a gene in a chromosome
2. Useful in the studies on effects of loss or gain of an entire chromosome
3. Useful to study the homeology between the genomes
4. Useful in identifying the chromosomes involved in translocations
5. Useful in the production of substitution lines
AUTOPOLYPLOIDY
Polyploids which originate by multiplication of the chromosome of a single species.
Origin and Production

1. Spontaneous
2. Treatment with physical agents – cold treatment, heat, x-rays, gamma rays
Heat treatment successful in wheat, barley, rye
3. Chromosome doubling – Colchicine is isolated from seeds (0.2-0.8%) and bulbs (0.1-
0.5%) of Colchicum autumnale. Colchicine treatment (Prevents spindle formation and
inhibits the movement of sister chromatids).
4. Other chemicals: acenaphthene, 8-hydroxyquinone and nitrous oxide
Morphological features
1. Polyploids have larger size than diploids
2. Pollen grains are larger
3. Show increased general vigour and vegetative growth
Cytological features
 Autotriploids – Highly sterile eg. Watermelons, banana
Highly fertile eg. Spinach
- Autotetraploids – Fertility can be improved through selection eg. Maize, Cumbu, Rye,Rice.
Role of Autopolyploid in crop improvement
1. Triploids:
Banana- seedless, larger fruits
Seedless watermelon- commercially grown in Japan
Triploid sugarbeet- larger roots and more sugar per unit area, grown in Europe.
Triploid tea cultivar, TV 29- produce larger shoot and more biomass, commercially
cultivated in India.
2. Autopolyploids are larger in size and are more vigorous than diploids. Forage crops are
successful. Eg., red clover and ryegrass, alsike clover and berseem.
- Pusa Giant Berseem is the first autoploid variety released for generall cultivation in India –
yields 20-30 percent more green fodder than the diploid berseem varieties.
- Variety HMT-1 of Hyoscyamus niger is an autotetraploid (15% more biomass and 36%
greater crude drug than diplod parent).
- Sugandha is an autotetraploid variety of Vetiver – gives 11% more oil yield than the
control.
- Rye tetraploid variety Double Steel, Tetra Petkus have been released for cultivation.
Some autopolyploid species

Autotetraploids (4x) Autotriploids (3x) Autohexaploid (6x)
Potato Banana Sweet potato
Groundnut Sugarbeet
Coffee Spinach
Lucerne Watermelon
Berseem Tea
Allopolyploidy
A polyploid organism which originated by combining chromosomes sets from two or more
species.
Origin
- Chromosome doubling (irregular mitotic cell division) of F1 hybrids
- Irregular meiosis leads to production of unreduced gametes which may unite to
allopolyploid
e.g. Brassica oleracea x Raphanus sativus Raphano brassica (sterile)
- Colchicine treatment – chromosome doubling
Synthetic allopolyploids: 2 steps

i) Production of F1 hybrids
ii) Chromosome doubling (Colchicine treatment)
e.g. Triticale
Role of allopolyploid in crop evolution

Allopolyploids have been more successful as crop species than autopolyploids. One-third of
angiosperms are polyploids and majority are allopolyploids.
1. Evolution of Bread wheat (Titicum aestivum)

Titicum monococcum x A.speltoides
(n=7, AA) (n=7, BB)
AB F1 sterile
Spontaneous chromosome doubling
A.squarrosa x AABB Tretraploid emmer wheat (T.turgidum var. dicoccoides)
(n=7, DD) (n=14, AABB)
ABD
AA BB DD Hexaploid wheat
(n=21)
Amphidiploid
2. Evolution of Nicotiana tabaccum (n=24)
N. sylvestris x N. tomentosa
(n=12) (n=12)

N. tabaccum (amphidiploid)
(n=24)
3. Evolution of Gossypium hirsutum
Gossypium herbaceum var. africanum x Gossypium raimondii

(2n= 26 ) (2n=26)
Chromosome doubling
G.hirsutum
4. Evolution of amphidiploids Brassica species. Based on U’s triangle proposed by N.U, 1935.
B. nigra
n=8
(BB)
B.carinata B. juncea
n=17 n= 18
(BB CC) (AA BB)
B. oleracea B. napus B. campestris

n=9 n=19 n=10
(CC) (AA CC) (AA)
Application of alloployploidy in crop improvement
1. Utilization as a bridging species

 Amphidiploid serve as a bridge in the transfer of characters from one species to a related
species.
 Eg. In tobacco, Niccotina digluta is used as a bridging cross for transfer of TMV resistance
from N. sylvestris to N.tabaccum
2. Creation of new crop species
Triticum turgidum x Secale cereale

AABB RR
(High yielding & grain quality) (Hardiness) Tolerant to adverse environment
F1 – sterile
Chromosome doubling
AABBRR (Fertile- synthetic allohexaploid)

Triticale (Man made cereal)
 For development of superior lines of triticale has taken 50 years

 In India, three varieties of triticale have been released- TL 419, TL 1210 and DT 46 (amber
colour grain)
Cotton:
Gossypium hirsutum x G. barbadense
(American Cotton) (Egyptian cotton)
Varalaxmi (Inter specific hybrids)
3. Widening the genetic base of existing allopolyploids – e.g. Brassica spp.

