Grammar

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English Grammar.....English Grammar.....English Grammar

English Grammar
Prepared By:
Mr Mohamed Mesbah
Egypt – Cairo – Maadi
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‫ﯾﺮﺣﺐ ﺑﻜﻢ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺻﻔﺤﺘﻪ‬
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INDEX
English Grammar
What is Grammar?
Glossary of English Grammar Terms
English Parts of Speech
Parts of Speech Table
Parts of Speech Examples
Words with More than One Job
1. Verbs
What are Verbs?
Verb Classification
1. Helping Verbs
2. Main Verbs
Helping Verbs
Primary helping verbs (3 verbs)
Modal helping verbs (10 verbs)
Verb Forms
Forms of Main Verbs
Example Sentences
Infinitive
Base - Imperative
file://F:\Grammar.htm 05/02/2005
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Base - Present simple (except 3rd person singular)

Base - After modal auxiliary verbs
Past simple
Past participle
Present participle
3rd person singular, present simple
Forms of Helping Verbs
Tenses
Simple Present Tense
How do we make the Simple Present Tense?
How do we use the Simple Present Tense?
Present Continuous Tense
How do we make the Present Continuous Tense?
How do we use the Present Continuous Tense?
Present continuous tense for action happening now
Present continuous tense for the future
How do we spell the Present Continuous Tense?
Present Perfect Tense
How do we make the Present Perfect Tense?
Contractions with the present perfect tense
How do we use the Present Perfect Tense?
1. Present perfect tense for experience
2. Present perfect tense for change
3. Present perfect tense for continuing situation
For & Since with Present Perfect Tense
Present Perfect Continuous Tense
How do we make the Present Perfect Continuous Tense?
Contractions
How do we use the Present Perfect Continuous Tense?
1. An action that has just stopped or recently stopped
2. An action continuing up to now
For and Since with Present Perfect Continuous Tense
Simple Past Tense
How do we make the Simple Past Tense?
How do we use the Simple Past Tense?
Past Continuous Tense
How do we make the Past Continuous Tense?
How do we use the Past Continuous Tense?
Past Continuous Tense + Simple Past Tense
Past Perfect Tense
How do we make the Past Perfect Tense?
How do we use the Past Perfect Tense?
Past Perfect Continuous Tense
How do we make the Past Perfect Continuous Tense?
How do we use the Past Perfect Continuous Tense?
Simple Future Tense
How do we make the Simple Future Tense?
How do we use the Simple Future Tense?
No Plan
Prediction
Be
Future Continuous Tense

How do we make the Future Continuous Tense?
How do we use the Future Continuous Tense?
Future Perfect Tense
How do we make the Future Perfect Tense?
How do we use the Future Perfect Tense?
Future Perfect Continuous Tense
How do we make the Future Perfect Continuous Tense?
How do we use the Future Perfect Continuous Tense?
Phrasal Verbs and other multi-word verbs
Phrasal Verbs
Separable Phrasal Verbs
Prepositional Verbs
Phrasal-prepositional Verbs
English Conditionals
Structure of Conditional Sentences
First Conditional: real possibility
Second Conditional: unreal possibility or dream
Third Conditional: no possibility
Zero Conditional: certainty
Conditionals: Summary
Modal Verbs (modal auxiliaries)
Can, Could, Be able to
Can
Structure of Can
Use of Can
can: Possibility and Ability
can: Requests and Orders
can: Permission
Could
Structure of Could
Use of Could
could: Past Possibility or Ability
could: Requests
Be able to
Structure of Be able to
Use of Be able to
be able to: ability
Gerunds (-ing)
Gerunds as Subject, Object or Complement
Gerunds after Prepositions
Gerunds after Certain Verbs
Gerunds in Passive Sense
Questions
Basic Question Structure
Basic Question Types
1. Yes/No Questions
2. Question Word Questions
3. Choice Questions
Tag Questions
Intonation
Answers to tag questions

Question tags with imperatives
Same-way question tags
Subjunctive
Structure of the Subjunctive
Use of the Subjunctive
Why do we say “I were”, “he were”?
Active Voice, Passive Voice
Passive Voice
Construction of the Passive Voice
Use of the Passive Voice
Conjugation for the Passive Voice
Infinitive or -ing?
When to use the infinitive
When to use -ing
Plural Verbs with Singular Subjects
Verb Meanings with Continuous Tenses
Verbs not Used with Continuous Tenses
Verbs with Two Meanings
Be and Continuous Tenses
Used to do & Be used to
Used to do
Use of Used to do
Be used to
Structure of Be used to
Use of Be used to
Tenses
Going to
Structure of Going to
Use of Going to
Going to - intention
Going to - prediction
2. Nouns
What are Nouns?
Countable and Uncountable Nouns
Countable Nouns
Uncountable Nouns
Nouns that can be Countable and Uncountable
3. Adjectives
Determiners
Determiners: A, An or The?
Determiners: Each, Every
Determiners: Some, Any
Adjective Order
Adjective Before Noun
Adjective After Verb
Comparative Adjectives
Formation of Comparative Adjectives
Superlative Adjectives
Formation of Superlative Adjectives
Use of Superlative Adjectives
4. Adverbs
Adverbs of Frequency
5. English Pronouns
Personal Pronouns
Personal Pronouns
6. English Prepositions
English Prepositions List
English Preposition Rule
Prepositions of Place: at, in, on
Prepositions of Time: at, in, on
7. Conjunctions
Form
Function
Position
Coordinating Conjunctions
Subordinating Conjunctions
8. Interjections
What is Grammar?
Grammar is the system of a language. People sometimes describe grammar as the “rules” of a language;
but in fact no language has rules*. If we use the word “rules”, we suggest that somebody created the
rules first and then spoke the language, like a new game. But languages did not start like that. Languages
started by people making sounds which evolved into words, phrases and sentences. No commonly-
spoken language is fixed. All languages change over time. What we call “grammar” is simply a
reflection of a language at a particular time.
Do we need to study grammar to learn a language? The short answer is “no”. Very many people in the
world speak their own, native language without having studied its grammar. Children start to speak
before they even know the word “grammar”. But if you are serious about learning a foreign language,
the long answer is “yes, grammar can help you to learn a language more quickly and more efficiently.”
It’s important to think of grammar as something that can help you, like a friend. When you understand
the grammar (or system) of a language, you can understand many things yourself, without having to ask
a teacher or look in a book.
So think of grammar as something good, something positive, something that you can use to find your
way - like a signpost or a map.
Glossary of English Grammar Terms

Active Voice
In the active voice, the subject of the verb does the action (eg They killed the President). See also
Passive Voice.
Adjective
A word like big, red, easy, French etc. An adjective describes a noun or pronoun.
Adverb
A word like slowly, quietly, well, often etc. An adverb modifies a verb.
Article
The “indefinite” articles are a and an. The “definite article” is the.
Auxiliary Verb
A verb that is used with a main verb. Be, do and have are auxiliary verbs. Can, may, must etc are modal
auxiliary verbs.
Clause
A group of words containing a subject and its verb (for example: It was late when he arrived).
Conjunction
A word used to connect words, phrases and clauses (for example: and, but, if).
Infinitive
The basic form of a verb as in to work or work.
Interjection
An exclamation inserted into an utterance without grammatical connection (for example: oh!, ah!, ouch!,
well!).
Modal Verb
An auxiliary verb like can, may, must etc that modifies the main verb and expresses possibility,
probability etc. It is also called “modal auxiliary verb”.
2. Nouns
A word like table, dog, teacher, A merica etc. A noun is the name of an object, concept, person or place.
A “concrete noun” is something you can see or touch like a person or car. An “abstract noun” is
something that you cannot see or touch like a decision or happiness. A “countable noun” is something
that you can count (for example: bottle, song, dollar). An “uncountable noun” is something that you
cannot count (for example: water, music, money).
Object
In the active voice, a noun or its equivalent that receives the action of the verb. In the passive voice, a
noun or its equivalent that does the action of the verb.
Participle
The -ing and -ed forms of verbs. The -ing form is called the “present participle”. The -ed form is called
the “past participle” (for irregular verbs, this is column 3).
Part Of Speech
One of the eight classes of word in English - noun, verb, adjective, adverb, pronoun, preposition,
conjunction and interjection.
Passive Voice
In the passive voice, the subject receives the action of the verb (eg The President was killed). See also
Active Voice.
Phrase
A group of words not containing a subject and its verb (eg on the table, the girl in a red dress).
Predicate
Each sentence contains (or implies) two parts: a subject and a predicate. The predicate is what is said
about the subject.
Preposition
A word like at, to, in, over etc. Prepositions usually come before a noun and give information about
things like time, place and direction.
Pronoun
A word like I, me, you, he, him, it etc. A pronoun replaces a noun.
Sentence
A group of words that express a thought. A sentence conveys a statement, question, exclamation or
command. A sentence contains or implies a subject and a predicate. In simple terms, a sentence must
contain a verb and (usually) a subject. A sentence starts with a capital letter and ends with a full stop (.),
question mark (?) or exclamation mark (!).
Subject
Every sentence contains (or implies) two parts: a subject and a predicate. The subject is the main noun
(or equivalent) in a sentence about which something is said.
Tense
The form of a verb that shows us when the action or state happens (past, present or future). Note that the
name of a tense is not always a guide to when the action happens. The “present continuous tense”, for
example, can be used to talk about the present or the future.
Verb
A word like (to) work, (to) love, (to) begin. A verb describes an action or state.
English Parts of Speech

There are thousands of words in any language. But not all words have the same job. For example, some
words express “action”. Other words express a “thing”. Other words “join” one word to another word.
These are the “building blocks” of the language. Think of them like the parts of a house. When we want
to build a house, we use concrete to make the foundations or base. We use bricks to make the walls. We
use window frames to make the windows, and door frames to make the doorways. And we use cement to
join them all together. Each part of the house has its own job. And when we want to build a sentence, we
use the different types of word. Each type of word has its own job.
We can categorize English words into 8 basic types or classes. These classes are called “parts of
speech”.
It’s quite important to recognize parts of speech. This helps you to analyze sentences and understand
them. It also helps you to construct good sentences.
In this lesson, we have an overview of the eight parts of speech, followed by a quiz to check your
understanding:
• Parts of Speech Table

• Parts of Speech Examples
• Words with More than One Job
Parts of Speech Table

This is a summary of the 8 parts of speech. You can find more detail if you click on each part of speech.
part of speech function or “job” example words example sentences
Verb action or state (to) be, have, do, like, EnglishClub.com is a web site.
work, sing, can, must I like EnglishClub.com.
Noun thing or person pen, dog, work, music, This is my dog. He lives in my
town, London, house. We live in London.
teacher, John
Adjective describes a noun a/an, the, 69, some, My dog is big. I like big dogs.
good, big, red, well,
interesting
Adverb describes a verb, quickly, silently, well, My dog eats quickly. When he
adjective or adverb badly, very, really is very hungry, he eats really
quickly.
Pronoun replaces a noun I, you, he, she, some Tara is Indian. She is
beautiful.
Preposition links a noun to another to, at, after, on, but We went to school on
word Monday.
Conjunction joins clauses or and, but, when I like dogs and I like cats. I
sentences or words like cats and dogs. I like dogs
but I don’t like cats.
Interjection short exclamation, oh!, ouch!, hi!, well Ouch! That hurts! Hi! How
sometimes inserted into are you? Well, I don’t know.
a sentence
Parts of Speech Examples

Here are some sentences made with different English parts of speech:
verb noun verb noun verb verb
Stop! John works. John is working.
pronoun verb noun noun verb adjective noun
She loves animals. Animals like kind people.
noun verb noun adverb noun verb adjective noun
Tara speaks English well. Tara speaks good English.
pronoun verb preposition adjective noun adverb
She ran to the station quickly.
pron. verb adj. noun conjunction pron. verb pron.
She likes big snakes but I hate them.
Here is a sentence that contains every part of speech:
interjection pron. conj. adj. noun verb prep. noun adverb
Well, she and young John walk to school slowly.
Words with More than One Job

Many words in English can have more than one job, or be more than one part of speech. For example,
“work” can be a verb and a noun; “but” can be a conjunction and a preposition; “well” can be an
adjective, an adverb and an interjection. In addition, many nouns can act as adjectives.
To analyze the part of speech, ask yourself: “What job is this word doing in this sentence?”
In the table on the right you can see a few examples. Of course, there are more, even for some of the
words in the table. In fact, if you look in a good dictionary you will see that the word but has six jobs to
do:
• verb, noun, adverb, pronoun, preposition and conjunction!

word part of speech example
work noun My work is easy.
verb I work in London.
but conjunction John came but Mary didn’t come.
preposition Everyone came but Mary.
well adjective Are you well?
adverb She speaks well.
interjection Well! That’s expensive!
afternoon noun We ate in the afternoon.
noun acting as adjective We had afternoon tea.
1. Verbs
What are Verbs?

The verb is king in English. The shortest sentence contains a verb. You can make a one-word sentence
with a verb, for example: “Stop!” You cannot make a one-word sentence with any other type of word.
Verbs are sometimes described as “action words”. This is partly true. Many verbs give the idea of
action, of “doing” something. For example, words like run, fight, do and work all convey action.
But some verbs do not give the idea of action; they give the idea of existence, of state, of “being”. For
example, verbs like be, exist, seem and belong all convey state.
A verb always has a subject. (In the sentence “John speaks English”, John is the subject and speaks is
the verb.) In simple terms, therefore, we can say that verbs are words that tell us what a subject does or
is; they describe:
• action (Ram plays football.)

• state (Anthony seems kind.)
There is something very special about verbs in English. Most other words (adjectives, adverbs,
prepositions etc) do not change in form (although nouns can have singular and plural forms). But almost
all verbs change in form. For example, the verb to work has five forms:
• to work, work, works, worked, working
Of course, this is still very few forms compared to some languages which may have thirty or more forms
for a single verb.
In this lesson we look at the ways in which we classify verbs, followed by a quiz to test your
understanding:
• Verb Classification
• Helping Verbs
• Main Verbs
Verb Classification
We divide verbs into two broad classifications:
1. Helping Verbs
Imagine that a stranger walks into your room and says:
• I can.
• People must.
• The Earth will.
Do you understand anything? Has this person communicated anything to you? Probably not! That’s
because these verbs are helping verbs and have no meaning on their own. They are necessary for the
grammatical structure of the sentence, but they do not tell us very much alone. We usually use helping
verbs with main verbs. They “help” the main verb. (The sentences in the above examples are therefore
incomplete. They need at least a main verb to complete them.) There are only about 15 helping verbs.
2. Main Verbs
Now imagine that the same stranger walks into your room and says:
• I teach.
• People eat.
• The Earth rotates.
Do you understand something? Has this person communicated something to you? Probably yes! Not a
lot, but something. That’s because these verbs are main verbs and have meaning on their own. They tell
us something. Of course, there are thousands of main verbs.
In the following table we see example sentences with helping verbs and main verbs. Notice that all of
these sentences have a main verb. Only some of them have a helping verb.
helping verb main verb
John likes coffee.
You lied to me.
They are happy.
The children are playing.
We must go now.
I do not want any.
Helping verbs and main verbs can be further sub-divided, as we shall see on the following pages.
Helping Verbs
Helping verbs are also called “auxiliary verbs”.
Helping verbs have no meaning on their own. They are necessary for the grammatical structure of a
sentence, but they do not tell us very much alone. We usually use helping verbs with main verbs. They
“help” the main verb (which has the real meaning). There are only about 15 helping verbs in English,
and we divide them into two basic groups:
Primary helping verbs (3 verbs)

These are the verbs be, do, and have. Note that we can use these three verbs as helping verbs or as main
verbs. On this page we talk about them as helping verbs. We use them in the following cases:
• be
o to make continuous tenses (He is watching TV.)
o to make the passive (Small fish are eaten by big fish.)
• have
o to make perfect tenses (I have finished my homework.)
• do
o to make negatives (I do not like you.)
o to ask questions (Do you want some coffee?)
o to show emphasis (I do want you to pass your exam.)
o to stand for a main verb in some constructions (He speaks faster than she does.)
Modal helping verbs (10 verbs)

We use modal helping verbs to “modify” the meaning of the main verb in some way. A modal helping
verb expresses necessity or possibility, and changes the main verb in that sense. These are the modal
verbs:
• can, could
• may, might
• will, would,
• shall, should
• must
• ought to
Here are examples using modal verbs:
• I can’t speak Chinese.

