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Causal Relationships between Phonics, Reading Comprehension, and Vocabulary

Achievement in the Second Grade


Author(s): J. Lloyd Eldredge, Bill Quinn and Dennie D. Butterfield
Source: The Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 83, No. 4 (Mar. - Apr., 1990), pp. 201-214
Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd.
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/27540385
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of Educational Research

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Causal Relationships Between Phonics,
Reading Comprehension, and Vocabulary
Achievement in the Second Grade
J. LLOYD ELDREDGE
BELL QUINN
DENNIE D. BUTTERFDELD
Brigham Young University

corne associated with explicit phonics instruction (Dank,


ABSTRACT This study examined the causal relation 1976; Norton & Hubert, 1977)?and //fluent word recog
ships between three measures of reading achievement: phonics,
nition skills positively influence reading comprehension
reading comprehension, and vocabulary. Measures were ob
tained from 504 second-grade students at the beginning and end
(LaBerge & Samuels, 1974; McNeill, 1968; Perfetti &
of the school year. A causal relationship was indicated if change Lesgold, 1979), then perhaps reading comprehension is
in one of the three variables measured at the beginning of the influenced by phonics knowledge that emphasizes the
year tended to precede change in the other variables measured at regular graphophonic patterns found in printed words. A
the end of the year. A cross-lagged panel analysis was used to
causal relationship between phonics knowledge and read
test for such a pattern between the three variables. The findings
indicate that phonics knowledge has a causal impact on both ing comprehension was explored in this study. We hy
reading comprehension and vocabulary gains; reading compre pothesized that phonics knowledge does influence read
hension has a causal effect on vocabulary gains. Further analysis ing comprehension.
of the data, using a path analysis model, verified these causal re The strong relationship between vocabulary knowledge
lationships. A second set of data obtained from 1,585 second
and reading comprehension has been established (see re
grade students at the beginning and end of another school year
were used to examine these causal relationships once more. Path views by Anderson & Freebody, 1981; Davis, 1971).
analysis findings again verified the relationships found in the However, reviews of vocabulary training research de
first set of data. We concluded that phonics instruction designed signed to demonstrate that vocabulary instruction im
to help students recognize the consistent graphophonic patterns proves reading comprehension reveal equivocal results
in the English language should be emphasized in early elemen
tary-grade reading instruction. We also determined that chil
(see reviews by Jenkins & Pany, 1981f Mezynski, 1983).
dren's early reading experiences should be "comprehension fo A second purpose of this study was to explore the possi
cused"; that is, children should be encouraged to make sense bility that there might be a causal relationship between
out of what they read. Additional research is suggested on the comprehension and reading vocabulary. We hypothesized
causal relationship between these variables using other assess that growth in reading vocabulary influences growth in
ment instruments, on the causal relationship between other
reading comprehension.
reading variables, and on the relationship of these variables at
higher grade levels. Most reading specialists suggest that young children
find it easier to decode words that are in their listening
and speaking vocabularies than to sound out words for
which they have no background knowledge. Is decoding
growth, therefore, dependent on vocabulary growth, or
is vocabulary growth dependent on decoding growth, or
Researchers have
proves word claimed
recognition abilitiesthat
and thatphonics
fast, ac instruction im
are they interdependent? We hypothesized that both
knowledge sources are important for beginning readers
curate word recognition, in turn, is a necessary condition
but that decoding growth is probably more dependent on
for reading comprehension (Anderson, Hiebert, Scott, &
vocabulary growth than the reverse.
Wilkinson, 1985). One of the purposes of this study was
to investigate whether reading comprehension growth in
the early stages of reading development is influenced by
phonics knowledge. If phonics instruction improves Address correspondence, including requests for copies of the
group-administered phonics test used in this study, to J. Lloyd
word recognition skills because students learn to recog
Eldredge, Elementary Education, 210A MCKB, Brigham Young
nize graphophonic patterns in printed words?an out University, Provo, Utah 84602.

201

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202 Journal of Educational Research