4. Interspecific Gene Transfer- Alien addition and alien substitiution
e.g. Cotton- lint strength has been transferred from G.thurberi to G. hirsutum
Distant Hybridization
When crosses are made between two different species or between two different genera,
they are generally termed as - Distant hybridization or Wide hybridization
History
Thomas Fairchild (1717) was the first man to do distant hybridization. He produced a
hybrid between two species of Dianthus
Carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus) x Sweet William (D.barbatus)
(i) Interspecific hybridization
Crossing or mating between two different species of the same genus
e.g. Oryza sativa (GEB 24) x Oryza perennis CO 31
(ii) Intergeneric hybridization
Crossing between two different genera of the same family.
e.g., Triticum spp. X Secale cereale Triticale (Rimpu, 1890)
Wheat Rye
Techniques for the `production of distant hybrids

1. First determine barrier to production of hybrid embryos.
2. In general the species with shorter style should be used as the female parent. Where ever this is
not possible the style of the parent is to be cut off.
3. In some cases autopolyploidy may be helpful in interspecific hybridisation.
E.g. Diploid Brassicas would not cross. Making them autotetraploids leads to easy crossing.
4. Wherever embryo abortion is there, embryo rescue technique can be adopted.
5. With species having different ploidy levels, are crossed, hybridization will be difficult. In such
cases higher ploidy level species is used as female for crossing. Secondly, the chromosome
number of wild species of F1 may be doubled to over come sterility.
E.g. Solanum tuberosum cross with wild species.
6. When two species cannot be crossed directly, a third species can be used as bridge species.
E.g. Nicotiana
7. Use of growth regulators like IAA, 2, 4 - D at the flowering stage increases seed set.
Applications of distant hybridization in crop improvement.

 Many of our important crop species are allopolyploids.
 These crops evolved through distant hybridization, followed by spontaneous chromosome
doubling of the nearly sterile F1 hybrids.
 e.g. Groundnut, Ragi, Sugar cane, Cotton, Wheat, Brassicas, Tobacco, Potato.
1. Alien - Addition lines: An alien addition line carries one chromosome pair from a different
species in addition to normal diploid chromosome complement of the parent species. When
only one chromosome from another species is present it is known as alien addition
monosome. Alien addition lines have been produced in wheat, oats, tobacco and several
other species. This is generally used to transfer disease resistance from wild species.
2. Alien - Substitution lines: An alien-substitution line has chromosome pair from a different
species in the place of one chromosome pair of the recipient species. Alien substitution
monosome has been developed in wheat, Cotton, tobacco.
e.g. In tobacco, mosaic resistance gene N was transferred from N.glutinosa to N.tabacum.
3. Transfer of small chromosome segments:
Transfer of small chromosome segments carrying specific desirable genes have been
widely used in crop improvement programmes.
e.g. Transfer of black arm resistance from G.barbadense to G.hirsutum.
4. Quality Improvement:
By transferring genes from wild species quality has been improved
E.g. Genes for increased protein content in rice, soybean, oats and rye.
5. Mode of reproduction:
In some cases incompatability alleles from wild species can be transferred to cultivated
species for hybrid seed production.
E.g. Brassicas.
6. Yield :
Increased yield through introgression of yield gene from a related wild species into
cultivated species E.g. Oats.
7. Transfer of cytoplasm :
Done by repeated back crossing. Mainly used for transferring male sterility into cultivated
species, E.g. Sesamum
8. Development of new crop species
E.g. Raphano brassica, Triticale.
Limitations of distant hybridization
1. Produce incompatible crosses
2. F1 sterility
3. Lack of homeology between chromosomes of the parental species
4. Undesirable linkage
Linkage of the genes under transfer with some undesirable genes – Linkage drag
5. Problems in the transfer of recessive oligogenes and quantitative traits
6. Lack of flowering in F1 e.g. Groundnut, soybean
7. Dormancy e.g. Groundnut
Role of wild species in crop improvement
Rice:
Co 31 - O.perennis x GEB 24 Drought resistant.
IR 34 - a derivative of complex cross and Oryza nivara is one of the parents having
resistance against grassy stunt virus. The following wild species are being used in breeding
programme.
O.barthi BLB resistance
O.longistaminata Drought tolerance
O.rufipogan Source of male sterility in rice.
Sorghum: The following are the wild species available in Tamil Nadu which are used in breeding
programme.
Sorghum halapense 2n : 20 form crossed with CO.11 and the fodder sorghum variety Co27 was
evolved.
S.nitidum : Highly resistant to shoot fly and having high dormancy.
S.stafii : Having high dormancy occurs as weed in sorghum fields.
Sorghum sudanense is used for evolving forage sorghum.
Cumbu : Pennilsetum purpureum crossed with P.glaucum to evolve Cumbu Napier forage grass.
1. P.glaucum x P.squamulatum
Forage grass combining frost resistance.
2. P.glaucum x P. orientale
For the development of apomicts.
3. P.glaucum x P.setaceum
Development of male sterile lines.
Sugarcane : Nobilisation of sugarcane involves the wild species S.spontaneum.
Red gram : Cajanus cajan crossed with C.lineata and C.scaraboides to have resistance against
wilt and also to induce male sterility.
Ground nut: Arachis batizoccoi crossed with A.hypogaea to have rust resistant lines.
Arachis villosulicarpa - for increased number of pods.
A.monticola - for thin shelled condition
Sesamum : S.malabaricum is crossed with S.indicum to have male sterile lines as well as to have
resistance against powdery mildew.
S.alatum : Resistance against powdery mildew and phyllody.
Cotton : By transferring hirsutum genome to the cytoplasm of wild species G.harknessi CGMS
lines were obtained.
G. tomentosum : Resistant to drought, Jassids, lint fineness and strength.
G.barbadense var. darwinii : jassid (Tetraploid) resistant
G.hirsutum race punctatum : Resistant to black arm.
A number of diploid wild species are available having resistance against pest and diseases.
Potato : Cultivated tetraploid Potato S.tuberosum is obtained by natural crossing of diploid wild
species S.sparsipilum with S.vernii followed by natural doubling. The following diploid species
are used in breeding programme.
1. S.ajanhuii : Frost resistant
2. S.phureja : Non - dormant
3. S.ptenomum : Having 6 month dormancy, longer in duration.
Tobacco : Cultivated tobacco which is an amphidiploid was obtained by natural crossing with
wild species and doubling.
Wild species
N.debneyi - Resistant to root rot.
N. longiflora - Resistant to black shank disease.
N.glutinosa - Mosaic resistant for bridging two species.
N.digluta is used for bridging two species.
Achievements
1. Transfer of specific characters
e.g. Rust disease resistance in wheat
In Bhendi, abelmoschus esculentus cv. Pusa Sawani x Abelmoschus manihot
Parbhani Kranti
Resistant to yellow vein mosaic virus. Higher yield: 110-120 q/ha
2. Transfer of cytoplasm from related species to produce CMS line
e.g. Wheat, tobacco, cotton
3. New varieties are produced
- Interspecific cotton hybrids: Varalakshmi, CBS 156, Savitri, Jayalakshmi, K2HC
- Cumbu Napier hybrid
- Rice, ADT 27 (Norin 8 x GEB 24), CO 31 (O. sativa x O. perennis)
ADT 27 yields 5 tonnes/ hectare of medium fine rice of good cooking quality
BREEDING FOR DISEASE RESISTANCE