• John may arrive late.
• Would you like a cup of coffee?
• You should see a doctor.
• I really must go now.
Semi-modal verbs (3 verbs)

The following verbs are often called “semi-modals”
because they are partly like modal helping verbs and
partly like main verbs:
l need
l dare
l used to
Verb Forms
English verbs come in several forms. For example, the verb to sing can be: to sing, sing, sang, sung,
singing or sings. This is a total of 6 forms. Not many, considering that some languages (French, for
example) have more than 30 forms for an individual verb. English tenses may be quite complicated, but
the forms that we use to make the tenses are actually very simple! With the exception of the verb to be,
English main verbs have only 4, 5 or 6 forms. To be has 9 forms. Do not confuse verb forms with tenses.
We use the different verb forms to make the tenses, but they are not the same thing.
In this lesson we look at the forms of main verbs and helping (auxiliary) verbs, followed by a quiz to
check your understanding:
• Forms of Main Verbs

• Forms of Helping Verbs
Forms of Main Verbs
Main verbs are also called “lexical verbs”.
Main verbs—except the verb “be”—have only 4, 5 or 6 forms. “Be” has 9 forms.
V1 V2 V3
infinitive base
past past present present simple, 3rd
simple participle participle person singular
regular (to) work work worked worked working works
(to) sing sing sang sung singing sings

(to) make make made made making makes
(to) cut cut cut cut cutting cuts
(to) do* do did done doing does

(to) have* have had had having has
irregular
past past present
infinitive base present simple
simple participle participle
was,
(to) be* be been being am, are, is
were
In the above examples:
l to cut has 4 forms: to cut, cut, cutting, cuts

l to work has 5 forms: to work, work, worked, working, works
l to sing has 6 forms: to sing, sing, sang, sung, singing, sings
l to be has 9 forms: to be, be, was, were, been, being, am, is, are
The infinitive can be with or without to. For example,

to sing and sing are both infinitives. We often call the
infinitive without to the “bare infinitive”.
At school, students usually learn by heart the base, past simple and past participle (sometimes
called V1, V2, V3, meaning Verb 1, Verb 2, Verb 3) for the irregular verbs. They may spend
many hours chanting: sing, sang, sung; go, went, gone; have, had, had; etc. They do not learn
these for the regular verbs because the past simple and past participle are always the same: they
are formed by adding “-ed” to the base. They do not learn the past participle and 3rd person
singular present simple by heart—for another very simple reason: they never change. The
present participle is always made by adding “-ing” to the base, and the 3rd person singular present
simple is always made by adding “s” to the base (though there are some variations in spelling).
• Note that “do”, “have” and “be” also function as helping or auxiliary verbs, with exactly
the same forms (except that as helping verbs they are never in infinitive form).
Example Sentences
These example sentences use main verbs in different forms.
Infinitive
l I want to work
l He has to sing.
l This exercise is easy to do.
l Let him have one.
l To be, or not to be, that is the question:
Base - Imperative
l Work well!
l Make this.
l Have a nice day.
l Be quiet!
Base - Present simple

(except 3rd person singular)
l I work in London.
l You sing well.
l They have a lot of money.
Base - After modal auxiliary verbs
l I can work tomorrow.

l You must sing louder.
l They might do it.
You could be right.
Past simple
l I worked yesterday.
l She cut his hair last week.
l They had a good time.
l They were surprised, but I was not.
Past participle
l I have worked here for five years.

l He needs a folder made of plastic.
l It is done like this.
l I have never been so happy.
Present participle
l I am working.
l Singing well is not easy.
l Having finished, he went home.
l You are being silly!
3rd person singular, present simple
l He works in London.
l She sings well.
l She has a lot of money.
l It is Vietnamese.
Forms of Helping Verbs

All helping verbs are used with a main verb (either expressed or understood*). There are 2 groups
of helping verbs:
• Primary helping verbs, used mainly to change the tense or voice of the main verb, and in
making questions and negatives.
• Modal helping verbs, used to change the “mood” of the main verb.
Study the table opposite. It shows the principal forms and uses of helping verbs, and explains the
differences between primary and modal helping verbs.
• Sometimes we make a sentence that has a helping verb and seems to have no main verb. In
fact, the main verb is “understood”. Look at the following examples:
• Question: Can you speak English? (The main verb speak is “expressed”.)
• Answer: Yes, I can. (The main verb speak is not expressed. It is “understood” from the
context. We understand: Yes, I can speak English.
But if somebody walked into the room and said “Hello. I can”, we would understand nothing!
Helping Verbs
Primary Modal
(to make simple tenses, and questions

do can could
and negatives)
(to make continuous tenses, and the

be may might
passive voice)
have (to make perfect tenses) will would
shall should
must
ought (to)
“Do”, “be” and “have” as helping verbs have

exactly the same forms as when they are main Modal helping verbs are invariable. They
verbs (except that as helping verbs they are never always have the same form.
used in infinitive forms).
Primary helping verbs are followed by the main “Ought” is followed by the main verb in
verb in a particular form: infinitive form. Other modal helping verbs
are followed by the main verb in its base
form (V1).
l do + V1 (base verb)
l be + -ing (present participle) l ought + to... (infinitive)
l have + V3 (past participle) l other modals + V1 (base verb)
“Do”, “be” and “have” can also function as main Modal helping verbs cannot function as
verbs. main verbs.
Tenses
The English Tense System
The links opposite are to lessons for each of the 12 basic tenses. In each lesson we look at two aspects of
the tense:
• Structure: How do we make the tense?

• Use: When and why do we use the tense?
Some lessons look at additional aspects, and most of them finish with a quiz to check your
understanding.
Many English learners worry too much about tense. If

you stopped 100 native English speakers in the street
and asked them about tense, one of them might give
you an intelligent answer—if you were lucky. The
other 99 would know little about terms like “past
perfect” or “present continuous”. And they would
know nothing about aspect, voice or mood. But they
can all speak fluent English and communicate
effectively. Of course, for ESL it helps to know about
tenses, but don’t become obsessed with them. Be like
those native speakers! Speak naturally!
Simple Present Tense
I sing
How do we make the Simple Present Tense?

subject + auxiliary verb + main verb
do base
There are three important exceptions:
1. For positive sentences, we do not normally use the auxiliary.

2. For the 3rd person singular (he, she, it), we add s to the main verb or es to the auxiliary.
3. For the verb to be, we do not use an auxiliary, even for questions and negatives.
Look at these examples with the main verb like:
subject auxiliary verb main verb
I, you, we, they like coffee.

+
He, she, it likes coffee.
I, you, we, they do not like coffee.

-
He, she, it does not like coffee.
Do I, you, we, they like coffee?

?
Does he, she, it like coffee?
Look at these examples with the main verb be. Notice that there is no auxiliary:
subject main verb
I am French.
+ You, we, they are French.
He, she, it is French.
I am not old.
- You, we, they are not old.
He, she, it is not old.
Am I late?
? Are you, we, they late?
Is he, she, it late?
How do we use the Simple Present Tense?

We use the simple present tense when:
• the action is general

• the action happens all the time, or habitually, in the past, present and future
• the action is not only happening now
• the statement is always true
John drives a taxi.

past present future
It is John’s job to drive a taxi. He does it every day. Past, present and future.
Look at these examples:
• I live in New York.

• The Moon goes round the Earth.
• John drives a taxi.
• He does not drive a bus.
• We do not work at night.
• Do you play football?
Note that with the verb to be, we can also use the simple present tense for situations that are not general.
We can use the simple present tense to talk about now. Look at these examples of the verb to be in the
present simple tense—some of them are general, some of them are now:
Am I right?
Tara is not at home.
You are happy.
past present future
The situation is now.
I am not fat.
Why are you so beautiful?
Ram is tall.
past present future
The situation is general. Past, present and future.
This page shows the use of the simple present tense to

talk about general events. But note that there are some
other uses for the simple present tense, for example in
conditional or if sentences, or to talk about the future.
You will learn about those later.
Present Continuous Tense
I am singing
We often use the present continuous tense in English. It is very different from the simple present tense,
both in structure and in use.
In this lesson we look the structure and use of the present continuous tense, follwed by a quiz to check
your understanding:
• Structure: how do we make the present continuous tense?

• Use: when and why do we use the present continuous tense?
• Spelling: how do we spell verbs with -ing for the present continuous tense?
Continuous tenses are also called progressive tenses.

So the present progressive tense is the same as the
present continuous tense.
How do we make the Present Continuous Tense?

The structure of the present continuous tense is:

be base + ing
+ I am speaking to you.
+ You are reading this.
- She is not staying in London.
- We are not playing football.
? Is he watching TV?
? Are they waiting for John?
How do we use the Present Continuous Tense?

We use the present continuous tense to talk about:
• action happening now

• action in the future
Present continuous tense for action happening now

a) for action happening exactly now
I am eating my lunch.
past present future
The action is happening now.
Look at these examples. Right now you are looking at this screen and at the same time...
...the pages are turning. ...the candle is burning. ...the numbers are spinning.
b) for action happening around now
The action may not be happening exactly now, but it is happening just before and just after now, and it
is not permanent or habitual.
John is going out with Mary.

past present future
The action is happening around

now.
• Muriel is learning to drive.

• I am living with my sister until I find an apartment.
Present continuous tense for the future

We can also use the present continuous tense to talk about the future—if we add a future word!! We
must add (or understand from the context) a future word. “Future words” include, for example,
tomorrow, next year, in June, at Christmas etc. We only use the present continuous tense to talk
about the future when we have planned to do something before we speak. We have already made a
decision and a plan before speaking.
I am taking my exam next month.

past present future
!!!
A firm plan or programme exists
The action is in the future.
now.
• We’re eating in a restaurant tonight. We’ve already booked the table..

• They can play tennis with you tomorrow. They’re not working.
• When are you starting your new job?
In these examples, we have a firm plan or programme before speaking. The decision and plan were
made before speaking.
How do we spell the Present Continuous Tense?

We make the present continuous tense by adding -ing to the base verb. Normally it’s simple—we just
add -ing. But sometimes we have to change the word a little. Perhaps we double the last letter, or we
drop a letter. Here are the rules to help you know how to spell the present continuous tense.
Basic rule Just add -ing to the base verb:
work > working
play > playing
assist > assisting
see > seeing
be > being
Exception 1 If the base verb ends in consonant + stressed vowel + consonant, double the last
letter:
s t o p
stressed
consonant consonant
vowel
(vowels = a, e, i, o, u)
stop > stopping
run > running
begin > beginning
Note that this exception does not apply when the last syllable of the base verb is not
stressed:
open > opening
Exception 2 If the base verb ends in ie, change the ie to y:
lie > lying
die > dying
Exception 3 If the base verb ends in vowel + consonant + e, omit the e:
come > coming
mistake > mistaking
Present Perfect Tense
I have sung
The present perfect tense is a rather important tense in English, but it gives speakers of some languages
a difficult time. That is because it uses concepts or ideas that do not exist in those languages. In fact, the
structure of the present perfect tense is very simple. The problems come with the use of the tense. In
addition, there are some differences in usage between British and American English.
In this lesson we look at the structure and use of the present perfect, followed by a quiz to check your
understanding:
• Structure: how to make the present perfect tense

• Use: when and why to use the present perfect tense
• For and Since with the present perfect tense. What’s the difference?
The present perfect tense is really a very interesting

tense, and a very useful one. Try not to translate the
present perfect tense into your language. Just try to
accept the concepts of this tense and learn to “think”
present perfect! You will soon learn to like the present
perfect tense!
How do we make the Present Perfect Tense?

The structure of the present perfect tense is:

have past participle
Here are some examples of the present perfect tense:
+ I have seen ET.
+ You have eaten mine.
- She has not been to Rome.
- We have not played football.
? Have you finished?
? Have they done it?
Contractions with the present perfect tense
When we use the present perfect tense in speaking, we usually contract the subject and auxiliary verb.
We also sometimes do this when we write.
I have I’ve
You have You’ve
He has He’s
She has She’s
It has It’s
John has John’s
The car has The car’s
We have We’ve
They have They’ve
Here are some examples:
• I’ve finished my work.

• John’s seen ET.
• They’ve gone home.
He’s or he’s??? Be careful! The ‘s contraction is used

for the auxiliary verbs have and be. For example, “It’s
eaten” can mean:
l It has eaten. [present perfect tense, active

voice]
l It is eaten. [present tense, passive voice]
It is usually clear from the context.
How do we use the Present Perfect Tense?

This tense is called the present perfect tense. There is always a connection with the past and with the
present. There are basically three uses for the present perfect tense:
1. experience
2. change
3. continuing situation
1. Present perfect tense for experience

We often use the present perfect tense to talk about experience from the past. We are not interested in
when you did something. We only want to know if you did it:
I have seen ET.

He has lived in Bangkok.
Have you been there?

We have never eaten caviar.
past present future
!!!
The action or state was in the In my head, I have a memory
past. now.
Connection with past: the event was in the past.
Connection with present: in my head, now, I have a memory of the event; I know something about the
event; I have experience of it.
2. Present perfect tense for change

We also use the present perfect tense to talk about a change or new information:
I have bought a car.

past present future
- +
Last week I didn’t have a car. Now I have a car.
John has broken his leg.

past present future
+ -
Yesterday John had a good leg. Now he has a bad leg.
Has the price gone up?

past present future
+ -
Was the price $1.50 yesterday? Is the price $1.70 today?
The police have arrested the killer.

past present future
- +
Yesterday the killer was free. Now he is in prison.
Connection with past: the past is the opposite of the present.
Connection with present: the present is the opposite of the past.
Americans do not use the present perfect tense so

much as British speakers. Americans often use the past
tense instead. An American might say “Did you have
lunch?”, where a British person would say “Have you
had lunch?”
3. Present perfect tense for continuing situation

We often use the present perfect tense to talk about a continuing situation. This is a state that started in
the past and continues in the present (and will probably continue into the future). This is a state (not an
action). We usually use for or since with this structure.
I have worked here since June.

He has been ill for 2 days.
How long have you known Tara?
past present future
(It will probably continue into

The situation started in the past. It continues up to now.
the future.)
Connection with past: the situation started in the past.
Connection with present: the situation continues in the present.
For & Since with Present Perfect Tense

We often use for and since with the present perfect tense.
• We use for to talk about a period of time—5 minutes, 2 weeks, 6 years.

• We use since to talk about a point in past time—9 o’clock, 1st January, Monday.
for since
a period of time a point in past time
·
20 minutes 6.15pm
three days Monday
6 months January
4 years 1994
2 centuries 1800
a long time I left school
ever the beginning of time
etc etc
• I have been here for 20 minutes.

• I have been here since 9 o’clock.
• John hasn’t called for 6 months.
• John hasn’t called since February.
• He has worked in New York for a long time.
• He has worked in New York since he left school.
For can be used with all tenses. Since is usually used

with perfect tenses only.
Present Perfect Continuous Tense
I have been singing
How do we make the Present Perfect Continuous Tense?

The structure of the present perfect continuous tense is:
subject + auxiliary verb + auxiliary verb + main verb
have
been base + ing
has
Here are some examples of the present perfect continuous tense:
subject auxiliary verb auxiliary verb main verb
+ I have been waiting for one hour.
+ You have been talking too much.
- It has not been raining.
- We have not been playing football.
? Have you been seeing her?
? Have they been doing their homework?
Contractions
When we use the present perfect continuous tense in speaking, we often contract the subject and the first
auxiliary. We also sometimes do this in informal writing.
I have been I’ve been
You have been You’ve been
He has been He’s been

She has been She’s been
It has been It’s been
John has been John’s been
The car has been The car’s been
We have been We’ve been
They have been They’ve been
• I’ve been reading.

• The car’s been giving trouble.
• We’ve been playing tennis for two hours.
How do we use the Present Perfect Continuous Tense?
This tense is called the present perfect continuous tense. There is usually a connection with the present
or now. There are basically two uses for the present perfect continuous tense:
1. An action that has just stopped or recently stopped
We use the present perfect continuous tense to talk about an action that started in the past and stopped
recently. There is usually a result now.
I’m tired because I’ve been running.

past present future
!!!
Recent action. Result now.
I’m tired [now] because I’ve been running.
• Why is the grass wet [now]? Has it been raining?

• You don’t understand [now] because you haven’t been listening.
2. An action continuing up to now
We use the present perfect continuous tense to talk about an action that started in the past and is
continuing now. This is often used with for or since.
I have been reading for 2 hours.

past present future
Action started in past. Action is continuing now.
I have been reading for 2 hours. [I am still reading now.]
• We’ve been studying since 9 o’clock. [We’re still studying now.]

• How long have you been learning English? [You are still learning now.]
• We have not been smoking. [And we are not smoking now.]
For and Since with Present Perfect Continuous Tense

We often use for and since with the present perfect tense.
• We use for to talk about a period of time—5 minutes, 2 weeks, 6 years.

• We use since to talk about a point in past time—9 o’clock, 1st January, Monday.
for since
a period of time a point in past time
·
20 minutes 6.15pm
three days Monday
6 months January
4 years 1994
2 centuries 1800
a long time I left school
ever the beginning of time
etc etc
• I have been studying for 3 hours.

• I have been watching TV since 7pm.
• Tara hasn’t been feeling well for 2 weeks.
• Tara hasn’t been visiting us since March.
• He has been playing football for a long time.
• He has been living in Bangkok since he left school.
For can be used with all tenses. Since is usually used

with perfect tenses only.
Simple Past Tense
I sang
The simple past tense is sometimes called the preterite tense. We can use several tenses to talk about
the past, but the simple past tense is the one we use most often.
In this lesson we look at the structure and use of the simple past tense, followed by a quiz to check your
understanding:
• Structure: how do we make the simple past tense?

• Use: how do we use the simple past tense?
How do we make the Simple Past Tense?

To make the simple past tense, we use:
• past form only

or
• auxiliary did + base form
Here you can see examples of the past form and base form for irregular verbs and regular verbs:
V1 V2 V3
base past past participle
work worked worked

regular The past form for all
explode exploded exploded
verb regular verbs ends in -ed.
like liked liked
The past form for

go went gone
irregular irregular verbs is
see saw seen
verb variable. You need to
sing sang sung
learn it by heart.
You do not need the past participle

form to make the simple past tense. It
is shown here for completeness only.
The structure for positive sentences in the simple past tense is:
subject + main verb

past
The structure for negative sentences in the simple past tense is:
subject + auxiliary verb + not + main verb

did base
The structure for question sentences in the simple past tense is:
auxiliary verb + subject + main verb

did base
The auxiliary verb did is not conjugated. It is the same for all persons (I did, you did, he did etc). And
the base form and past form do not change. Look at these examples with the main verbs go and work:
I went to school.
+
You worked very hard.
She did not go with me.

-
We did not work yesterday.
Did you go to London?

?
Did they work at home?
Exception! The verb to be is different. We conjugate the verb to be (I was, you were, he/she/it was, we
were, they were); and we do not use an auxiliary for negative and question sentences. To make a
question, we exchange the subject and verb. Look at these examples:
subject main verb
I, he/she/it was here.

+
You, we, they were in London.
I, he/she/it was not there.

-
You, we, they were not happy.
Was I, he/she/it right?

?
Were you, we, they late?
How do we use the Simple Past Tense?

We use the simple past tense to talk about an action or a situation—an event—in the past. The event can
be short or long.
Here are some short events with the simple past tense:
The car exploded at 9.30am yesterday.

She went to the door.
We did not hear the telephone.
Did you see that car?
past present future
The action is in the past.
Here are some long events with the simple past tense:
I lived in Bangkok for 10 years.

The Jurassic period lasted about 62 million years.
We did not sing at the concert.
Did you watch TV last night?
past present future
The action is in the past.
Notice that it does not matter how long ago the event is: it can be a few minutes or seconds in the past,
or millions of years in the past. Also it does not matter how long the event is. It can be a few
milliseconds (car explosion) or millions of years (Jurassic period). We use the simple past tense when:
• the event is in the past

• the event is completely finished
• we say (or understand) the time and/or place of the event
In general, if we say the time or place of the event, we

must use the simple past tense; we cannot use the
present perfect.
Here are some more examples:
• I lived in that house when I was young.

• He didn’t like the movie.
• What did you eat for dinner?
• John drove to London on Monday.
• Mary did not go to work yesterday.
• Did you play tennis last week?
• I was at work yesterday.
• We were not late (for the train).
• Were you angry?
Note that when we tell a story, we usually use the simple past tense. We may use the past continuous
tense to “set the scene”, but we almost always use the simple past tense for the action. Look at this
example of the beginning of a story:
“The wind was howling around the hotel and the rain was pouring down. It was cold. The door opened
and James Bond entered. He took off his coat, which was very wet, and ordered a drink at the bar. He
sat down in the corner of the lounge and quietly drank his...”
This page shows the use of the simple past tense to

talk about past events. But note that there are some
other uses for the simple past tense, for example in
conditional or if sentences.
Past Continuous Tense
I was singing
The past continuous tense is an important tense in English. We use it to say what we were in the
middle of doing at a particular moment in the past.
In this lesson we look at the structure and the use of the past continuouse tense, followed by a quiz to
check your understanding:
• Structure: how do we make the past continuous tense?

• Use: how do we use the past continuous tense?
Continuous tenses are also called progressive tenses.
How do we make the Past Continuous Tense?

The structure of the past continuous tense is:
subject + auxiliary verb BE + main verb

conjugated in simple past tense present participle
was
base + ing
were
For negative sentences in the past continuous tense, we insert not between the auxiliary verb and main
verb. For question sentences, we exchange the subject and auxiliary verb. Look at these example
sentences with the past continuous tense:
main
subject auxiliary verb
verb
+ I was watching TV.
+ You were working hard.
- He, she, it was not helping Mary.
- We were not joking.
? Were you being silly?
? Were they playing football?
The spelling rules for adding ing to make the past continuous tense are the same as for the
present continuous tense.
How do we use the Past Continuous Tense?

The past continuous tense expresses action at a particular moment in the past. The action started before
that moment but has not finished at that moment. For example, yesterday I watched a film on TV. The
film started at 7pm and finished at 9pm.
At 8pm yesterday, I was watching TV.

past present future
8pm
At 8pm, I was in the middle of

watching TV.
When we use the past continuous tense, our listener usually knows or understands what time we are
talking about. Look at these examples:
• I was working at 10pm last night.

• They were not playing football at 9am this morning.
• What were you doing at 10pm last night?
• What were you doing when he arrived?
• She was cooking when I telephoned her.
• We were having dinner when it started to rain.
• Ram went home early because it was snowing.
Some verbs cannot be used in continuous/progressive

tenses.
We often use the past continuous tense to “set the scene” in stories. We use it to describe the background
situation at the moment when the action begins. Often, the story starts with the past continuous tense and
then moves into the simple past tense. Here is an example:
“ James Bond was driving through town. It was raining. The wind was blowing hard. Nobody was
walking in the streets. Suddenly, Bond saw the killer in a telephone box...”
Past Continuous Tense + Simple Past Tense

We often use the past continuous tense with the simple past tense. We use the past continuous tense to
express a long action. And we use the simple past tense to express a short action that happens in the
middle of the long action. We can join the two ideas with when or while.
In the following example, we have two actions:
1. long action (watching TV), expressed with past continuous tense

2. short action (telephoned), expressed with simple past tense
past present future
Long action.
I was watching TV at 8pm.

8pm
You telephoned at 8pm.
Short action.
We can join these two actions with when:
• I was watching TV when you telephoned.
(Notice that “when you telephoned” is also a way of defining the time [8pm].)
We use:
• when + short action (simple past tense)

• while + long action (past continuous tense)
There are four basic combinations:
I was walking past the car when it exploded.
When the car exploded I was walking past it.
The car exploded while I was walking past it.
While I was walking past the car it exploded.
Notice that the long action and short action are relative.
• “Watching TV” took a few hours. “Telephoned” took a few seconds.

• “Walking past the car” took a few seconds. “Exploded” took a few milliseconds.
Past Perfect Tense
I had sung
The past perfect tense is quite an easy tense to understand and to use. This tense talks about the “past in
the past”.
In this lesson we look at:
• Structure: how do we make the past perfect tense?

• Use: how do we use the past perfect tense?
How do we make the Past Perfect Tense?

The structure of the past perfect tense is:
subject + auxiliary verb HAVE + main verb

conjugated in simple past tense past participle
had V3
For negative sentences in the past perfect tense, we insert not between the auxiliary verb and main verb.
For question sentences, we exchange the subject and auxiliary verb. Look at these example sentences
with the past perfect tense:
+ I had finished my work.
+ You had stopped before me.
- She had not gone to school.
- We had not left.
? Had you arrived?
? Had they eaten dinner?
When speaking with the past perfect tense, we often contract the subject and auxiliary verb:
I had I’d
you had you’d
he had he’d
she had she’d
it had it’d
we had we’d
they had they’d
The ‘d contraction is also used for the auxiliary verb

would. For example, we’d can mean:
l We had
or
We would
l
But usually the main verb is in a different form, for

example:
l We had arrived (past participle)

l We would arrive (base)
It is always clear from the context.
How do we use the Past Perfect Tense?

The past perfect tense expresses action in the past before another action in the past. This is the past in
the past. For example:
• The train left at 9am. We arrived at 9.15am. When we arrived, the train had left.
The train had left when we arrived.

past present future
Train leaves in past at 9am.
9 9.15
We arrive in past at 9.15am.
Look at some more examples:
• I wasn’t hungry. I had just eaten.

• They were hungry. They had not eaten for five hours.
• I didn’t know who he was. I had never seen him before.
• “Mary wasn’t at home when I arrived.”
”Really? Where had she gone?”
You can sometimes think of the past perfect tense like the present perfect tense, but instead of the time
being now the time is past.
past perfect tense present perfect tense

had | have |
done | done |
>| >|
past now future past now future
For example, imagine that you arrive at the station at 9.15am. The stationmaster says to you:
• “You are too late. The train has left.”
Later, you tell your friends:
• “We were too late. The train had left.”
We often use the past perfect tense in reported speech after verbs like said, told, asked, thought,
wondered:
• He told us that the train had left.

• I thought I had met her before, but I was wrong.
• He explained that he had closed the window because of the rain.
• I wondered if I had been there before.
• I asked them why they had not finished.
Past Perfect Continuous Tense
I had been singing
How do we make the Past Perfect Continuous Tense?

The structure of the past perfect continuous tense is:
auxiliary verb auxiliary verb

subject + + + main verb
HAVE BE
conjugated in simple past present
past participle
tense participle
had been base + ing
For negative sentences in the past perfect continuous tense, we insert not after the first auxiliary verb.
For question sentences, we exchange the subject and first auxiliary verb. Look at these example
sentences with the past perfect continuous tense:
+ I had been working.
+ You had been playing tennis.
- It had not been working well.
- We had not been expecting her.
? Had you been drinking?
? Had they been waiting long?
When speaking with the past perfect continuous tense, we often contract the subject and first auxiliary
verb:
I had been I’d been
you had been you’d been
he had he’d been

she had been she’d been
it had been it’d been
we had been we’d been
they had been they’d been
How do we use the Past Perfect Continuous Tense?

The past perfect continuous tense is like the past perfect tense, but it expresses longer actions in the past
before another action in the past. For example:
• Ram started waiting at 9am. I arrived at 11am. When I arrived, Ram had been waiting for two
hours.
Ram had been waiting for two hours when I arrived.

past present future
Ram starts waiting in past at

9am.
9 11
I arrive in past at 11am.
• John was very tired. He had been running.

• I could smell cigarettes. Somebody had been smoking.
• Suddenly, my car broke down. I was not surprised. It had not been running well for a long time.
• Had the pilot been drinking before the crash?
You can sometimes think of the past perfect continuous tense like the present perfect continuous tense,
but instead of the time being now the time is past.
past perfect continuous tense present perfect continuous tense

had | | | have |
been | | | been |
doing | | | doing |
>>>> | | | >>>> |
For example, imagine that you meet Ram at 11am. Ram says to you:
• “I am angry. I have been waiting for two hours.”
Later, you tell your friends:
• “Ram was angry. He had been waiting for two hours.”
Simple Future Tense
I will sing
The simple future tense is often called will, because we make the simple future tense with the modal
auxiliary will.
How do we make the Simple Future Tense?

The structure of the simple future tense is:
subject + auxiliary verb WILL + main verb

invariable base
will V1
For negative sentences in the simple future tense, we insert not between the auxiliary verb and main
verb. For question sentences, we exchange the subject and auxiliary verb. Look at these example
sentences with the simple future tense:
+ I will open the door.
+ You will finish before me.
- She will not be at school tomorrow.
- We will not leave yet.
? Will you arrive on time?
? Will they want dinner?
When we use the simple future tense in speaking, we often contract the subject and auxiliary verb:
I will I’ll
you will you’ll
he will he’ll
she will she’ll
it will it’ll
we will we’ll
they will they’ll
For negative sentences in the simple future tense, we contract with won’t, like this:
I will not I won’t
you will not you won’t
he will not he won’t

she will not she won’t
it will not it won’t
we will not we won’t
they will not they won’t
How do we use the Simple Future Tense?

No Plan
We use the simple future tense when there is no plan or decision to do something before we speak. We
make the decision spontaneously at the time of speaking. Look at these examples:
• Hold on. I’ll get a pen.

• We will see what we can do to help you.
• Maybe we’ll stay in and watch television tonight.
In these examples, we had no firm plan before speaking. The decision is made at the time of speaking.
We often use the simple future tense with the verb to think before it:
• I think I’ll go to the gym tomorrow.

• I think I will have a holiday next year.
• I don’t think I’ll buy that car.
Prediction
We often use the simple future tense to make a prediction about the future. Again, there is no firm plan.
We are saying what we think will happen. Here are some examples:
• It will rain tomorrow.

• People won’t go to Jupiter before the 22nd century.
• Who do you think will get the job?
Be
When the main verb is be, we can use the simple future tense even if we have a firm plan or decision
before speaking. Examples:
• I’ll be in London tomorrow.
• I’m going shopping. I won’t be very long.

• Will you be at work tomorrow?
Note that when we have a plan or intention to do

something in the future, we usually use other tenses or
expressions, such as the present continuous tense or
going to.
Future Continuous Tense
I will be singing
How do we make the Future Continuous Tense?

The structure of the future continuous tense is:
auxiliary verb auxiliary verb

subject + + + main verb
WILL BE
present
invariable invariable
participle
will be base + ing
For negative sentences in the future continuous tense, we insert not between will and be. For question
sentences, we exchange the subject and will. Look at these example sentences with the future
continuous tense:
+ I will be working at 10am.
+ You will be lying on a beach tomorrow.
- She will not be using the car.
- We will not be having dinner at home.
? Will you be playing football?
? Will they be watching TV?
When we use the future continuous tense in speaking, we often contract the subject and will:
I will I’ll
you will you’ll
he will he’ll
she will she’ll
it will it’ll
we will we’ll
they will they’ll
For spoken negative sentences in the future continuous tense, we contract with won’t, like this:

We sometimes use shall instead of will, especially for

I and we.
How do we use the Future Continuous Tense?

The future continuous tense expresses action at a particular moment in the future. The action will start
before that moment but it will not have finished at that moment. For example, tomorrow I will start
work at 2pm and stop work at 6pm:
At 4pm tomorrow, I will be working.

past present future
4pm
At 4pm, I will be in the middle

of working.
When we use the future continuous tense, our listener usually knows or understands what time we are
talking about. Look at these examples:
• I will be playing tennis at 10am tomorrow.

• They won’t be watching TV at 9pm tonight.
• What will you be doing at 10pm tonight?
• What will you be doing when I arrive?
• She will not be sleeping when you telephone her.
• We ‘ll be having dinner when the film starts.
• Take your umbrella. It will be raining when you return.
Future Perfect Tense
I will have sung
The future perfect tense is quite an easy tense to understand and use. The future perfect tense talks
about the past in the future.
How do we make the Future Perfect Tense?