Disease is an abnormal condition in the plant produced by an organism
Host: Plant affected by disease. Pathogen : Organism that produces the disease.
Damage due to disease
i) Reduces total Biomass leading to yield loss
ii) Stunted growth
iii) Sterility
Need for disease resistance breeding
i) To prevent yield loss
ii) High cost reduction
iii) Prevention of environmental pollution
Types of genetic resistance
Vertical and horizontal resistance
These terms were introduced by Van der plank.
Vertical resistance :
 It is also known as race specific, pathotype specific or specific resistance
 Vertical resistance is generally determined by major genes and is characterised by
pathotypic specificity.
 Pathotype specificity denotes that the host carrying a gene for vertical resistance is
attacked only by that pathotype which is virulent towards the resistant gene, to all other
pathotypes the host will be resistant.
 Vertical resistance is not long lasting.
Horizontal resistance:
 It is race non specific, pathotype non specific or general resistance.
 Horizontal resistance is governed by polygenes, that is many genes with small effects and
it is pathotype non-specific.
 Horizontal resistance does not prevent the development of symptoms but it slows down the
rate of spread to the disease in the population.
 HR is more stable compared to VR.
Mechanism of disease resistance:
a) Mechanical: Certain mechanical or anatomical features of host may prevent infection. E.g.
Closed flowering habit of wheat and barley prevents infection by spores of ovary infecting fungi.
b) Hypersensitivity: Immediately after infection several host cells surrounding the point of
infection die. This leads to death of pathogen also. Phytoalexins present in plant body is
responsible for hypersensitivity reaction.
c) Antibiosis: Presence of some toxic substance. This is more correct for insect resistance. E.g.
Gossypol content in cotton.
d) Nutritional factors: The reduction in growth and spore formation may be due to nutritional
factors of the host.
Gene for gene relationship
Flor (1956) proposed this based on his work in linseed rust. According to this for every
resistance gene present in the host, the pathogen has a gene for virulence. Susceptible reaction will
result when the pathogen is able to match all the resistant genes with virulence gene.
Methods of disease resistance breeding

1. Plant introduction :
Resistant varieties from other can be directly introduced for cultivation. E.g. IR 20 rice
resistant to blast.
2. Selection :
This may be from local land races or from introduced cultivars. E.g. Co 4 Gobi
Anaikomban resistance to blast. NCAC 17090 ground nut resistant against leaf spot.
3. Hybridisation and Selection:
a) Intervarietal - Co37 Rice resistant to blast
b) Inter specific - Powdery mildew resistance in Sesamum
c) Inter generic - Atylosia for root rot in red gram.
4. Mutation breeding
Co2. Ground nut tolerant to late leaf spot disease.
5. Polyploidy breeding:
Nicotiana crosses for resistance against leaf spot.
6. Tissue culture method.
Resistance reaction can be screened easily in test tubes and resistant lines can be mass
multiplied. E.g. Banana, Cardomum.
Practical Achievements
- In Okra, YMV resisatant variety Prabhani Kranti
- In upland cotton variety, MCU 5VT is tolerant to Verticillium wilt
BREEDING FOR INSECT RESISTANCE

Most important because many crops are affected by insects. For E.g. Cotton is attacked by
more than 160 species of insects of these a dozen are major pests. The necessity for resistance
breeding are.
i) Environmental pollution prevention
ii) Higher costs involved in spraying.
iii) Death of beneficial predators and parasites.
iii) Building up of resistance - E.g. Pyrethroid
Mechanism of insect resistance : Painter (1951)
1. Non preference
2. Anti biosis
3. Tolerance
4. Avoidance.
Non preference : Non acceptance or Antixenosis
Unattractive or unsuitable for colonization, Oviposition or both by an insect pest.
Aphid resistance in raspberry. It involves various morphological and biochemical features of host
plants.
Antibiosis : Adverse effects caused by the host to an insect feeding on it. It may hinder the
development, reproduction or in some cases death also. The antibiosis may be either.
i) Morphological
ii) Physiological
iii) Biochemical features of the host plant. E.g. Gossypol content in cotton.
Tolerance : Able to tolerate the attack, withstand and give yield.
Avoidance : Insects avoid certain plants. Early maturing cotton varieties escape pink bollworm.
Sorghum early lines escape shoot fly attack.
Nature of insect resistance :