The structure of the future perfect tense is:
auxiliary verb auxiliary verb main

subject + + +
WILL HAVE verb
past
invariable invariable
participle
will have V3
Look at these example sentences in the future perfect tense:
+ I will have finished by 10am.
+ You will have forgotten me by then.
- She will not have gone to school.
- We will not have left.
? Will you have arrived?
? Will they have received it?
In speaking with the future perfect tense, we often contract the subject and will. Sometimes, we contract
the subject, will and have all together:
I will have I’ll have I’ll’ve
you will have you’ll have you’ll’ve
he will have he’ll have he’ll’ve

she will have she’ll have she’ll’ve
it will have it’ll have it’ll’ve
we will have we’ll have we’ll’ve
they will have they’ll have they’ll’ve
We sometimes use shall instead of will, especially for

I and we.
How do we use the Future Perfect Tense?

The future perfect tense expresses action in the future before another action in the future. This is the
past in the future. For example:
• The train will leave the station at 9am. You will arrive at the station at 9.15am. When you arrive,
the train will have left.
The train will have left when you arrive.

past present future
Train leaves in future at 9am.
9 9.15
You arrive in future at 9.15am.
Look at some more examples:
• You can call me at work at 8am. I will have arrived at the office by 8.
• They will be tired when they arrive. They will not have slept for a long time.
• “Mary won’t be at home when you arrive.”
”Really? Where will she have gone?”
You can sometimes think of the future perfect tense like the present perfect tense, but instead of your
viewpoint being in the present, it is in the future:
present perfect tense future perfect tense

| will |
have | have |
done | done |
>| >|
Future Perfect Continuous Tense
I will have been singing
How do we make the Future Perfect Continuous Tense?

The structure of the future perfect continuous tense is:
auxiliary
auxiliary auxiliary main
subject + + verb + +
verb WILL verb BE verb
HAVE
present
invariable invariable past participle
participle
will have been base + ing
For negative sentences in the future perfect continuous tense, we insert not between will and have. For
question sentences, we exchange the subject and will. Look at these example sentences with the future
perfect continuous tense:
subject auxiliary verb auxiliary verb auxiliary verb main verb
+ I will have been working for four hours.
+ You will have been travelling for two days.
- She will not have been using the car.
- We will not have been waiting long.
? Will you have been playing football?
? Will they have been watching TV?
When we use the future perfect continuous tense in speaking, we often contract the subject and auxiliary
verb:
I will I’ll
you will you’ll
he will he’ll
she will she’ll
it will it’ll
we will we’ll
they will they’ll
For negative sentences in the future perfect continuous tense, we contract with won’t, like this:

How do we use the Future Perfect Continuous Tense?

We use the future perfect continuous tense to talk about a long action before some point in the future.
• I will have been working here for ten years next week.
• He will be tired when he arrives. He will have been travelling for 24 hours.
Phrasal Verbs and other multi-word verbs

Phrasal verbs are part of a large group of verbs called “multi-word verbs”. Phrasal verbs and other multi-
word verbs are an important part of the English language. Multi-word verbs, including phrasal verbs, are
very common, especially in spoken English. A multi-word verb is a verb like “pick up”, “turn on” or
“get on with”. For convenience, many people refer to all multi-word verbs as phrasal verbs. These verbs
consist of a basic verb + another word or words. The other word(s) can be prepositions and/or
adverbs. The two or three words that make up multi-word verbs form a short “phrase”—which is why
these verbs are often all called “phrasal verbs”.
The important thing to remember is that a multi-word verb is still a verb. “Get” is a verb. “Get up”, is
also a verb, a different verb. “Get” and “get up” are two different verbs. They do not have the same
meaning. So you should treat each multi-word verb as a separate verb, and learn it like any other verb.
Look at these examples. You can see that there are three types of multi-word verb:
single-word verb look direct your eyes in a You must look before
certain direction you leap.
multi- prepositional look after take care of Who is looking after the
word verbs baby?
verbs
phrasal verbs look up search for and find You can look up my
information in a number in the telephone
reference book directory.
phrasal- look anticipate with pleasure

I look forward to
prepositional forward to
meeting you.
verbs
In this lesson we look at the three types of multi-word verbs, including phrasal verbs, followed by a quiz
to check your understanding:
• Phrasal Verbs
• Prepositional Verbs
• Phrasal-prepositional Verbs
Like many grammar books, we divide multi-word

verbs into:
l prepositional verbs
l phrasal verbs
lphrasal-prepositional verbs
Other grammars, however, call all multi-word verbs
“phrasal verbs”.
Phrasal Verbs
Phrasal verbs are a group of multi-word verbs made from a verb plus another word or words. Many
people refer to all multi-word verbs as phrasal verbs. On these pages we make a distinction between
three types of multi-word verbs: prepositional verbs, phrasal verbs and phrasal-prepositional verbs. On
this page we look at phrasal verbs proper.
Phrasal verbs are made of:
verb + adverb
Phrasal verbs can be:
• intransitive (no direct object)

• transitive (direct object)
Here are some examples of phrasal verbs:
examples
phrasal
meaning
verbs direct
object
rise from bed I don’t like to get up.

intransitive get up
phrasal
cease to He was late because his car broke
verbs break down
function down.
transitive put off postpone We will have to put off the meeting.
phrasal
verbs turn down refuse They turned down my offer.
Separable Phrasal Verbs
When phrasal verbs are transitive (that is, they have a direct object), we can usually separate the two
parts. For example, “turn down” is a separable phrasal verb. We can say: “turn down my offer” or
“turn my offer down”. Look at this table:
transitive phrasal verbs are (RIGHT) They turned down my offer.

separable (RIGHT) They turned my offer down.
However, if the direct object is a pronoun, we have no choice. We must separate the phrasal verb and
insert the pronoun between the two parts. Look at this example with the separable phrasal verb “switch
on”:
direct (RIGHT) John switched on the radio.

object
pronouns
must go (RIGHT) John switched the radio on. These are all possible.
between
the two
parts of (RIGHT) John switched it on.
transitive
phrasal
verbs (WRONG) John switched on it. This is not possible.
Separable or inseparable phrasal verbs? Some

dictionaries tell you when phrasal verbs are separable.
If a dictionary writes “look (something) up”, you
know that the phrasal verb “look up” is separable, and
you can say “look something up” and “look up
something”. It’s a good idea to write
“something/somebody” as appropriate in your
vocabulary book when you learn a new phrasal verb,
like this:
l get up
l break down
l put something/somebody off
l turn sthg/sby down
This tells you whether the verb needs a direct object
(and where to put it).
Prepositional Verbs
Prepositional verbs are a group of multi-word verbs made from a verb plus another word or words.
Many people refer to all multi-word verbs as phrasal verbs. On these pages we make a distinction
between three types of multi-word verbs: prepositional verbs, phrasal verbs and phrasal-prepositional
verbs. On this page we look at prepositional verbs.
Prepositional verbs are made of:
verb + preposition
Because a preposition always has an object, all prepositional verbs have direct objects. Here are some
examples of prepositional verbs:
examples
prepositional verbs meaning
direct object
believe in have faith in the existence of I believe in God.
look after take care of He is looking after the dog.
talk about discuss Did you talk about me?
wait for await John is waiting for Mary.
Prepositional verbs cannot be separated. That means that we cannot put the direct object between the
two parts. For example, we must say “look after the baby”. We cannot say “look the baby after”:
prepositional verbs are Who is looking after the

(RIGHT) This is possible.
inseparable baby?
Who is looking the baby This is not

(WRONG)
after? possible.
It is a good idea to write “something/somebody” in

your vocabulary book when you learn a new
prepositional verb, like this:
l believe in something/somebody
l look after sthg/sby
This reminds you that this verb needs a direct object
Phrasal-prepositional Verbs
Phrasal-prepositional verbs are a small group of multi-word verbs made from a verb plus another word
or words. Many people refer to all multi-word verbs as phrasal verbs. On these pages we make a
distinction between three types of multi-word verbs: prepositional verbs, phrasal verbs and phrasal-
prepositional verbs. On this page we look at phrasal-prepositional verbs.
Phrasal-prepositional verbs are made of:
verb + adverb + preposition
Look at these examples of phrasal-prepositional verbs:
examples
phrasal-prepositional
meaning
verbs direct
object
have a friendly relationship He doesn’t get on

get on with his wife.
with with
your
put up with tolerate I won’t put up with
attitude.
look forward to anticipate with pleasure I look forward to seeing you.
run out of use up, exhaust We have run out of eggs.
Because phrasal-prepositional verbs end with a preposition, there is always a direct object. And, like
prepositional verbs, phrasal-prepositional verbs cannot be separated. Look at these examples:
phrasal-prepositional verbs are (RIGHT) We ran out of fuel.

inseparable (RIGHT) We ran out of it.
It is a good idea to write “something/somebody” in

your vocabulary book when you learn a new phrasal-
prepositional verb, like this:
l get on with somebody

l put up with sthg/sby
l run out of something
This reminds you that this verb needs a direct object
English Conditionals
There are several structures in English that are called conditionals.
“Condition” means “situation or circumstance”. If a particular condition is true, then a particular result
happens.
• If y = 10 then 2y = 20
• If y = 3 then 2y = 6
There are three basic conditionals that we use very often. There are some more conditionals that we do
not use so often.
In this lesson, we will look at the three basic conditionals as well as the so-called zero conditional. We’ll
finish with a quiz to check your understanding.
• Structure of Conditional Sentences

• First Conditional
• Second Conditional
• Third Conditional
• Zero Conditional
• Summary
People sometimes call conditionals “IF” structures or

sentences, because there is usually (but not always) the
word “if” in a conditional sentence.
Structure of Conditional Sentences

The structure of most conditionals is very simple. There are two basic possibilities. Of course, we add
many words and can use various tenses, but the basic structure is usually like this:
IF condition result
IF y = 10 2y = 20
or like this:
result IF condition
2y = 20 IF y = 10
First Conditional: real possibility

We are talking about the future. We are thinking about a particular condition or situation in the future,
and the result of this condition. There is a real possibility that this condition will happen. For example, it
is morning. You are at home. You plan to play tennis this afternoon. But there are some clouds in the
sky. Imagine that it rains. What will you do?
IF condition result
present simple WILL + base verb
If it rains I will stay at home.
Notice that we are thinking about a future condition. It is not raining yet. But the sky is cloudy and you
think that it could rain. We use the present simple tense to talk about the possible future condition. We
use WILL + base verb to talk about the possible future result. The important thing about the first
conditional is that there is a real possibility that the condition will happen. Here are some more
examples (do you remember the two basic structures: [IF condition result] and [result IF condition]?):
IF condition result
present simple WILL + base verb
If I see Mary I will tell her.
If Tara is free tomorrow he will invite her.
If they do not pass their exam their teacher will be sad.
If it rains tomorrow will you stay at home?
If it rains tomorrow what will you do?
result IF condition
WILL + base verb present simple
I will tell Mary if I see her.
He will invite Tara if she is free tomorrow.
Their teacher will be sad if they do not pass their exam.
Will you stay at home if it rains tomorrow?
What will you do if it rains tomorrow?
Sometimes, we use shall, can, or may instead of will,

for example: If you are good today, you can watch TV
tonight.
Second Conditional: unreal possibility or dream

The second conditional is like the first conditional. We are still thinking about the future. We are
thinking about a particular condition in the future, and the result of this condition. But there is not a real
possibility that this condition will happen. For example, you do not have a lottery ticket. Is it possible to
win? No! No lottery ticket, no win! But maybe you will buy a lottery ticket in the future. So you can
think about winning in the future, like a dream. It’s not very real, but it’s still possible.
IF condition result
past simple WOULD + base verb
If I won the lottery I would buy a car.
Notice that we are thinking about a future condition. We use the past simple tense to talk about the
future condition. We use WOULD + base verb to talk about the future result. The important thing about
the second conditional is that there is an unreal possibility that the condition will happen.
IF condition result
past simple WOULD + base verb
If I married Mary I would be happy.
If Ram became rich she would marry him.
If it snowed next July would you be surprised?
If it snowed next July what would you do?
result IF condition
WOULD + base verb past simple
I would be happy if I married Mary.
She would marry Ram if he became rich.
Would you be surprised if it snowed next July?
What would you do if it snowed next July?
Sometimes, we use should, could or might instead of

would, for example: If I won a million dollars, I could
stop working.
Third Conditional:
no possibility
The first conditional and second conditionals talk about the future. With the third conditional we talk
about the past. We talk about a condition in the past that did not happen. That is why there is no
possibility for this condition. The third conditional is also like a dream, but with no possibility of the
dream coming true.
Last week you bought a lottery ticket. But you did not win. :-(
condition result
Past Perfect WOULD HAVE + Past Participle
If I had won the lottery I would have bought a car.
Notice that we are thinking about an impossible past condition. You did not win the lottery. So the
condition was not true, and that particular condition can never be true because it is finished. We use the
past perfect tense to talk about the impossible past condition. We use WOULD HAVE + past participle
to talk about the impossible past result. The important thing about the third conditional is that both the
condition and result are impossible now.
Sometimes, we use should have, could have, might

have instead of would have, for example: If you had
bought a lottery ticket, you might have won.
Look at some more examples in the tables opposite:
IF condition result
past perfect WOULD HAVE + past participle
If I had seen Mary I would have told her.
If Tara had been free yesterday I would have invited her.
If they had not passed their exam their teacher would have been sad.
If it had rained yesterday would you have stayed at home?
If it had rained yesterday what would you have done?
result IF condition
WOULD HAVE + past participle past perfect
I would have told Mary if I had seen her.
I would have invited Tara if she had been free yesterday.
Their teacher would have been sad if they had not passed their exam.
Would you have stayed at home if it had rained yesterday?
What would you have done if it had rained yesterday?
Zero Conditional: certainty

We use the so-called zero conditional when the result of the condition is always true, like a scientific
fact.
Take some ice. Put it in a saucepan. Heat the saucepan. What happens? The ice melts (it becomes
water). You would be surprised if it did not.
IF condition result
present simple present simple
If you heat ice it melts.
Notice that we are thinking about a result that is always true for this condition. The result of the
condition is an absolute certainty. We are not thinking about the future or the past, or even the present.
We are thinking about a simple fact. We use the present simple tense to talk about the condition. We
also use the present simple tense to talk about the result. The important thing about the zero conditional
is that the condition always has the same result.
We can also use when instead of if, for example:

When I get up late I miss my bus.
Look at some more examples in the tables opposite:
IF condition result
If I miss the 8 o’clock bus I am late for work.
If I am late for work my boss gets angry.
If people don’t eat they get hungry.
If you heat ice does it melt?
result IF condition
I am late for work if I miss the 8 o’clock bus.
My boss gets angry if I am late for work.
People get hungry if they don’t eat.
Does ice melt if you heat it?
Conditionals: Summary
Here is a chart to help you to visualize the basic English conditionals. Do not take the 50% and 10%
figures too literally. They are just to help you.
probability conditional example time
100% zero conditional If you heat ice, it melts. any time
50% first conditional If it rains, I will stay at home. future
second
10% If I won the lottery, I would buy a car. future
conditional
If I had won the lottery, I would have

0% third conditional past
bought a car.
Modal Verbs (modal auxiliaries)
Modal auxiliary verbs may sound difficult but in fact

they’re easy. They are invariable (no conjugation).
And the main verb is always the “bare infinitive” (the
infinitive without “to”).
Have to, Must, Must not/Mustn’t
Shall versus Will

Can and could are modal auxiliary verbs. Be able to is NOT an auxiliary verb (it uses the verb be as a
main verb). We include be able to here for convenience.
In this lesson we look at these three verbs, followed by a quiz to check your understanding:
• Can
• Could
• Be able to
Can
Can is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use can to:
• talk about possibility and ability

• make requests
• ask for or give permission
Structure of Can
subject + can + main verb

The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without “to”).
+ I can play tennis.
cannot
- He play tennis.
can’t
? Can you play tennis?
Notice that:
• Can is invariable. There is only one form of can.

• The main verb is always the bare infinitive.
The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive

without “to”). We cannot say:
Use of Can
can: Possibility and Ability
We use can to talk about what is possible, what we are able or free to do:
• She can drive a car.
• John can speak Spanish.

• I cannot hear you. (I can’t hear you.)
• Can you hear me?
Normally, we use can for the present. But it is possible to use can when we make present decisions
about future ability.
A. Can you help me with my homework? (present)

B. Sorry. I’m busy today. But I can help you tomorrow. (future)
can: Requests and Orders
We often use can in a question to ask somebody to do something. This is not a real question - we do not
really want to know if the person is able to do something, we want them to do it! The use of can in this
way is informal (mainly between friends and family):
• Can you make a cup of coffee, please.

• Can you put the TV on.
• Can you come here a minute.
• Can you be quiet!
can: Permission
We sometimes use can to ask or give permission for something:
A. Can I smoke in this room?

B. You can’t smoke here, but you can smoke in the garden.
(Note that we also use could, may, might for permission. The use of can for permission is informal.)
Could
Could is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use could to:
• talk about past possibility or ability

• make requests
Structure of Could
subject + could + main verb

The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without “to”).
+ My grandmother could swim.
could not
- She walk.
couldn’t
? Could your grandmother swim?
Notice that:
• Could is invariable. There is only one form of could.

• The main verb is always the bare infinitive.
Use of Could
could: Past Possibility or Ability
We use could to talk about what was possible in the past, what we were able or free to do:
• I could swim when I was 5 years old.

• My grandmother could speak seven languages.
• When we arrived home, we could not open the door. (...couldn’t open the door.)
• Could you understand what he was saying?
We use could (positive) and couldn’t (negative) for general ability in the past. But when we talk about
one special occasion in the past, we use be able to (positive) and couldn’t (negative). Look at these
examples:
Past
General Specific Occasion
My grandmother could speak A man fell into the river yesterday. The police were able
+ Spanish. to save him.
My grandmother couldn’t speak A man fell into the river yesterday. The police couldn’t
- Spanish. save him.
could: Requests
We often use could in a question to ask somebody to do something. The use of could in this way is
fairly polite (formal):
• Could you tell me where the bank is, please?

• Could you send me a catalogue, please?
Be able to
Although we look at be able to here, it is not a modal verb. It is simply the verb be plus an adjective
(able) followed by the infinitive. We look at be able to here because we sometimes use it instead of can
and could.
We use be able to:
• to talk about ability
Structure of Be able to
The structure of be able to is:
subject + be + able + infinitive
be able
subject main verb adjective infinitive
+ I am able to drive.
is not
- She able to drive.
isn’t
? Are you able to drive?
Notice that be able to is possible in all tenses, for example:
• I was able to drive...

• I will be able to drive...
• I have been able to drive...
Notice too that be able to has an infinitive form:
• I would like to be able to speak Chinese.
Use of Be able to
be able to: ability
We use be able to to express ability. “Able” is an adjective meaning: having the power, skill or means
to do something. If we say “I am able to swim”, it is like saying “I can swim”. We sometimes use “be
able to” instead of “can” or “could” for ability. “Be able to” is possible in all tenses—but “can” is
possible only in the present and “could” is possible only in the past for ability. In addition, “can” and
“could” have no infinitive form. So we use “be able to” when we want to use other tenses or the
infinitive. Look at these examples:
• I have been able to swim since I was five. (present perfect)

• You will be able to speak perfect English very soon. (future simple)
• I would like to be able to fly an airplane. (infinitive)
Be able to is not a modal auxiliary verb. We include it

here for convenience, because it is often used like
“can” and “could”, which are modal auxiliary verbs.
Gerunds (-ing)
Gerunds are sometimes called “verbal nouns”.
When a verb ends in -ing, it may be a gerund or a present participle. It is important to understand that
they are not the same.
When we use a verb in -ing form more like a noun, it is usually a gerund:
• Fishing is fun.
When we use a verb in -ing form more like a verb or an adjective, it is usually a present participle:
• Anthony is fishing.
• I have a boring teacher.
In this lesson, we look at the different ways in which we use gerunds, followed by a quiz to check your
understanding:
• Gerunds as Subject, Object or Complement

• Gerunds after Prepositions
• Gerunds after Certain Verbs
• Gerunds in Passive Sense
Many grammarians do not like to use the expression

“gerund”. That is because there is sometimes no clear
difference between a gerund and a present participle.
Gerunds as Subject, Object or Complement

Try to think of gerunds as verbs in noun form.
Like nouns, gerunds can be the subject, object or complement of a sentence:
• Smoking costs a lot of money.

• I don’t like writing.
• My favourite occupation is reading.
But, like a verb, a gerund can also have an object itself. In this case, the whole expression [gerund +
object] can be the subject, object or complement of the sentence.
• Smoking cigarettes costs a lot of money.

• I don’t like writing letters.
• My favourite occupation is reading detective stories.
Like nouns, we can use gerunds with adjectives (including articles and other determiners):
• pointless questioning
• a settling of debts
• the making of Titanic
• his drinking of alcohol
But when we use a gerund with an article, it does not usually take a direct object:
• a settling of debts (not a settling debts)

• Making “Titanic” was expensive.
• The making of “Titanic” was expensive.
Do you see the difference in these two sentences? In one, “reading” is a gerund (noun). In the
other “reading” is a present participle (verb).
l My favourite occupation is reading.

l My favourite niece is reading.
Answer
reading as gerund
(noun) Main Verb Complement
My favourite occupation is reading.
My favourite occupation is football.
reading as present participle

Auxiliary Verb Main Verb
(verb)
My favourite niece is reading.
My favourite niece has finished.
Gerunds after Prepositions

This is a good rule. It has no exceptions!
If we want to use a verb after a preposition, it must be a gerund. It is impossible to use an infinitive after
a preposition. So for example, we say:
• I will call you after arriving at the office.
• Please have a drink before leaving.

• I am looking forward to meeting you.
• Do you object to working late?
• Tara always dreams about going on holiday.
Notice that you could replace all the above gerunds with “real” nouns:
• I will call you after my arrival at the office.

• Please have a drink before your departure.
• I am looking forward to our lunch.
• Do you object to this job?
• Tara always dreams about holidays.
The above rule has no exceptions! So why is “to” followed by “driving” in 1 and by “drive”
in 2?
1. I am used to driving on the left.

2. I used to drive on the left.
Answer
to as preposition Preposition
I am used to driving on the left.
I am used to animals.
to as infinitive Infinitive
I used to drive on the left
I used to smoke.
Gerunds after Certain Verbs

We sometimes use one verb after another verb. Often the second verb is in the infinitive form, for
example:
• I want to eat.
But sometimes the second verb must be in gerund form, for example:
• I dislike eating.
This depends on the first verb. Here is a list of verbs that are usually followed by a verb in gerund form:
• admit, appreciate, avoid, carry on, consider, defer, delay, deny, detest, dislike, endure, enjoy,
escape, excuse, face, feel like, finish, forgive, give up, can’t help, imagine, involve, leave off,
mention, mind, miss, postpone, practise, put off, report, resent, risk, can’t stand, suggest,
understand
• She is considering having a holiday.

• Do you feel like going out?
• I can’t help falling in love with you.
• I can’t stand not seeing you.
Some verbs can be followed by the gerund form or the

infinitive form without a big change in meaning:
begin, continue, hate, intend, like, love, prefer,
propose, start
l I like to play tennis.

l I like playing tennis.
l It started to rain.
l It started raining.
Gerunds in Passive Sense

We often use a gerund after the verbs need, require and want. In this case, the gerund has a passive
sense.
• I have three shirts that need washing. (need to be washed)

• This letter requires signing. (needs to be signed)
• The house wants repainting. (needs to be repainted)
The expression “something wants doing” is British

English.
Questions
What is a question?
A statement is a sentence that gives information. A question is a sentence that asks for information.
Statement: I like EnglishClub.com.
Question: Do you like EnglishClub.com?
A written question in English always ends with a question mark:
?
In this lesson we look at basic questions in English, followed by a quiz to check your understanding:
• Basic Question Structure

• Basic Question Types
Basic Question Structure

The basic structure of a question in English is very simple:
auxiliary verb + subject + main verb
auxiliary verb subject main verb
Do you like Mary?
Are they playing football?
Will Anthony go to Tokyo?
Have you seen ET?
Exception!
For the verb be in simple present and simple past, we do not use an auxiliary verb. We simply reverse
the positions of be and subject:
Statement: He is German.
Question: Is he German?
Basic Question Types

There are 3 basic types of question:
1. Yes/No Questions (the answer to the question is “Yes” or “No”)

2. Question Word Questions (the answer to the question is “Information”)
3. Choice Questions (the answer to the question is “in the question”)
1. Yes/No Questions
Answer
auxiliary verb subject main verb
Yes or No
Do you want dinner? Yes, I do.
Can you drive? No, I can’t.
Has she finished her work? Yes, she has.
Did they go home? No, they didn’t.
Exception! verb be simple present and simple past
Is Anne French? Yes, she is.
Was Ram at home? No, he wasn’t.
2. Question Word Questions

Answer
question word auxiliary verb subject main verb
Information
Where do you live? In Paris.
When will we have lunch? At 1pm.
Who did she meet? She met Ram.
Why hasn’t Tara done it? Because she can’t.
Where is Bombay? In India.
How was she? Very well.
3. Choice Questions
Answer
auxiliary verb subject main verb OR In the
question
Coffee,
Do you want tea or coffee?
please.
Will we meet John or James? John.
to New She went to

Did she go or
London York? London.
Is your car white or black? It’s black.
Were they $15 or $50? $15.
These pages show the three basic types of question. There are other
types of question, for example tag questions.
Tag Questions
A tag question is a special construction in English. It is a statement followed by a mini-question. The
whole sentence is a “tag question”, and the mini-question at the end is called a “question tag”.
A “tag” is something small that we add to something

larger. For example, the little piece of cloth added to a
shirt showing size or washing instructions is a tag.
We use tag questions at the end of statements to ask for confirmation. They mean something like: “Am I
right?” or “Do you agree?” They are very common in English.
The basic structure is:
+ -
Positive statement, negative tag?
- +
Negative statement, positive tag?
Look at these examples with positive statements:
positive statement [+] negative tag [-] notes:
personal
main pronoun
subject auxiliary auxiliary not
verb (same as
subject)
You are coming, are n’t you?
We have finished, have n’t we?
You do like coffee, do n’t you?
You like coffee, do n’t you? You (do) like...
They will help, wo n’t they? won’t = will not
I can come, can ‘t I?
We must go, must n’t we?
He should try harder, should n’t he?
You are English, are n’t you?

no auxiliary for main verb be
present & past
John was there, was n’t he?
Look at these examples with negative statements:
negative statement [-] positive tag [+]
personal
subject auxiliary main verb auxiliary pronoun
(same as subject)
It is n’t raining, is it?
We have never seen that, have we?
You do n’t like coffee, do you?
They will not help, will they?
They wo n’t report us, will they?
I can never do it right, can I?
We must n’t tell her, must we?
He should n’t drive so fast, should he?
You are n’t English, are you?
John was not there, was he?
Some special cases:
I am right, aren’t I? aren’t I (not amn’t I)
You have to go, don’t you? you (do) have to go...
I have been answering, haven’t I? use first auxiliary
Nothing came in the post, did it? treat statements with nothing, nobody etc like negative statements
Let’s go, shall we? let’s = let us
He’d better do it, hadn’t he? he had better (no auxiliary)
Here are some mixed examples:
• But you don’t really love her, do you?

• This will work, won’t it?
• Well, I couldn’t help it, could I?
• But you’ll tell me if she calls, won’t you?
• We’d never have known, would we?
• The weather’s bad, isn’t it?
• You won’t be late, will you?
• Nobody knows, do they?
Notice that we often use tag questions to ask for information or help, starting with a negative statement.
This is quite a friendly/polite way of making a request. For example, instead of saying “Where is the
police station?” (not very polite), or “Do you know where the police station is?” (slightly more polite),
we could say: “You wouldn’t know where the police station is, would you?” Here are some more
examples:
• You don’t know of any good jobs, do you?

• You couldn’t help me with my homework, could you?
• You haven’t got $10 to lend me, have you?
Intonation
We can change the meaning of a tag question with the musical pitch of our voice. With rising intonation,
it sounds like a real question. But if our intonation falls, it sounds more like a statement that doesn’t
require a real answer:
intonation
You don’t know where my wallet is, do you? / rising real question
It’s a beatiful view, isn’t it? \ falling not a real question
Answers to tag questions
A question tag is the “mini-question” at the end. A

tag question is the whole sentence.
How do we answer a tag question? Often, we just say Yes or No. Sometimes we may repeat the tag and
reverse it (..., do they? Yes, they do). Be very careful about answering tag questions. In some languages,
an oposite system of answering is used, and non-native English speakers sometimes answer in the wrong
way. This can lead to a lot of confusion!
Answer a tag question according to the truth of the

situation. Your answer reflects the real facts, not
(necessarily) the question.
For example, everyone knows that snow is white. Look at these questions, and the correct answers:
correct
tag question
answer
Snow is white, isn’t it? Yes (it is). the answer is the same in both
cases - because snow IS
Snow isn’t white, is it? Yes it is! WHITE! but notice the change of stress when
the answerer does not agree with the
Snow is black, isn’t it? No it isn’t! the answer is the same in both questioner
cases - because snow IS NOT
Snow isn’t black, is it? No (it isn’t). BLACK!
In some languages, people answer a question like “Snow isn’t black, is it?” with “Yes” (meaning “Yes, I
agree with you”). This is the wrong answer in English!
Here are some more examples, with correct answers:
• The moon goes round the earth, doesn’t it? Yes, it does.
• The earth is bigger than the moon, isn’t it? Yes.
• The earth is bigger than the sun, isn’t it? No, it isn’t!
• Asian people don’t like rice, do they? Yes, they do!
• Elephants live in Europe, don’t they? No, they don’t!
• Men don’t have babies, do they? No.
• The English alphabet doesn’t have 40 letters, does it? No, it doesn’t.
Question tags with imperatives
Sometimes we use question tags with imperatives (invitations, orders), but the sentence remains an
imperative and does not require a direct answer. We use won’t for invitations. We use can, can’t, will,
would for orders.
imperative + question tag notes:
invitation Take a seat, won’t you? polite
Help me, can you? quite friendly
Help me, can’t you? quite friendly (some irritation?)
order Close the door, would you? quite polite
Do it now, will you? less polite
Don’t forget, will you? with negative imperatives only will is possible
Same-way question tags
Although the basic structure of tag questions is positive-negative or negative-positive, it is sometime

possible to use a positive-positive or negative-negative structure. We use same-way question tags to
express interest, surprise, anger etc, and not to make real questions.
• So you’re having a baby, are you? That’s wonderful!

• She wants to marry him, does she? Some chance!
• So you think that’s amusing, do you? Think again.
Negative-negative tag questions usually sound rather hostile:
• So you don’t like my looks, don’t you?
Subjunctive
The subjunctive is a special, relatively rare verb form in English.
Structure of the Subjunctive

The structure of the subjunctive is extremely simple. For all verbs except the past tense of be, the
subjunctive is the same as the bare infinitive (infinitive without “to”):
be (past) be (present) all other verbs (past & present)
I were I be I work
you were you be you work
he, she, it were he, she, it be he, she, it work
we were we be we work
you were you be you work
they were they be they work
The subjunctive does not change according to person

(I, you, he etc).
Use of the Subjunctive

We use subjunctives mainly when talking about events that are not certain to happen. For example, we
use the subjunctive when talking about events that somebody:
• wants to happen
• hopes will happen
• imagines happening
• The President requests that you be present at the meeting.

• It is vital that you be present at the meeting.
• If you were at the meeting, the President would be happy.
The subjunctive is typically used after two structures:
• the verbs: ask, command, demand, insist, propose, recommend, request, suggest + that
• the expressions: it is desirable, essential, important, necessary, vital + that
Here are some examples with the subjunctive:
• The manager insists that the car park be locked at night.