1. Hairiness : Hairiness of leaves is associated with resistance.
Jassid resistance - cotton.
2. Colour of plant : Induces non-preference for oviposition.
Red cabbage - Lepidopteran Red colour
Cotton - Boll worms.
3. Thickness of plant Tissue :
Cotton - Jassid resistance. Dense thick leaves - It is more of mechanical obstruction.
4. Presence of Silica in plant body
Shoot fly resistance in sorghum - Damage to mandibles.
5. Biochemical factor:
Gossypol content DIMBOA content in leaves. (Bio chemical) - Stem borer in
maize.
6. Physiological factors
Osmotic concentration of cell sap, cell exudaters etc. Solanum sp Gum exudate -
Aphids are trapped in it.
Sources of resistance:
1. Cultivated variety - TKM 6 Rice Stem borer resistance
2. Germplasm Collection
3. Related Wild species -
S.nitidum - shoot fly resistance – Sorghum
G. anamalum - Jassid resistance - Cotton
Practical Achievements
 In India cotton variety, B1007, SRT1, Khandwa2, DHY 286, PKV 081- resistant to Jassids
 Cotton varieties, Kanchana, Supriya and LK 861- tolerant to whitefly
BREEDING FOR QUALITY TRAITS

 Quality refers to the suitability or fitness of an economic plant product in relation to its end
use.
 The quality is of three types viz., 1. Market quality 2. Industrial quality 3. Nutritional
quality.
 The market quality refers to fitness of a product for marketing. It includes uniformity in
shape, size, colour and texture in food and vegetable crops.
 The industrial quality includes suitability for baking in wheat, malting in barley, crushing
in sugarcane, canning in fruit crops, etc.
 The nutritional quality refers to the suitability or fitness of a plant product for human and
animal consumption.
Limiting amino acids in some vegetarian protein foods
Food items Limiting amino acids
Cereals Lysine, threonine, tryptophan
Pulses Methionine, tryptophan
Nuts and oil seeds Lysine
Green leafy vegetable Methionine
Leaves and grasses Methionine
Sources of nutritional quality

There are three sources of improved nutritional quality
1. Cultivated varieties of crop
2. Germplasm collection
3. Wild relatives and species.
4. Mutation
Mutant sources of high lysine content in sorghum, maize and barley

Crop species Highly lysine mutants
Spontaneous Induced
Sorghum IS 11167, IS 11758 P 721 opaque (DES)
Maize Opaque 2, Floury 2, opaque 7, Brittle 2.
Barely Hiproly Notch 1(EMS)
Notch 2(EMS)
Riso 1508 (EI)
 In cultivated oil palm (Elaeis guineensis), high level of unsaturated fatty acids has been
transferred from wild species (E. oleifera).
 In tomato (Lycopersicon esculatum), high beta carotene was transferred from wild green
fruited species.
Achievements
Varieties with improved quality released in some crop plants in India
Crop varieties Quality character Varieties released
Maize High lysine content Protina, Shakti and Rattan
Sugarcane High sucrose content Co671, Co 6806, Co 7314, Co
7704 and Co 62174
Barely Malting quality Karan 15, Karan 92 and Karan 280
Lathyrus Low neurotoxin Pusa 24
Soybean High protein and high oil content Lee (Protein 43-45% and oil 23-
25%)
Rapeseed High content K 88 (48.8% oil)
Rapeseed Low erusic and low glucosinate Zem 1 and Zem 2 (Double zero
varieties
HYBRID RICE
 Among the various strategies proposed to break the yield plateau in rice productivity,
exploitation of heterosis through the development of rice hybrids had been proved to be
successful.
 Heterosis in rice was reported by Jones in USA as early in 1926 and Ramaiah in 1933.
 Hybrid rice was initiated in 1964, in China by Yuan Long Ping (Father of hybrid Rice).
 The identification of 'Wild Abortive' or 'WA' type cytoplasmic male sterility in 1970 was a
breakthrough in hybrid rice breeding.
 Breeding techniques for developing hybrid rice involve the following:
a) Three-line method or CGMS system
This system now a days known as CMS system, involving three lines
(i) Cytoplasmic, genic male sterile line (A)
(ii) Maintainer line (B)
(iii) Restorer line (R)
New sources of male sterile cytoplasm
GA (Gambiaca), Di (Disi), DA (Dwarf wild rice), BTC (Chinsurah Boro II) and IP (Ido Paddy 6).
b) Two-line method of rice breeding
Two-line hybrids can be evolved through
- Mechanical means
- Application of gametocides
- Use of cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS)
- Use of genic male sterility (GMS)
- Use of environmentally induced genic male sterility (EGMS)
In rice EGMS system is commonly used.

In EGMS systems two kinds of rice lines are made use of viz. PGMS (Photosensitive
Genic Male Sterility) and TGMS (Thermosensitive Genic Male Sterility) which had been
developed successfully in China.
Developing hybrid rice varieties with these system has the following advantages over the classical
CMS system,
- Maintainer lines are not needed.
- The choice of parents for developing heterotic hybrids is greatly broadened.
- No negative effect due to sterile cytoplasm
- Unitary cytoplasm situation of WA will be avoided.
c) One-line method of rice breeding
Rice hybrids can be developed and popularised through the following concepts
- Vegetative propagation
- Micro propagation
- Anther culture hybrids
- Apomictic lines
Among the above for large scale cultivation, apomictic lines and anther cultured materials
will be economical.
Hybrid rice breeding in Tamil Nadu :

 Hybrid rice research in Tamil Nadu was started as early as in 1979 at Paddy Breeding
Station, Coimbatore before the Chinese achievements were known to others.
 The first male sterile line identified from a cross between CO 40 / Jeeraga Samba was of
Genetic male sterile line which was maintained upto 1984.
 Intensification of hybrid rice research in TNAU resulted in the identification of a superior
hybrid combination of IR 62829 A / IR 10198-66-2R named as TNRH 1. This hybrid has a
duration of 115 days and out yields all the ruling short duration varieties. The variety
release committee of TNAU recommended this hybrid for general cultivation in November
1993 and Tamil Nadu State Variety Release Committee endorsed the recommendation by
releasing it as CORH 1 January 1994 and named it as MGR.
 TNAU has released four rice hybrids.
Two line breeding for hybrid rice :