• The board of directors recommended that he join the company.
• It is essential that we vote as soon as possible.
• It was necessary that every student submit his essay by the weekend.
Notice that in these structures the subjunctive is always the same. It does not matter whether the
sentence is past or present. Look at these examples:
• Present: The President requests that they stop the occupation.

• Past: The President requested that they stop the occupation.
• Present: It essential that she be present.
• Past: It was essential that she be present.
The use of the subjunctive as above is more common

in USA English than in English, where should +
infinitive is often used:
l The manager insists that the car park should

be locked at night.
l It was essential that we should vote as soon as
possible.
We usually use the subjunctive were instead of “was” after if (and other words with similar meaning).
Look at these sentences:
• If I were you, I would ask her.

• Suppose she were here. What would you say?
Why do we say “I were”, “he were”?
We sometimes hear things like “if I were you, I would go” or “if he were here, he would tell you”.
Normally, the past tense of the verb “to be” is: I was, he was. But the if I were you structure does not use
the past simple tense of the verb “to be”. It uses the past subjunctive of the verb “to be”. In the
following examples, you can see that we often use the subjunctive form were instead of “was” after:
• if
• as if
• wish
• suppose
Formal Informal
(The were form is correct at all times.) (The was form is possible in informal, familiar
conversation.)
If I were younger, I would go. If I was younger, I would go.
If he weren’t so mean, he would buy

If he wasn’t so mean, he would buy one for me.
one for me.
I wish I weren’t so slow! I wish I wasn’t so slow!
I wish it were longer. I wish it was longer.
It’s not as if I were ugly. It’s not as if I was ugly.
She acts as if she were Queen. She acts as if she was Queen.
Note: We do not normally say “if I was you”, even in

If I were you, I should tell her.
familiar conversation.
Some fixed expressions use the subjunctive. Here are some examples:
• Long live the King!

• God bless America!
• Heaven forbid!
• Be that as it may, he still wants to see her.
• Come what may, I will never forget you.
• We are all citizens of the world, as it were.
Active Voice, Passive Voice

There are two special forms for verbs called voice:
1. Active voice
2. Passive voice
The active voice is the “normal” voice. This is the voice that we use most of the time. You are probably
already familiar with the active voice. In the active voice, the object receives the action of the verb:
subject verb object
active >
Cats eat fish.
The passive voice is less usual. In the passive voice, the subject receives the action of the verb:
subject verb object
passive <
Fish are eaten by cats.
The object of the active verb becomes the subject of the passive verb:
subject verb object
active Everybody drinks water.
passive Water is drunk by everybody.
Passive Voice
The passive voice is less usual than the active voice. The active voice is the “normal” voice. But
sometimes we need the passive voice. In this lesson we look at how to construct the passive voice, when
to use it and how to conjugate it.
Construction of the Passive Voice

The structure of the passive voice is very simple:
subject + auxiliary verb (be) + main verb (past participle)

The main verb is always in its past participle form.
subject auxiliary verb (to be) main verb (past participle)
Water is drunk by everyone.
100 people are employed by this company.
I am paid in euro.
We are not paid in dollars.
Are they paid in yen?
Use of the Passive Voice

We use the passive when:
• we want to make the active object more important
• we do not know the active subject

subject verb object
give importance to active object

President Kennedy was killed by Lee Harvey Oswald.
(President Kennedy)
active subject unknown My wallet has been stolen. ?

Note that we always use by to introduce the passive object (Fish are eaten by cats).
Look at this sentence:
lHe was killed with a gun.

Normally we use by to introduce the passive object.
But the gun is not the active subject. The gun did not
kill him. He was killed by somebody with a gun. In
the active voice, it would be: Somebody killed him
with a gun. The gun is the instrument. Somebody is
the “agent” or “doer”.
Conjugation for the Passive Voice

We can form the passive in any tense. In fact, conjugation of verbs in the passive tense is rather easy, as
the main verb is always in past participle form and the auxiliary verb is always be. To form the required
tense, we conjugate the auxiliary verb. So, for example:
• present simple: It is made

• present continuous: It is being made
• present perfect: It has been made
Here are some examples with most of the possible tenses:
infinitive to be washed
present It is washed.
past It was washed.

simple
future It will be washed.
conditional It would be washed.
present It is being washed.
continuous past It was being washed.
future It will be being washed.
conditional It would be being washed.
present It has been washed.
past It had been washed.

perfect simple
future It will have been washed.
conditional It would have been washed.
present It has been being washed.
past It had been being washed.

perfect continuous
future It will have been being washed.
conditional It would have been being washed.
Infinitive or -ing?
Sometimes we need to decide whether to use a verb in its:
• -ing form (doing, singing)
or
• infinitive form (to do, to sing).
For example, only one of the following sentences is correct. Which one?
• I dislike working late. (???)

• I dislike to work late. (???)
When to use the infinitive

The infinitive form is used after certain verbs:
- forget, help, learn, teach, train
- choose, expect, hope, need, offer, want, would like
- agree, encourage, pretend, promise, recommend
- allow, can/can’t afford, decide, manage, mean, refuse
• I forgot to close the window.

• Mary needs to leave early.
• Why are they encouraged to learn English?
• We can’t afford to take a long holiday.
The infinitive form is always used after adjectives, for example:

- disappointed, glad, happy, pleased, relieved, sad, surprised
• I was happy to help them.
• She will be delighted to see you.
This includes too + adjective:
• The water was too cold to swim in.

• Is your coffee too hot to drink?
The infinitive form is used after adjective + enough:
• He was strong enough to lift it.

• She is rich enough to buy two.
When to use -ing

The -ing form is used when the word is the subject of a sentence or clause:
• Swimming is good exercise.

• Doctors say that smoking is bad for you.
The -ing form is used after a preposition:
• I look forward to meeting you.

• They left without saying “Goodbye.”
The -ing form is used after certain verbs:

- avoid, dislike, enjoy, finish, give up, mind/not mind, practise
• I dislike getting up early.

• Would you mind opening the window?
Some verbs can be followed by the -ing form or the

infinitive without a big change in meaning: begin,
continue, hate, intend, like, love, prefer, propose, start.
l It started to rain.
l It started raining.
l I like to play tennis.
l I like playing tennis.
Plural Verbs with Singular Subjects

We often use singular nouns that refer to groups of people (for example: team, government,
committee) as if they were plural. This is particularly true in English and less true in USA English. This
is because we often think of the group as people, doing things that people do (eating, wanting, feeling
etc).
In such cases, we use:
• plural verb
• they (not it)
• who (not which)
• The committee want sandwiches for lunch. They have to leave early.
• My family, who don’t see me often, have asked me home for Christmas.
• The team hope to win next time.
Here are some examples of words and expressions that can be considered singular or plural:
• choir, class, club, committee, company, family, government, jury, school, staff, team, union, the
BBC, board of directors, the Conservative Party, Manchester United, the Ministry of Health
But when we consider the group as an impersonal unit, we use singular verbs and pronouns:
• The new company is the result of a merger.

• An average family consists of four people.
• The committee, which was formed in 1999, is made up of four men and four women.
Notice that this is often a question of style and logic. The important thing is to be consistent.
Using a plural verb with singular subject is less

common in USA English.
Verb Meanings with Continuous Tenses

There are some verbs that we do not normally use in the continuous tense. And there are other verbs that
we use in the simple tense with one meaning and in the continuous tense with another meaning.
In this lesson we look at various uses of continuous tenses, followed by a quiz to check your
understanding:
• Verbs not Used with Continuous Tenses

• Verbs with Two Meanings
• Be and Continuous Tenses
Verbs not Used with Continuous Tenses

There are some verbs that we do not normally use with continuous tenses. We usually use the following
verbs with simple tenses only (not continuous tenses):
• hate, like, love, need, prefer, want, wish

• believe, imagine, know, mean, realize, recognize, remember, suppose, understand
• belong, concern, consist, contain, depend, involve, matter, need, owe, own, possess
• appear, resemble, seem,
• hear, see
I want a coffee. not I am wanting a coffee.
I don’t believe you are right. not I am not believing you are right.
Does this pen belong to you? not Is this pen belonging to you?
It seemed wrong. not It was seeming wrong.
I don’t hear anything. not I am not hearing anything.
Notice that we often use can + see/hear:
• I can see someone in the distance.

(not I am seeing someone in the distance.)
• I can’t hear you very well.
(not I am not hearing you very well.)
With verbs that we don’t use in the continuous tense,

there is no real action or activity. Compare “to hear”
and “to listen”. “To hear” means “to receive sound in
your ears”. There is no real action or activity by you.
We use “to hear” with simple tenses only. But “to
listen” means “to try to hear”. You make an effort to
hear. There is a kind of action or activity. We can use
“to listen” with simple or continuous tenses.
Verbs with Two Meanings

Some verbs have two different meanings or senses. For one sense we must use a simple tense. For the
other sense we can use a continuous or simple tense.
For example, the verb to think has two different senses:
1. to believe, to have an opinion

I think Ricky Martin is sexy.
2. to reflect, to use your brain to solve a problem
I am thinking about my homework.
In sense 1 there is no real action, no activity. This sense is called “stative”. In sense 2 there is a kind of
action, a kind of activity. This sense is called “dynamic”.
When we use the stative sense, we use a simple tense. When we use the dynamic sense, we can use a
simple or continuous tense, depending on the situation.
Look at the examples in the table opposite:
If you have a doubt about a particular verb, ask yourself the question: “Is
there any real action or activity?”
Stative sense Dynamic sense

(no real action) (a kind of action)
Simple only Continuous Simple
I will think about this

I think she is beautiful. Be quiet. I’m thinking.
problem tomorrow.
I don’t consider that We are considering your job We consider every job
he is the right man for application and will give you our application very
the job. answer in a few days. carefully.
A good carpenter
This table measures 4 She is measuring the room for a
measures his wood
x 6 feet. new carpet.
carefully.
Does the wine taste I was tasting the wine when I I always taste wine
good? dropped the glass. before I drink it.
Mary has three Please phone later. We are having We have dinner at 8pm
children. dinner now. every day.
Be and Continuous Tenses

The verb be can be an auxiliary verb (Marie is learning English) or a main verb (Marie is French). On
this page we look at the verb be as a main verb.
Usually we use simple tenses with the verb be as a main verb. For example, we say:
• London is the capital of the UK.

(not London is being the capital of the UK.)
• Is she beautiful?
(not Is she being beautiful?)
• Were you late?
(not Were you being late?)
Sometimes, however, we can use the verb be with a continuous tense. This is when the real sense of the
verb be is “act” or “behave”. Also, of course, the action is temporary. Compare the examples in the table
opposite:
Here is the structure of the verb be in the continuous present tense:

I am being
You are being
He, she, it is being
We are being
They are being
John is being careful. (John is acting carefully

Mary is a careful person. (Mary is
now, but maybe he is not always careful - we
always careful - it’s her nature.)
don’t know.)
Is he always so stupid? (Is that his They were being really stupid. (They were
personality?) behaving really stupidly at that moment.)
Andrew is not usually selfish. (It is Why is he being so selfish? (Why is he acting so
not Andrew’s character to be selfish.) selfishly at the moment?)
Notice that we also make a difference between “to be sick” and “to be being sick”:
• She is sick (= she is not well)

• She is being sick (= she is vomiting)
Used to do & Be used to

These two expressions look the same, but in fact they are completely different.
In this lesson we look at the structure and use of both expressions, followed by a quiz to check your
understanding:
• Used to do
• Be used to
Used to do
We use used to do to talk about the past. It is not a tense but it is like a tense. It is a special expression.
We use the expression used to do for the past only.
Do not confuse used to do with with the expression be

used to. They have different meanings.
Use of Used to do
We use the used to do expression to talk about:
• an activity that we did regularly in the past (like a habit)

• a situation that was true in the past
I used to smoke.
//////
past present future
Look at these examples.
the past the present
She used to work in a shop. Now she works in a bank.
He used to watch a lot of TV. Now he doesn’t watch much TV.
They used to be married. Now they are divorced.
There used to be a cinema here. Now there is a supermarket here.
I didn’t use to go swimming. Now I go swimming.
Did you use to smoke?
Be used to
Be used to something
Be used to doing
Be used to is an expression. It is not a tense. If I say “I am used to Thailand”, it is like saying “I am

accustomed to Thailand.”
Do not confuse be used to with with the special

construction used to do. They have different meanings.
Structure of Be used to
The structure is:
subject + be + used to + object
main verb
subject be not used to object
+ I am used to horses.
He is not used to horses.

-
We aren’t used to horses.
? Are you used to horses?
If the object invoves a verb, we use the -ing form:
I am not used to being lied to.
He is used to working late.
We aren’t used to taking the bus.
Are you used to cooking?
Why do we use -ing for a verb after be used to?

Because we always use -ing for a verb after a
preposition - and the to is a preposition.
Use of Be used to
The be used to expression is for talking about something that is familiar to us or easy for us. For
example:
• I am used to driving on the left.
It means that it is not a problem for me to drive on the left of the road. I am Japanese. In Japan, people
drive on the left. Now I am living in the USA where people drive on the right. Of course, I drive on the
right in the USA, but when I go to Japan it is easy for me to drive on the left because “I am used to it”.
Look at these examples.
• I am used to hard work.

• I am used to working hard.
• He is not used to New York.
• He isn’t used to living in New York.
• Are you used to fast food?
• Are you used to eating quickly?
Tenses
We can use be used to in any tense. We just conjugate the verb be in the tense that we need. Look at
these examples:
• When we lived in Bangkok, we were used to hot weather.

• I have been used to snakes for a long time.
• You will soon be used to living alone.
Going to
Going to is not a tense. It is a special expression to talk about the future.
Structure of Going to
The structure is:
subject + be + going + infinitive

The verb be is conjugated (past, present or future).
subject be (not) going infinitive
+ I am going to buy a new car.
+ I’m going to go swimming.
- He is not going to take the exam.
- It isn’t going to rain.
? Are you going to paint the house?
Use of Going to
Going to - intention
We use going to when we have the intention to do something before we speak. We have already made a
decision before speaking. Look at these examples:
• Jo has won the lottery. He says he’s going to buy a Porsche.

• We’re not going to paint our bedroom tomorrow.
• When are you going to go on holiday?
In these examples, we had an intention or plan before speaking. The decision was made before
speaking.
Going to - prediction
We often use going to to make a prediction about the future. Our prediction is based on present
evidence. We are saying what we think will happen. Here are some examples:
• The sky is very black. It’s going to snow.

• It’s 8.30! You’re going to miss the train!
• I crashed the company car. My boss isn’t going to be very happy!
In these examples, the present situation (black sky, the time, damaged car) gives us a good idea of what
is going to happen.
2. Nouns
It’s not easy to describe a noun. In simple terms, nouns are “things” (and verbs are “actions”). Like
food. Food (noun) is something you eat (verb). Or happiness. Happiness (noun) is something you want
(verb). Or human being. A human being (noun) is something you are (verb).
What are Nouns?

The simple definition is: a person, place or thing. Here are some examples:
• person: man, woman, teacher, John, Mary

• place: home, office, town, countryside, America
• thing: table, car, banana, money, music, love, dog, monkey
The problem with this definition is that it does not explain why “love” is a noun but can also be a verb.
Another (more complicated) way of recognizing a noun is by its:
1. Ending
2. Position
3. Function
1. Noun Ending
There are certain word endings that show that a word is a noun, for example:
• -ity > nationality

• -ment > appointment
• -ness > happiness
• -ation > relation
• -hood > childhood
But this is not is not true for the word endings of all nouns. For example, the noun “spoonful” ends in -
ful, but the adjective “careful” also ends in -ful.
2. Position in Sentence
We can often recognise a noun by its position in the sentence.
Nouns often come after a determiner (a determiner is a word like a, an, the, this, my, such):
• a relief
• an afternoon
• the doctor
• this word
• my house
• such stupidity
Nouns often come after one or more adjectives:
• a great relief
• a peaceful afternoon
• the tall, Indian doctor
• this difficult word
• my brown and white house
• such crass stupidity
3. Function in a Sentence
Nouns have certain functions (jobs) in a sentence, for example:
• subject of verb: Doctors work hard.

• object of verb: He likes coffee.
• subject and object of verb: Teachers teach students.
But the subject or object of a sentence is not always a noun. It could be a pronoun or a phrase. In the
sentence “My doctor works hard”, the noun is “doctor” but the subject is “My doctor”.
Countable Nouns, Uncountable Nouns

Why is this important? Why do some nouns have no plural?
dog/dogs, rice, hair(s)
Proper Nouns (Names) | Quiz

Do we say “Atlantic Ocean” or “the Atlantic Ocean”? Should I write “february” or “February”?
Shirley, Mr Jeckyll, Thailand, Sony
Possessive ‘s
Adding ‘s or ‘ to show possession.
John’s car, my parents’ house
Countable and Uncountable Nouns

English nouns are often described as “countable” or “uncountable”.
In this lesson we look at:
• Countable Nouns
• Uncountable Nouns
• Nouns that can be Countable & Uncountable
Countable Nouns
Countable nouns are easy to recognize. They are things that we can count. For example: “pen”. We can
count pens. We can have one, two, three or more pens. Here are some more countable nouns:
• dog, cat, animal, man, person

• bottle, box, litre
• coin, note, dollar
• cup, plate, fork
• table, chair, suitcase, bag
Countable nouns can be singular or plural:
• My dog is playing.
• My dogs are hungry.
We can use the indefinite article a/an with countable nouns:
• A dog is an animal.
When a countable noun is singular, we must use a word like a/the/my/this with it:
• I want an orange. (not I want orange.)

• Where is my bottle? (not Where is bottle?)
When a countable noun is plural, we can use it alone:
• I like oranges.
• Bottles can break.
We can use some and any with countable nouns:
• I’ve got some dollars.

• Have you got any pens?
We can use a few and many with countable nouns:
• I’ve got a few dollars.

• I haven’t got many pens.
“People” is countable. “People” is the plural of

“person”. We can count people. There is one person
here. There are three people here.
Uncountable Nouns
Uncountable nouns are substances, concepts etc that we cannot divide into separate elements. We cannot
“count” them. For example, we cannot count “milk”. We can count “bottles of milk” or “litres of milk”,
but we cannot count “milk” itself. Here are some more uncountable nouns:
• music, art, love, happiness

• advice, information, news
• furniture, luggage
• rice, sugar, butter, water
• electricity, gas, power
• money, currency
We usually treat uncountable nouns as singular. We use a singular verb. For example:
• This news is very important.

• Your luggage looks heavy.
We do not usually use the indefinite article a/an with uncountable nouns. We cannot say “an
information” or “a music”. But we can say a something of:
• a piece of news
• a bottle of water
• a grain of rice
We can use some and any with uncountable nouns:
• I’ve got some money.

• Have you got any rice?
We can use a little and much with uncountable nouns:
• I’ve got a little money.

• I haven’t got much rice.
Uncountable nouns are also called “mass nouns”.
Here are some more examples of countable and uncountable nouns. When you learn a new word, it’s
a good idea to learn whether it’s countable or uncountable.
Nouns that can be Countable and Uncountable

Sometimes, the same noun can be countable and uncountable, often with a change of meaning.
Countable Uncountable
There are two hairs in my coffee! hair I don’t have much hair.
Close the curtain. There’s too

There are two lights in our bedroom. light
much light!
It’s difficult to work when

Shhhhh! I thought I heard a noise. noise
there is too much noise.
I want to draw a picture. Have

Have you got a paper to read? (= newspaper) paper
you got some paper?
Is there room for me to sit

Our house has seven rooms. room
here?
We had a great time at the party. time Have you got time for a
coffee?
Macbeth is one of Shakespeare’s greatest works. work I have no money. I need

work!
Drinks (coffee, water, orange juice) are usually uncountable. But if we are
thinking of a cup or a glass, we can say (in a restaurant, for example):
l Two teas and one coffee please.
3. Adjectives
An adjective is a word that tells us more about a noun. (By “noun” we include pronouns and noun
phrases.) An adjective “qualifies” or “modifies” a noun (a big dog). Adjectives can be used before a
noun (I like Chinese food) or after certain verbs (It is hard). We can often use two or more adjectives
together (a beautiful young French lady).
It is sometimes said that the adjective is the enemy of

the noun. This is because, very often, if we use the
precise noun we don’t need an adjective. For example,
instead of saying “a large, impressive house” (2
adjectives + 1 noun) we could simply say “a
mansion” (1 noun).
Determiners
the, a/an, this, some, any
Adjective Order (with Quiz)

beautiful, long, dark brown
richer, more exciting
the richest, the most exciting
Determiners
Determiners are words like the, an, my, some. They are grammatically similar. They all come at the
beginning of noun phrases, and usually we cannot use more than one determiner in the same noun
phrase.
Articles:
• a, an, the
Possessives:
• my, your, his, her, our, their
Other determiners:
• each, every
• either, neither
• any, some, no
• much, many; more, most
• little, less, least
• few, fewer, fewest
• what, whatever; which, whichever
• both, half, all
• several
• enough
A, An or The?
Each, Every
Some, Any
Some grammarians do not consider determiners as

adjectives, but give them a class of their own.
Determiners: A, An or The?
When do we say “the dog” and when do we say “a dog”? (On this page we talk only about singular,
countable nouns.)
The and a/an are called “articles”. We divide them into “definite” and “indefinite” like this:
Articles
Definite Indefinite
the a, an
We use “definite” to mean sure, certain. “Definite” is particular.
We use “indefinite” to mean not sure, not certain. “Indefinite” is general.
When we are talking about one thing in particular, we use the. When we are talking about one thing in
general, we use a or an.
Think of the sky at night. In the sky there is 1 moon and millions of stars. So normally we could say:
• I saw the moon last night.

• I saw a star last night.
the a, an
l The capital of France is Paris. l I was born in a town.

l I have found the book that I lost. l John had an omelette for lunch.
l Have you cleaned the car? l James Bond ordered a drink.
l There are six eggs in the fridge. l We want to buy an umbrella.
l Please switch off the TV when you finish. l Have you got a pen?
Of course, often we can use the or a/an for the same word. It depends on the situation. Look at these
examples:
• We want to buy an umbrella. (Any umbrella, not a particular umbrella.)

• Where is the umbrella? (We already have an umbrella. We are looking for our umbrella, a
particular umbrella.)
This little story should help you understand the

difference between the and a, an:
A man and a woman were walking in Oxford Street.

The woman saw a dress that she liked in a shop. She
asked the man if he could buy the dress for her. He
said: “Do you think the shop will accept a cheque? I
don’t have a credit card.”
Determiners: Each, Every

Each and every have similar but not always identical meanings.
Each = every one separately

Every = each, all
Sometimes, each and every have the same meaning:
• Prices go up each year.

• Prices go up every year.
But often they are not exactly the same.
Each expresses the idea of ‘one by one’. It emphasizes individuality.
Every is half-way between each and all. It sees things or people as singular, but in a group or in general.
Consider the following:
• Every artist is sensitive.

• Each artist sees things differently.
• Every soldier saluted as the President arrived.
• The President gave each soldier a medal.
Each can be used in front of the verb:
• The soldiers each received a medal.
Each can be followed by ‘of’:
• The President spoke to each of the soldiers.

• He gave a medal to each of them.
Every cannot be used for 2 things. For 2 things, each can be used:
• He was carrying a suitcase in each hand.
Every is used to say how often something happens:
• There is a plane to Bangkok every day.

• The bus leaves every hour.
Verbs with each and every are always conjugated in

the singular.
Determiners: Some, Any

Some = a little, a few or a small number or amount
Any = one, some or all
Usually, we use some in positive (+) sentences and any in negative (-) and question (?) sentences.
some any example
I have some
+ money.
I have $10.
I don’t have any I don’t have $1 and I don’t have $10 and I don’t have
- money. $1,000,000. I have $0.
Do you have any

? money?
Do you have $1 or $10 or $1,000,000?
In general, we use something/anything and

somebody/anybody in the same way as some/any.
• He needs some stamps.

• I must go. I have some homework to do.
• I’m thirsty. I want something to drink.
• I can see somebody coming.
• He doesn’t need any stamps.
• I can stay. I don’t have any homework to do.
• I’m not thirsty. I don’t want anything to drink.
• I can’t see anybody coming.
• Does he need any stamps?
• Do you have any homework to do?
• Do you want anything to drink?
• Can you see anybody coming?
We use any in a positive sentence when the real sense is negative.
• I refused to give them any money. (I did not give them any money)
• She finished the test without any difficulty. (she did not have any difficulty)
Sometimes we use some in a question, when we expect a positive YES answer. (We could say that it is
not a real question, because we think we know the answer already.)
• Would you like some more tea?

• Could I have some sugar, please?
Adjective Order
There are 2 basic positions for adjectives:
1. before the noun

2. after certain verbs (be, become, get, seem, look, feel, sound, smell, taste)
adj. noun verb adj.
1 I like big cars.
2 My car is big.
In this lesson we look at the position of adjectives in a sentence, followed by a quiz to check your
understanding:
• Adjective before noun

• Adjective after certain verbs
Adjective Before Noun

We sometimes use more than one adjective before the noun:
• I like big black dogs.

• She was wearing a beautiful long red dress.
What is the correct order for two or more adjectives?
1. The general order is: opinion, fact:
• a nice French car (not a French nice car)
(“Opinion” is what you think about something. “Fact” is what is definitely true about something.)
2. The normal order for fact adjectives is size, age, shape, colour, material, origin:
• a big, old, square, black, wooden Chinese table
3. Determiners usually come first, even though they are fact adjectives:
• articles (a, the)

• possessives (my, your...)
• demonstratives (this, that...)
• quantifiers (some, any, few, many...)
• numbers (one, two, three)
Here is an example with opinion and fact adjectives:
adjectives noun
deter- opinion fact

miner
age shape colour
two nice old round red candles
When we want to use two colour adjectives, we join them with “and”:
• Newspapers are usually black and white.

• She was wearing a long, blue and yellow dress.
The rules on this page are for the normal, “natural”

order of adjectives. But these rules are not rigid, and
you may sometimes wish to change the order for
emphasis. Consider the following conversations:
Conversation 1
A “I want to buy a round table.”
B “Do you want a new round table or an old round
table?”
Conversation 2
A “I want to buy an old table”.
B “Do you want a round old table or a square old
table?”
Adjective After Verb

We can use an adjective after certain verbs. Even though the adjective comes after the verb, it does not
describe the verb. It describes the subject of the verb (usually a noun or pronoun).
Look at the examples opposite:
subject verb adjective
• Ram is English.
• Because she had to wait, she became impatient.
• Is it getting dark?
• The examination did not seem difficult.
• Your friend looks nice.
• This towel feels damp.
• That new film doesn’t sound very interesting.
• Dinner smells good tonight.
• This milk tastes sour.
When we talk about two things, we can “compare” them. We can see if they are the same or different.
Perhaps they are the same in some ways and different in other ways. We can use comparative adjectives
to describe the differences.
In the example opposite, “bigger” is the comparative form of the adjective “big”:
We can use comparative adjectives when talking about two things (not three or more things).
A
The first A is bigger than the second A.
In this lesson we will look first at how we make comparative adjectives, and then at how we use them:
• Formation of Comparative Adjectives

• Use of Comparative Adjectives
Formation of Comparative Adjectives

There are two ways to make or form a comparative adjective:
• short adjectives: add “-er”

• long adjectives: use “more”
Short adjectives
l 1-syllable adjectives old, fast
l 2-syllable adjectives ending in -y happy, easy
Normal rule: add “-er” old > older
Variation: if the adjective ends in -e, just add -r late > later
Variation: if the adjective ends in consonant, vowel, consonant, double the

big > bigger
last consonant
Variation: if the adjective ends in -y, change the y to i happy > happier
Long adjectives
l 2-syllable adjectives not ending in -y modern, pleasant
l all adjectives of 3 or more syllables expensive, intellectual
modern > more modern

Normal rule: use “more” expensive > more
expensive
With some 2-syllable adjectives, we can use ‘-er’ or ‘more’:
l quiet > quieter/more quiet

l clever > cleverer/more clever
l narrow > narrower/more narrow

l simple > simpler/more simple
Exception
The following adjectives have irregular forms:
• good > better

• well (healthy) > better
• bad > worse
• far > farther/further
With some 2-syllable adjectives, we can use ‘-er’ or

‘more’:
l quiet > quieter/more quiet

l clever > cleverer/more clever
l narrow > narrower/more narrow
l simple > simpler/more simple
Exception
• good > better

• well (healthy) > better
• bad > worse
• far > farther/further
Earth Mars
Diameter (km) 12,760 6,790 Mars is smaller than Earth.
Distance from Sun (million 150 228 Mars is more distant from the Sun.
km)
A day on Mars is slightly longer than a day on

Length of day (hours) 24 25
Earth.
Moons 1 2 Mars has more moons than Earth.
Surface temperature (°C) 22 -23 Mars is colder than Earth.
A superlative adjective expresses the extreme or highest degree of a quality. We use a superlative
adjective to describe the extreme quality of one thing in a group of things.
In the example opposite, “biggest” is the superlative form of the adjective “big”:
We can use superlative adjectives when talking about three or more things (not two things).
B
C
A is the biggest.
In this lesson we will look first at how we make superlative adjectives, and then at how we use them:
• Formation of Superlative Adjectives

• Use of Superlative Adjectives
Formation of Superlative Adjectives

As with comparative adjectives, there are two ways to form a superlative adjective:
• short adjectives: add “-est”

• long adjectives: use “most”
We also usually add ‘the’ at the beginning.
Short adjectives
1-syllable adjectives old, fast
2-syllable adjectives ending in -y happy, easy
Normal rule: add “-est” old > the oldest
Variation: if the adjective ends in -e, just add -st late > the latest
Variation: if the adjective ends in consonant, vowel, consonant, double

big > the biggest
the last consonant
Variation: if the adjective ends in -y, change the y to i happy > the happiest
Long adjectives
2-syllable adjectives not ending in -y modern, pleasant
all adjectives of 3 or more syllables expensive, intellectual
modern > the most

Normal rule: use “most” modern
expensive > the most
expensive
With some 2-syllable adjectives, we can use ‘-est’ or ‘most’:
l quiet > the quietest/most quiet

l clever > the cleverest/most clever
l narrow > the narrowest/most narrow
l simple > the simplest/most simple
Exception
• good > the best

• bad > the worst
• far > the furthest
Use of Superlative Adjectives

We use a superlative adjective to describe one thing in a group of three or more things. Look at these
examples:
• John is 1m75. David is 1m80. Chris is 1m85. Chris is the tallest.

• Canada, China and Russia are big countries. But Russia is the biggest.
• Mount Everest is the highest mountain in the world.
If we talk about the three planets Earth, Mars and Jupiter, we can use superlative adjectives as shown in
the table opposite:
When we compare one thing with itself, we do not use “the”:
l England is coldest in winter. (not the coldest)

l My boss is most generous when we get a big order.
(not the most generous)
Earth Mars Jupiter

Dia- 12,760 6,790 142,800 Jupiter is the biggest.
meter (km)
Dis-
Jupiter is the most distant
tance from Sun (million 150 228 778
from the Sun.
km)
Jupiter has the shortest
Length of day (hours) 24 25 10
day.
Jupiter has the most

Moons 1 2 16
moons.
Surface temp.
22 -23 -150 Jupiter is the coldest.
°C)
4. Adverbs
An adverb is a word that tells us more about a verb. An adverb “qualifies” or “modifies” a verb (The
man ran quickly). But adverbs can also modify adjectives (Tara is really beautiful), or even other
adverbs (It works very well).
Many different kinds of word are called adverbs. We can usually recognise an adverb by its:
1. Function (Job)
2. Form
3. Position
1. Function
The principal job of an adverb is to modify (give more information about) verbs, adjectives and other
adverbs. In the following examples, the adverb is in bold and the word that it modifies is in italics.
• Modify a verb:
- John speaks loudly. (How does John speak?)
- Mary lives locally. (Where does Mary live?)
- She never smokes. (When does she smoke?)
• Modify an adjective:
- He is really handsome.
• Modify another adverb:
- She drives incredibly slowly.
But adverbs have other functions, too. They can:
• Modify a whole sentence:

- Obviously, I can’t know everything.
• Modify a prepositional phrase:
- It’s immediately inside the door.
2. Form
Many adverbs end in -ly. We form such adverbs by adding -ly to the adjective. Here are some examples:
• quickly, softly, strongly, honestly, interestingly
But not all words that end in -ly are adverbs. “Friendly”, for example, is an adjective.
Some adverbs have no particular form, for example:
• well, fast, very, never, always, often, still
3. Position
Adverbs have three main positions in the sentence:
• Front (before the subject):

- Now we will study adverbs.
• Middle (between the subject and the main verb):
- We often study adverbs.
• End (after the verb or object):
- We study adverbs carefully.
Adverbs of Frequency
Adverbs of Frequency answer the question “How often?” or “How frequently?” They tell us how often
somebody does something.
Adverbs of frequency come before the main verb (except the main verb “to be”):
• We usually go shopping on Saturday.