For synthesizing rice hybrids, attempts to use temperature sensitive genetic male sterility
(TGMS) and photoperiod sensitive genetic male sterility (PGMS) are made.
To exploit this potential, a separate Hybrid Rice Research Station has been established
with financial support of Tamil Nadu Agricultural Development Programme (TNADP) at Gudalur
in Nilgiris along with Coimbatore main centre.
Package of practices for Rice hybrid

S.N Particulars CORH-1 CORH-2 CORH-3 CORH-4 ADT-RH-1
o. (MGR)
1. Age i) Male line 110-115 125 days 115-120 days 130-135 115 days
iv) Female line days 125 days 110-115 days days
2. Sowing May-June Navarai Sornavari/Rai/ Late May-June
Dec-Jan (Dec-Jan) Kuruvai samba/Thal Dec-Jan
Kar/Kuruv adi
ai
(May-
June)
3. Seed rate/ha 20 kg Female- Female- 20 Female- 20 20 kg/ha
20 kg/ha kg/ha kg/ha
Male 10 Male- 10 kg/ha Male- 10
kg/ha kg/ha
4. Nursery i) Seed 1 kg/cent 1 kg/cent 1 kg/cent 1 kg/cent 1 kg/cent
ii) DAP 2 kg/cent 2 kg/cent 2 kg/cent 2 kg/cent 2 kg/cent
iii) Gypsum 4 kg/cent 4 kg/cent 4 kg/cent 4 kg/cent 4 kg/cent
5. Seedling age 20-25 25-30 days 18-21 days 25 days
days
6. Spacing in main 20x10 cm 20x10 cm 20x10 cm 20x10 cm 20x10 cm
field
7. Number of 1 1 1 1 1
seedling/Hill
8. Parents IR IR 58025A TNAU CMS COCMS IR 58025A x
62829A x x C- 2A x CB 87R 23A x IR-66R
IR 10198- 20 CB174R
66-2-R
9. Special feature Give 1 ton Give 21% 24% higher Medium Give 17%
higher higher yield than the slender fine higher yield
yield than yield than high yielding rice than CORH-1
IR-50 ADT-39 varieties and -High
13% higher tillering
than the other capacity, long
hybrids. slender fine
Medium rice
slender non- -Give
aromatic rice pleasant
with good odour while
cooking cooking
qualities.
Other practices
Selection of Field :
Previous crop should not be of rice. If previous crop is rice, irrigate the field and there by the
dropped seeds will germinate which can be puddled in. If the pervious crop is having dormancy
means, we must be careful to see that the dropped seeds are all germinated and puddled in.
Isolation distance :
100 meters. If time isolation is to be followed, there should not be any rice crop near by
within 100 meters, in the process of flowering while the crop in seed production plot is in
flowering. There must be a difference of 30 days in flowering for the near by crop.
Nursery :
Apply 2kg DAP to the nursery. Adopt 1kg / cent of nursery for both A line and R line while raising
the R line 5 kg seeds can be raised on the same date when A line is raised. The rest 5 kg can be
sown five days after first sowing.
Manuring of main field : 10 tonne FYM / ha
N P K
Basal dressing 50 kg/ha 60kg/ha 20kg/ha
Tillering stage 50kg/h a - 20kg/ha
Boot leaf stage 50kg/ha - 20kg/ha
Planting date : A line - 25 - 30 days after sowing

R line - 20-25 days after sowing Planting Ratio
: 8 rows of A line
2 rows of R line
Spacing: A line : 10cm between rows 15 cm within rows; Single seedling / hill
R line : 30 cm between rows 15 cm within rows. Two seedlings / hill. The
space between A line and R line is 20 cm
Prediction and adjustment of heading date

- Adjustment of flowering date can be made by applying quick releasing nitrogen fertilizer
on the earlier developing parent and the later developing parent should be sprayed with 2%
solution DAP.
- By this measure a difference of 4 to 5 days may be adjusted.
Application of gibberellin (GA3)