• I have often done that.
• She is always late.
Occasionally, sometimes, often, frequently and usually can also go at the beginning or end of a sentence:
• Sometimes they come and stay with us.

• I play tennis occasionally.
Rarely and seldom can also go at the end of a sentence (often with “very”):
• We see them rarely.

• John eats meat very seldom.
100% always
usually
frequently
often
50% sometimes
occasionally
rarely
seldom
hardly ever
0% never
5. English Pronouns
Pronouns are small words that take the place of a noun. We can use a pronoun instead of a noun.
Pronouns are words like: he, you, ours, themselves, some, each... If we didn’t have pronouns, we
would have to repeat a lot of nouns. We would have to say things like:
• Do you like the President? I don’t like the President. The President is too pompous.
With pronouns, we can say:
• Do you like the President? I don’t like him. He is too pompous.
Personal Pronouns
This summary of personal pronouns includes possessive adjectives for convenience and comparison.
pronouns
possessive
number person gender* subject object possessive reflexive adjectives
1st m/f I me mine myself my
2nd m/f you you yours yourself your
singular m he him his himself his
3rd f she her hers herself her
n it it its itself its
1st m/f we us ours ourselves our
plural 2nd m/f you you yours yourselves your
3rd m/f/n they them theirs themselves their
* m=male f=female n=neuter
Examples:
pronoun subject She likes homework.
object The teacher gave me some homework.
possessive This homework is yours.
reflexive John did the homework himself.
possessive adjective The teacher corrected our homework.
Personal Pronouns
This summary of personal pronouns includes possessive adjectives for convenience and comparison.
pronouns
possessive
number person gender* subject object possessive reflexive adjectives
1st m/f I me mine myself my
2nd m/f you you yours yourself your

singular m he him his himself his
3rd f she her hers herself her
n it it its itself its
1st m/f we us ours ourselves our
plural 2nd m/f you you yours yourselves your
3rd m/f/n they them theirs themselves their
* m=male f=female n=neuter
Examples:
pronoun subject She likes homework.
object The teacher gave me some homework.
possessive This homework is yours.
reflexive John did the homework himself.
possessive adjective The teacher corrected our homework.
6. English Prepositions
A preposition is a word governing, and usually coming in front of, a noun or pronoun and expressing a
relation to another word or element, as in:
• She left before breakfast.

• W hat did you come for?
(For what did you come?)
English Prepositions List

There are about 150 prepositions in English. Yet this is a very small number when you think of the
thousands of other words (nouns, verbs etc). Prepositions are important words. We use individual
prepositions more frequently than other individual words. In fact, the prepositions of, to and in are
among the ten most frequent words in English. Here is a short list of 70 of the more common one-word
prepositions. Many of these prepositions have more than one meaning. Please refer to a dictionary for
precise meaning and usage.
• aboard
• about
• above
• across
• after
• against
• along
• amid
• among
• anti
• around
• as
• at
• before
• behind
• below
• beneath
• beside
• besides
• between
• beyond
• but
• by
• concerning
• considering
• despite
• down
• during
• except
• excepting
• excluding
• following
• for
• from
• in
• inside
• into
• like
• minus
• near
• of
• off
• on
• onto
• opposite
• outside
• over
• past
• per
• plus
• regarding
• round
• save
• since
• than
• through
• to
• toward
• towards
• under
• underneath
• unlike
• until
• up
• upon
• versus
• via
• with
• within
• without
English Preposition Rule

There is one very simple rule about prepositions. And, unlike most rules, this rule has no exceptions.
Rule
A preposition is followed by a “noun”. It is never followed by a verb.
By “noun” we include:
• noun (dog, money, love)

• proper noun (name) (Bangkok, Mary)
• pronoun (you, him, us)
• noun group (my first job)
• gerund (swimming)
A preposition cannot be followed by a verb. If we want to follow a preposition by a verb, we must use
the “-ing” form which is really a gerund or verb in noun form.
Quick Quiz: In the following sentences, why is “to” followed by a verb? That should be impossible,
according to the above rule:
• I would like to go now.

• She used to smoke.
Subject + verb preposition “noun”
The food is on the table.
She lives in Japan.
Tara is looking for you.
The letter is under your blue book.
Pascal is used to English people.
She isn’t used to working.
I ate before coming.
Answer to Quick Quiz: In these sentences, “to” is not a preposition. It is part of the infinitive (“to go”, “to smoke”).
Prepositions of Place:
at, in, on
In general, we use:
• at for a POINT
• in for an ENCLOSED SPACE
• on for a SURFACE
at in on
POINT ENCLOSED SPACE SURFACE
at the corner in the garden on the wall
at the bus stop in London on the ceiling
at the door in France on the door
at the top of the page in a box on the cover
at the end of the road in my pocket on the floor
at the entrance in my wallet on the carpet
at the crossroads in a building on the menu
at the entrance in a car on a page
• Jane is waiting for you at the bus stop.

• The shop is at the end of the street.
• My plane stopped at Dubai and Hanoi and arrived in Bangkok two hours late.
• When will you arrive at the office?
• Do you work in an office?
• I have a meeting in New York.
• Do you live in Japan?
• Jupiter is in the Solar System.
• The author’s name is on the cover of the book.
• There are no prices on this menu.
• You are standing on my foot.
• There was a “no smoking” sign on the wall.
• I live on the 7th floor at 21 Oxford Street in London.
Notice the use of the prepositions of place at, in and on in these standard expressions:
at in on
at home in a car on a bus
at work in a taxi on a train
at school in a helicopter on a plane
at university in a boat on a ship
at college in a lift (elevator) on a bicycle, on a motorbike
at the top in the newspaper on a horse, on an elephant
at the bottom in the sky on the radio, on television
at the side in a row on the left, on the right
at reception in Oxford Street on the way
Prepositions of Time:
at, in, on
We use:
• at for a PRECISE TIME

• in for MONTHS, YEARS, CENTURIES and LONG PERIODS
• on for DAYS and DATES
at in on
PRECISE MONTHS, YEARS, CENTURIES and LONG

DAYS and DATES
TIME PERIODS
at 3 o’clock in May on Sunday
at 10.30am in summer on Tuesdays
at noon in the summer on 6 March
at dinnertime in 1990 on 25 Dec. 2010
at bedtime in the 1990s on Christmas Day
on Independence
at sunrise in the next century
Day
at sunset in the Ice Age on my birthday
at the moment in the past/future on New Year’s Eve
• I have a meeting at 9am.

• The shop closes at midnight.
• Jane went home at lunchtime.
• In England, it often snows in December.
• Do you think we will go to Jupiter in the future?
• There should be a lot of progress in the next century.
• Do you work on Mondays?
• Her birthday is on 20 November.
• Where will you be on New Year’s Day?
Notice the use of the preposition of time at in the following standard expressions:
Expression Example
at night The stars shine at night.
at the weekend I don’t usually work at the weekend.
at Christmas/Easter I stay with my family at Christmas.
at the same time We finished the test at the same time.
at present He’s not home at present. Try later.
Notice the use of the prepositions of time in and on in these common expressions:
in on
in the morning on Tuesday morning
in the mornings on Saturday mornings
in the afternoon(s) on Sunday afternoons
in the evening(s) on Monday evening
When we say last, next, every, this we do not also use at, in, on.
• I went to London last June. (not in last June)

• He’s coming back next Tuesday. (not on next Tuesday)
• I go home every Easter. (not at every Easter)
• We’ll call you this evening. (not in this evening)
7. Conjunctions
A conjunction is a word that “joins”. A conjunction joins two parts of a sentence.
Here are some example conjunctions:
Coordinating Conjunctions Subordinating Conjunctions
and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so although, because, since, unless
We can consider conjunctions from three aspects.
Form
Conjunctions have three basic forms:
• Single Word
for example: and, but, because, although
• Compound (often ending with as or that)
for example: provided that, as long as, in order that
• Correlative (surrounding an adverb or adjective)
for example: so...that
Function
Conjunctions have two basic functions or “jobs”:
• Coordinating conjunctions are used to join two parts of a sentence that are grammatically equal.
The two parts may be single words or clauses, for example:
- Jack and Jill went up the hill.
- The water was warm but I didn’t go swimming.
• Subordinating conjunctions are used to join a subordinate dependent clause to a main clause,
for example:
- I went swimming, although it was cold.
Position
• Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses that they join.
• Subordinating conjunctions usually come at the beginning of the subordinate clause.
In this lesson we will look in more detail at:
• Coordinating Conjunctions
• Subordinating Conjunctions
Coordinating Conjunctions
The short, simple conjunctions are called “coordinating conjunctions”:
• and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so
A coordinating conjunction joins parts of a sentence (for example words or independent clauses) that are
grammatically equal or similar. A coordinating conjunction shows that the elements it joins are similar
in importance and structure:
Look at these examples - the two elements that the coordinating conjunction joins are shown in square
brackets [ ]:
• I like [tea] and [coffee].

• [Ram likes tea], but [Anthony likes coffee].
Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses that they join.
When a coordinating conjunction joins independent clauses, it is always correct to place a comma before
the conjunction:
• I want to work as an interpreter in the future, so I am studying Russian at university.
However, if the independent clauses are short and well-balanced, a comma is not really essential:
• She is kind so she helps people.
When “and” is used with the last word of a list, a comma is optional:
• He drinks beer, whisky, wine, and rum.

• He drinks beer, whisky, wine and rum.
The 7 coordinating conjunctions are short, simple

words. They have only two or three letters. There’s an
easy way to remember them - their initials spell:
F A N B O Y S
For And Nor But Or Yet So
Subordinating Conjunctions
The majority of conjunctions are “subordinating conjunctions”. Common subordinating conjunctions
are:
• after, although, as, because, before, how, if, once, since, than, that, though, till, until, when,
where, whether, while
A subordinating conjunction joins a subordinate (dependent) clause to a main (independent) clause:
Look at this example:
main or subordinate or
independent clause dependent clause
Ram went swimming although it was raining.
subordinating
conjunction
A subordinate or dependent clause “depends” on a

main or independent clause. It cannot exist alone.
Imagine that somebody says to you: “Hello! Although
it was raining.” What do you understand? Nothing!

But a main or independent clause can exist alone. You
will understand very well if somebody says to you:
“Hello! Ram went swimming.”
A subordinating conjunction always comes at the beginning of a subordinate clause. It “introduces” a

subordinate clause. However, a subordinate clause can sometimes come after and sometimes before a
main clause. Thus, two structures are possible:
Although it was raining, Ram went swimming.
8. Interjections
Hi! That’s an interjection. :-)
Interjection is a big name for a little word. Interjections are short exclamations like Oh!, Um or Ah!
They have no real grammatical value but we use them quite often, usually more in speaking than in
writing. When interjections are inserted into a sentence, they have no grammatical connection to the
sentence. An interjection is sometimes followed by an exclamation mark (!) when written.
The table shows some interjections with examples.
Interjections like er and um are also known as

“hesitation devices”. They are extremely common in
English. People use them when they don’t know what
to say, or to indicate that they are thinking about what
to say. You should learn to recognize them when you
hear them and realize that they have no real meaning.
interjection meaning example
expressing pleasure “Ah, that feels good.”
expressing realization “Ah, now I understand.”

ah
expressing resignation “Ah well, it can’t be heped.”
expressing surprise “Ah! I’ve won!”
alas expressing grief or pity “Alas, she’s dead now.”
expressing pity “Oh dear! Does it hurt?”

dear
expressing surprise “Dear me! That’s a surprise!”
asking for repetition “It’s hot today.” “Eh?” “I said it’s hot
today.”
expressing enquiry “What do you think of that, eh?”

eh
expressing surprise “Eh! Really?”
inviting agreement “Let’s go, eh?”
er expressing hesitation “Lima is the capital of...er...Peru.”
expressing greeting “Hello John. How are you today?”

hello, hullo
expressing surprise “Hello! My car’s gone!”
calling attention “Hey! look at that!”

hey
expressing surprise, joy etc “Hey! What a good idea!”
hi expressing greeting “Hi! What’s new?”
expressing hesitation, doubt or

hmm “Hmm. I’m not so sure.”
disagreement
expressing surprise “Oh! You’re here!”
oh, o expressing pain “Oh! I’ve got a toothache.”
expressing pleading “Oh, please say ‘yes’!”
ouch expressing pain “Ouch! That hurts!”
uh expressing hesitation “Uh...I don’t know the answer to that.”
uh-huh expressing agreement “Shall we go?” “Uh-huh.”
um, umm expressing hesitation “85 divided by 5 is...um...17.”
expressing surprise “Well I never!”

well
introducing a remark “Well, what did he say?”
: ‫وﻧﺮﺣﺐ ﺑﺄﺳﺄﻟﺘﻜﻢ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺒﺮﯾﺪ اﻻﻟﻜﺘﺮوﻧﻰ‬

general_mesbah@yahoo.co.uk
‫ﻧﺮﺟﻮ أن ﻧﻜﻮن ﻗﺪ وﻓﻘﻨﺎ ﻓﻰ ﻓﻬﻤﻜﻢ ﻟﻘﻮاﻋﺪ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻻﻧﺠﻠﯿﺰﯾﺔ‬

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English Grammar Page 1 of 118

English Grammar.....English Grammar.....English Grammar

Base - Present simple (except 3rd person singular)

Future Continuous Tense

Answers to tag questions

Glossary of English Grammar Terms

English Parts of Speech

• Parts of Speech Table

Parts of Speech Table

part of speech function or “job” example words example sentences

Parts of Speech Examples

verb noun verb noun verb verb

Stop! John works. John is working.

pronoun verb noun noun verb adjective noun

She loves animals. Animals like kind people.

noun verb noun adverb noun verb adjective noun

Tara speaks English well. Tara speaks good English.

pronoun verb preposition adjective noun adverb

She ran to the station quickly.

pron. verb adj. noun conjunction pron. verb pron.

She likes big snakes but I hate them.

Here is a sentence that contains every part of speech:

interjection pron. conj. adj. noun verb prep. noun adverb

Well, she and young John walk to school slowly.

Words with More than One Job

• verb, noun, adverb, pronoun, preposition and conjunction!

work noun My work is easy.

verb I work in London.

but conjunction John came but Mary didn’t come.

preposition Everyone came but Mary.

well adjective Are you well?

adverb She speaks well.

interjection Well! That’s expensive!

afternoon noun We ate in the afternoon.

noun acting as adjective We had afternoon tea.

What are Verbs?

• action (Ram plays football.)

• to work, work, works, worked, working

helping verb main verb

John likes coffee.

You lied to me.

They are happy.

The children are playing.

I do not want any.

Helping verbs are also called “auxiliary verbs”.

and we divide them into two basic groups:

Primary helping verbs (3 verbs)

Modal helping verbs (10 verbs)

Here are examples using modal verbs:

• I can’t speak Chinese.

Semi-modal verbs (3 verbs)

• Forms of Main Verbs

Forms of Main Verbs

Main verbs are also called “lexical verbs”.

regular (to) work work worked worked working works

(to) sing sing sang sung singing sings

(to) do* do did done doing does

In the above examples:

l to cut has 4 forms: to cut, cut, cutting, cuts

The infinitive can be with or without to. For example,

Base - Present simple

Base - After modal auxiliary verbs

l I can work tomorrow.