* GA3 can adjust physiological and biochemical metabolism of rice plant and helps in
hybrid seed production by stimulating the elongation of young cells.
* In most of the CMS lines, about 20-30% of spikelets of a panicle are inside the flag leaf
sheath (exertion is only 70%).
* GA3 affects exertion of panicle completely out of flag leaf sheath.
* In India recommended dose of GA3 is 50g/ha using knapsack sprayer and 25g/ha with
ultra low volume sprayer.
Advantage of GA3 application
* enhances panicle and stigma exertion
* speed up growth of late tillers and increase effective tillers
* flag leaf angle is increased
* reduces unfilled grains
* enhances seed setting and seed yield
Spraying stage : 5% of panicle emergence
Spraying time : 8-10AM is the best time.
Plant protection :
Follow the plant protection measures adviced for rice. Avoid spraying or dusting during
anthesis and pollination i.e. early morning period.
Rogueing and removal of pollen shedders :
 From the beginning rogueing is to be done in both A line and R line. Pollen shedders are to
be removed along with tillers.
 Plants of B line in A line is termed as pollen shedders
Special techniques :
i. Pulling of ropes across the plot
ii. Shaking the R lines with bamboo poles.
This is carried out during peak anthesis (10-12 AM).
Harvesting and processing
 The male parent harvested first (R line)
 Care should be taken to avoid admixture of male and female lines.
 Female line should be threshed separately in a well cleaned threshing floor seed field dried
in shade to 12% moisture content packed in suitable, cleaned gunny bags after grading.
Latest varieties released in major crops of Tamil Nadu
PARTICULARS Rice –RMD (R) 1 RICE-TPS (R)4 RICE-CO(R)48
Selection from TGR TS 29/ASD 16 CO43/ASD 19
Parentage
75R
Year of release 2006 2006 2007
Sep-Oct (Rainfed direct June-Sep; Oct- Thaladi
Season
sowing) Feb.
Duration (Days) 100-105 days 95 130-135
Grain yield 4000 kg/ha 5840 kg/ha 6000
(kg/ha)
Area of adoption Ramnad, Sivagangai Kadaivarambu rice Throughout
and Thiruvallur districts area of irrigated TamilNadu except
under rainfed rice system of Virudhunagar,
cultivation ecosystem kanyakumari Ramnad, Sivagangai
dsitrict and Nilgiris districts
Special features  Suited for direct  Very early  Medium slender
seeding duration with white fine rice
 Short duration high yield similar to
 Drought tolerant  Medium bold improved ponni
 Resistant to stem white rice  Moderately
borer and leaf folder  Field tolerance resistant to stem
to disease blast, borer and hoppers,
brown spot and blast and sheath
sheath blight blight
and stem borer,
leaf folder,
BPH & GLH
41
PARTICULARS RICE-CO(R)49 PMK (R)4 TNAU Rice CO50
CO43/ADT38
Pantdhan 10/IET (Hybridisation and
Parentage C20/RNR 52147
9911 pedigree method of
selection)
Season Late Samba/Thaladi Samba (Sep-Oct) Late Samba/Thaladi
Duration (Days) 130-135 100-105 130-135
Grain yield 6286 3700 6338
(kg/ha)
Area of adoption Throughout Ramanthapuram and Suitable for
TamilNadu except Sivagangai disrticts transplanted rice
Virudhunagar, throughout Tamil
Ramnad, Sivagangai Nadu
and Nilgiris districts
Special features  Moderately  Semi, dwarf,  Suitable for rice
resistant to blast erect, non-lodging and idly rice
and tungro disease  Drought tolerant  Medium slender
 Medium slender  Long slender rice
similar to BPT white rice with  Moderately
5204 high head rice resistant to blast,
recovery (62.1%) sheath blight,
 Short duration brown spot, BLB
(100-105 days) and rice tungro
disease
42
PARTICULARS TNAU RICE TRY 3 TNAU RICE ADT 49
Parentage ADT 43/Jeeraga Samba CR1009/Jeeragasamba
Year of release 2010 2011
Season Samba/Late Samba/Thaladi Late Samba/Thaladi
Duration (Days) 135 130-137
Grain yield (kg/ha) 5833 6173
Area of adoption Trichy, Tirunelvelli, Thanjavur, Throughout TamilNadu except
Tiruvarur, Nagapattinam and Virudhunagar, Ramnad,
Ramnad districts Sivagangai and Nilgiris districts
Special features  Highly suitable for idly  Medium slender, white
making rice
 Moderately tolerant to  Non-sticky cooked rice
sodicity  Moderately resistant to
 Medium bold grain stem borer, blast, sheath
 Resistant to stem borer, rot and blight under
blast, sheath rot and artificial conditions
blight  Moderately resistant to
leaf folder and brown
spot under field
conditions
PARTICULARS SAMAI- PANIVARAGU- RAGI- Paiyur Kudiraivali-

CO(Samai)4 CO(PV)5 (Ra)2 CO(KV)2
Hybrid Pureline sel.
derivative of From genetic
Parentage CO2/MS 1684
PV1403/GPUP21 VL145/Sel.10 accession EF
79
Year of release 2006 2007 2008 2009
June-July (R) Rainfed- Kharif and
Season June-July (R)
Sep-Oct (R) Adipattam rabi
Duration (Days) 80-85 70 115 95
Grain yield 2000 2380 2527 2114
(kg/ha)
Fodder yield 5783 6675 - -
(kg/ha)
Area of Dharmapuri, Rainfed and hilly Dharmapuri, Madurai,
adoption krishnagiri, tribal areas of Krishnagiri, Ramnad,
Vellore, Salem, Salem and Tuticorin and
Thiruvannamalai, Namakkal, Namakkal Virudhunagar
Salem, Trichy, Villupuram, districts districts
Villupuram, Dindigul and
Dindigul, Erode districts of
Namakkal and TN.
Theni districts
Special features  High yield with  High grain  Medium tall  High yield,
bold grains yield with bold erect, non- short
 Shorter in grains lodging duration
duration and  Profuse  Resistant to  Drought
drought tolerant tillering and leaf blast and tolerant
 Non-lodging non lodging moderately  Non-
 Palatable  No incidence of resistant to lodging
fodder pest and disease neck and  Suitable for
 No pest and  Highly finger blast value
disease nutritious addition
incidence in grains
normal sowing
43
PARTICULARS TNAU Wheat COW2 TNAU Sorghum CO 30
Mutant from NP200 thr’ Gamma
Parentage APK1/TNS 291
irradiation (200 Gray)
June-July; Sep-Oct; Feb-
Season 15th Oct.- 15th Nov.
March
Duration (Days) 110 100-105
Grain Yield (kg/ha) 4040 2800
Fodder yield (kg/ha) - 6900
Area of adoption Coimbatore, Tirupur, Vellore, All sorghum growing areas
Thiruvannamalai, Theni, of TN except cauvery delta
Dindigul, Erode, Dharmapuri and and Nilgiris
Kriishnagiri
Special features Semi dwarf, non-lodging and  Dual purpose
non- shattering  Dry fodder high
Reddish attractive grains digestibility
Resistant to black, yellow and  Moderately resistant to
brown rusts shootfly and stem borer
 Resistant to downy
mildew
 Creamy white grain
PARTICULARS GREENGRAM- GREENGRAM- TNAU TNAU

CO(Gg)7 VBN(Gg)3 Blackgram Blackgram
CO6 VBN 6
K1/Vellore local DU2/VB 20 Vamban1 x
MGG336/ Vigna Mungo
Parentage
COGG 902 var
silvestris1
Year of release 2006 2009 2010 2011
All seasons Sep—Oct June-July,
Season June-July Sep-Oct;
Feb-March
Duration (Days) 62 65-70 60-65 65-70
Grain yield 978 826 733 871
(kg/ha)
Area of adoption Throughout All parts of Blackgram All parts of
Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu growing Tamil Nadu
except Nilgiris districts of except
and Tamil nadu Nilgiris and
Kanyakumari Kanyakumari
Special features Reddish  High yield  Short  Non
attractive grains  High protein duration lodging,
Short duration content  Determinate non
High protein (24.16%) plant type shattering,
(25.2%)  Resistance to and non- determinate
High yielder, yellow mosaic shattering  Resistant to
medium bold virus of pods YMV,
with good and powdery  Moderately powdery
cooking quality mildew resistant to mildew
 Multiblooming yellow 21.1%
type mosaic protein
virus, stem content
necrosis
and root rot
PARTICULARS MOTH BEAN- AVARAI- TNAU Vegetable
44
TMV(Mb)1 CO(Gb)14 cowpea PKM1
Pureline selection
Pureline selection from
Parentage CO9/CO4 from Kanyakumari
Villupuram local
local
June-July; Sep-Oct; June-July; Jan-Feb
Season Rabi (Nov-Dec.)
Feb-March
70-75(Vegetable); 90-100
Duration (Days) 65-70
80-85 (Seed)
Yield (kg/ha) 1830 7984 Green pod- 25 t/ha
Fodder yield 3.13 t/ha - -
(kg/ha)
Area of adoption Villupuram district Coimbatore, Slem, Nagercoil, Salem,
Dharmapuri and Trichy, Theni,
Krishnagiri districts Perambalur,
Tiruvarur, Ariyalur,
Madurai, Dindigul
and Cuddalore
districts
Special features  Erect and early  Attractive green  High green pod
maturing variety pods, high density yield
 High protein content planting  Semi trailing and
(24.8%)  Clipping not highly branched
Moderately resistant required  Fibre content-
to white fly, pod borer  Tolerate pod borer 0.89g and crude
and YMV  Resistant to root protein- 21.88
rot and moderately (mg/100g)
to Anthracnose
PARTICULARS SUNFLOWER- SESAME-TMV CASTOR- YRCH1

CO(SFV)5 (Sv)7
Derivative of Si 250/ES 22
Parentage DPC9/TMV5
H.annus/ H.praecox
Kharif and Rabi
Rainfed and June-July (R)
Season (R)
Irrigated Nov-Dec (I)
Summer (I)
Duration (Days) 85-90 85-90 150-160
Grain yield 1861
(kg/ha) 1360 750
Rainfed 1520 820
Irrrigated
Area of adoption Sunflower growing Suitable for all Throughout TN
areas of TN sesame growing
areas of TN
Special features High autogamy  High yield  More female flowers
(>70%)  Tolerant to on the spike (95%)
High oil content root rot  Non lodging
(40.3%) disease  Non shattering
High yield  Lustrous  Moderate tolerant to
broen testa capsule borer
 Suitable for  Low leaf hopper and
value whitefly
addition
PARTICULARS GROUNDNUT- GROUNDNUT- Groundnut- TNAU
45
TMV(Gn)13 VRI (Gn)6 VRI (Gn)7 Groundnut
CO6
Selection from Hybrid Cross Derivative of
Parentage Pollachi red derivative of derivative of cross
ALR2/VG 9513 TMV1/JL24 CS9/ICGS5
Year of release 2006 2007 2008 2010
Season June-July Rainfed
June-July
Rainfed Dec.-Jan Rainfed (May-June)
Dec.-Jan
Irrigated
Duration (Days) 100-105 100-105 120-125 125-130
Pod yield (kg/ha) 1613 (Rainfed) 1916 (R) 1865 1914 (R)
2580 (Irrigated) 2403 (I)
Area of adoption Groundnut Rainfed and Rainfed tracts Namakkal
growing areas of irrigated tracts ofof Namakkal, district of TN
TN TN, redSalem, Erode,
laterite/sandy Dharmapuri
soil and
Peramballur
districts
Special features  Tolerance to Basal pod Semi Tolerant to
terminal setting spreading drought
water stress Tolerant to type Bunchy pods
 Basal pod drought Suited for Shelling out
setting High shelling rainfed turn 73.5%
 Acceptable (75%) conditions Oil content
pod traits High oil Moderately 49.5%
 Red kernel content (50%) resistant to Acceptable
and high oil Small pods rust and late pod traits
content with rose leaf spot
kernels diseases
Moderate Oil content:
resistant to late 48%
leaf spot, rust Seed
and PBND dormancy
upto 45
days- non
sprouting
during
harvest
46
PARTICULARS CUMBU NAPIER HYBRID Guinea grass-CO(GG)3
GRASS-CO(CN) 4
Fodder cumbu CO8/Napier grass Clonal selection from
Parentage
FD461 Mumbasa
Season Throughout the year Throughout the year
First cut on 75-800 days after and Perennial
Duration (Days) subsequent cuttings at 45 days
interval
Green fodder yield 380-400 424
(t/ha/yr)
Area of adoption Throughout TN Throughout TN
Special features Profuse tillering (25-30/clump) Profuse tillering (40-
and non-lodging 60/clump) and non-lodging
Ultra soft juicy stem (3.4%  Shade tolerant
Brix)  Quick regeneration
Free from pest and disease capacity
Superior rationing ability (7  High palatable,, preferred
cutitng/yr) by milch cattle, goat,
sheep, pigs and Emu
 High crude protein
(6.35%)
PARTICULARS COTTON-KC3 COTTON-SVPR4

Hybrid derivative of the cross
Parentage TKH 497/KC1
MCU5 with S4727
Season Sep-Oct Feb-March
Duration (Days) 140 150
Yield 1080 1583
(kg/ha)
Area of adoption Suitable for black cotton soils Summer irrigated tracts of TN
of Tuticorin, Tirunelveli and include Madurai, Dindigul,
Virudhunagar districts Theni, Virudhunagar, Ramnad,
Tirunelveli, Villupuram and
Cuddalore districts
Special features Medium duration  High lint yield (573 kg/ha)
Good ginning out turn 37%  Moderately resistant to
Medium long staple (26.4 leafhopper
mm)  Highly tolerant to high night
Fibre strength: length ratio is temperature dur’ summer
0.81
Moderately resistant to
leafhopper
Tolerant to drought
Resistant to Alternaria and
grey mildew disease
47
Latest hybrids of major crops in Tamil Nadu
PARTICULARS HYBRID RICE- CORH3 TNAU Rice Hybrid CO4
Parentage TNAU CMS 2A/CB 87R COMS 23A/CB 174 R
Year of Release 2006 2011
Season- Kar/Kuruvai/Sornawari/Navarai Late samba/Thaladi
Irrigated
Rainfed
Duration (Days) 110-115 130-135
Grain yield (kg/ha) 6475 7348
Throughout Tamil Nadu under Suitable for transplanted
irrigated transplanted condition rice throughout Tamil Nadu
Area of adoption except Virudhunagar,
Ramnad, Sivagangai and
Nilgiris districts
Special features  Early duration  Medium duration hybrid
 Medium slender white grain with with medium slender
good cooking and keeping quality white rice
 Tolerant to blast and RTD  Resistant to blast, brown
 Resistant to GLH and tolerant to spot and moderately
WBPH and BPH resistant to WBPH, GLH,
sheat blight, sheath rot
and RTD
 Intermediate amylase
content with high linear
elongation rario on
cooking
PARTICULARS HYBRID MAIZE- TNAU cumbu TNAU Sorghum

COH(M)5 hybrid CO 9 Hybrid CO5
Single cross hybrid of ICMA 93111A x PT
Parentage ICSA51/TNS30
UMI285 and UMI 61 6029-30
Year of Release 2006 2011 2011
Season Throughout the year Jan-Feb; March-
Puratasipattam(Sep- June-July; Sep-Oct
Irrigated April
Oct.) Feb-March
Rainfed June-July; Sep-Oct
Duration (Days) 100-105 75-80 95-100
Grain yield
(kg/ha)
Rainfed 4280 2707 2769
Irrigated 5400 3728 4338
Fodder yield
(kg/ha)
Rainfed - - 7563
Irrigated - - 10548
All maize growing All pearlmillet
All sorghum growing
Area of adoption districts of Tamil Nadu growing districts of
districts of Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu
Special features  High yielding single  Short duration  Short duration
cross hybrid  Resistant to  Dual purpose hybrid
 Resistant to downy downy mildew  Non-lodging,
mildew  High tillering (4- moderately resistant
 Moderate resistance to 6 tillers) to shootfly and grain
stem borer  High Iron content mould
 Bold, yellow grain  Semi loose earheads
 High starch (68.7%) with white grains
&Protein (8.23%)
48
49

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Breeding

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PLANT BREEDING

PRINCIPLES OF PLANT BREEDING - BREEDING METHODS - MODERN TOOLS IN

History of Plant Breeding

History of Plant Breeding in India

11. Elimination of toxic substances

2. Nobilisation of Indian canes (C.A.Barber and T.S. Venkatraman, SBI, Coimbatore)

Undesirable effects of Plant Breeding

2. Narrow genetic base: Genetic vulnerability to pest and diseases.

4. Attainment of yield plateau - No more further increase in yield

1) Land races: Primitive cultivars

GENE POOL CONCEPT

Activities in germplasm conservation

Centre of origin Primary centre of origin Secondary

2. Varieties selected from introductions

B. Allogamous Species Corn, Pearlmillet, Rye, Alfalfa, Radish, Cabbage, Sunflower,

C. Often Allogamous Sorghum, Cotton, Triticale, Rai, Pigeonpea, Tobacco.

Mechanism of pollination control in crop plants

Overcoming Self incompatibility

(a) Cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS)

(c) Cytoplasmic genetic male sterility

2. POPULATION BREEDING APPROACH Transgressive segregants recovered

BREEDING METHODS FOR CROSS POLLINATED CROPS

Recurrent Selection - Single plants are selected based on their

Simple Recurrent Selection Extension of mass selection

Operation in production of hybrids.

Evaluation of inbred lines

Merits of Hybrid varieties

Achievements through hybrids varieties

Steps involved in production of synthetic variety

S.No. Synthetic Composite

Characters of Vegetatively propagated Crops.

MODERN TOOLS IN CROP IMPROVEMENT

Genetic composition of cross pollinated populations

Hardy - Weinberg Law

Heterosis and inbreeding depression

Inbreeding/ Consanguinous mating: It is mating between individuals related by descent or

Genetic basis of heterosis and inbreeding depression

1. Dominant hypothesis – First proposed (Davenport, 1908).

POLYPLOIDY IN CROP IMPROVEMENT

Monosomics Nullisomics Trisomics Tetrasomics 1. Monoploidy

Dihaploid: When a haploid develops from a tetraploid species

Term Type of change Symbol

A) Aneuploid One or few chromosomes extra or 2n±few

B) Euploid Number of genomes or copies of a single

Monoploid One copy of single genome x

Polyploid More than 2 copies of one genome or 2

1. Autopolyploid Genomes identical with each other

2. Allopolyploid Two or more distinct genomes

Origin and production

Application in crop improvement

Origin and Production

Some autopolyploid species

Synthetic allopolyploids: 2 steps

Role of allopolyploid in crop evolution

1. Evolution of Bread wheat (Titicum aestivum)

2. Evolution of Nicotiana tabaccum (n=24)

Spontaneous chromosome doubling

3. Evolution of Gossypium hirsutum

Gossypium herbaceum var. africanum x Gossypium raimondii

B. oleracea B. napus B. campestris

Application of alloployploidy in crop improvement

1. Utilization as a bridging species

2. Creation of new crop species

Triticum turgidum x Secale cereale