Decoding and Reading Comprehension (1970), however, suggest that the ability to use both con
textual and graphic cues seems to be important for begin
When a child begins school, his or her ability to analyze
ning readers?and proficient readers use both.
the sounds in words correlates with later reading achieve
ment more strongly than virtually any other entering in Several studies have found that "automaticity" in de
dex, except perhaps vocabulary knowledge (Calfee & coding helps comprehension (LaBerge & Samuels, 1974;
Drum, 1986). Researchers also have found that teachers McNeill, 1968; Perfetti & Lesgold, 1979). Stanovich,
who spend more than average amounts of time teaching Nathan, and Vala-Rossi (1986) found that of six varia
students to segment and blend sounds in words produce bles correlating with reading comprehension, word-rec
larger than average gains on reading achievement tests ognition speed and vocabulary were the strongest corre
(Haddock, 1976; Rosenshine & Stevens, 1984). lates to the reading comprehension scores of third-grade
In spite of the empirical evidence supporting the posi students. Competent readers seem to decode with accu
tive influence of early phonics instruction on word recog racy and with fluency (Curtis, 1980; Perfetti & Lesgold,
nition (Chali, 1983; Guthrie & Tyler, 1978; Johnson & 1979).
Baumann, 1984; Pflaum, Walberg, Karegianes, & Rash Analyses of poor readers revealed that (a) they read
er, 1980; Williams, 1985), concerns have been raised re slowly (Calfee & Drum, 1986); (b) they cannot decode
garding the negative effect that phonics instruction may nonsense words created according to the graphic struc
have on reading comprehension. As Johnson and Bau ture of real words (Doehring, Trites, 'Patel, & Fiedoro
mann (1984, p. 595) cautioned, ". . . it may be that the wicz, 1981); and (c) they do not use spelling-sound pat
excessive reliance upon code-emphasis instruction ob terns when attempting to identify unfamiliar real words
scures the more important goal of obtaining meaning (Biemiller, 1970; Camine, Camine, & Gersten, 1984;
from print." These concerns are supported by studies re Jorm & Share, 1983; Lesgold & Curtis, 1981; Weber,
vealing that young children taught by explicit phonics 1970). Liberman and Shankweiler (1979) suggested that
programs make more nonsense errors when reading than the inability to recognize the graphophonic structure of
do children who are taught to read through a sight word words creates a working memory bottleneck that inter
context approach (Barr, 1972; Cohen, 1974-1975; De feres with word recognition speed.
Lawter, 1975; Norton, 1976). The literature on decoding suggests that the ability to
Researchers have suggested that a negative outcome of use both contextual and graphophonic cues seems to be
explicit phonics instruction is that children tend to focus important for effective decoding. The suggestion that
more on the structure of the words that they read than on both cues should be taught appears reasonable. The liter
the meaning that they should acquire from the printed ature also suggests that improved decoding skills provide
text. Dank (1976) found that second graders who were the possibility for readers to give more attention to the
taught to read by explicit phonics approaches generated text message, resulting in better reading comprehension.
miscues that were frequently nonwords having a high
graphic and sound similarity to the attempted word. In
Vocabulary and Reading Comprehension
that same study, the children who received reading in
struction using an implicit phonics approach produced Although there are studies demonstrating an improve
miscues that were typically real words and semantically ment in reading comprehension attributable to vocabu
appropriate, though less graphically and aurally suitable lary instruction (Beck, Perfetti, & McKeown, 1982; Ka
(see also Norton & Hubert, 1977, for similar findings). meenui, Camine, & Freschi, 1982; McKeown, Beck,
Because of these findings, some researchers have con Omanson, & Perfetti, 1983; Stahl, 1983; Wixson, 1986),
cluded that although explicit phonics instruction results other researchers have been unable to demonstrate any
in word recognition skills beyond those produced by pro facultative effect (Lieberman, 1967; Pany & Jenkins,
grams with a less rigorous approach to phonics, such in 1978; Pany, Jenkins, & Schreck, 1982; Tuinman & Brady,
struction fails to show any significant positive effect on 1974). Those researchers who have been unable to show a
reading comprehension (Johnson & Baumann, 1984; Res direct influence of vocabulary instruction on reading
nick, 1977) and may interfere with the comprehension comprehension still seem to believe that vocabulary
process (Norton & Hubert, 1977). knowledge affects comprehension. This belief may be
Advocates of explicit phonics approaches believe that based on data obtained from factor analyses of reading
making nonsense errors is a stage that passes once flu comprehension tests that consistently reveal a substantial
ency in reading is developed (Biemiller, 1970). A study proportion of variance accounted for by vocabulary
conducted by Camine, Camine, and Gertsen (1984) knowledge (Botzum, 1951; Clark, 1972; Davis, 1944;
seems to confirm that notion. Davis, 1968). As Mezynski (1983, p. 253) pointed out,
Some researchers have claimed that proficient readers "Indeed, it is difficult to imagine how a reader could
tend to rely more heavily on contextual cues than on comprehend text in which most of the words were unfa
graphic cues. Leu (1981), Dahl (1979), and Biemiller miliar.''

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March/April 1990 IVol. 83(No. 4)] 203

Concern over the ambiguity found regarding the vo


cabulary-comprehension connection prompted Mezynski
Timel (Auto) Time 2
(1983) to hypothesize that there are personal, instruc
tional, and measurement problems obscuring the rela
tionships between word knowledge and reading compre
hension (see Johnston, 1984, for a similar concern).
Among the factors she identified that might be obscuring
the vocabulary-comprehension relationship are the (a) (Sync.) (Sync.)
amount of contextual or redundant information in the
text allowing the reader to comprehend the text without
prior knowledge of certain words, (b) quantity and qual
ity of the reader's background knowledge negatively or
positively affecting reading comprehension, (c) quality of
the vocabulary instruction prior to testing, (d) reader's
entry-level competencies, (e) number of words that were
taught prior to the reading of the text material (perhaps
(Auto)
not enough were taught to influence comprehension), (f)
whether the learner could demonstrate rapid word recog
nition of the unfamiliar vocabulary words taught prior to
the testing, (g) number of meanings that were taught for Figure 1. Cross-Lagged and Background Correlations Between Two
unfamiliar polysemous words taught prior to testing, and Variables (A and B) Measured at Two Time Periods (1 and 2) on the
Same Sample
(h) number or proportion of unfamiliar high-information
words (key words) versus the number or proportion of
unfamiliar low-information words in the text.
Freebody and Anderson (1983) raised serious questions and Harackiewicz (1979) have recommended appropri
regarding the number of unfamiliar words that a reader ate uses for cross-lagged analysis. The usefulness of this
needs to encounter in text material before there is an im technique has been both criticized (Rogosa, 1980) and
pact on reading comprehension. The researchers claim defended (Locascio, 1982) in the literature.
that a surprisingly high proportion of difficult vocabulary Logic of the analysis. Cross-lagged panel analysis in
items are needed in text material to create reliable decre volves measuring a panel of subjects on two or more
ments in performance on measures of comprehension. variables at two or more points in time. The simplest
form of the techinque involves measuring two variables
The vocabulary-comprehension relationship outlined in
at two points in time. This results in four measures and
the research literature is complex and ambiguous. Because
six correlations (see Figure 1).
of this ambiguity, further research seemed desirable.
The correlations between the two different variables
The purpose of this study was to examine the causal re
measured at the same time (rAlBl and rAjB2) are called
lationships between three measures of reading achieve
synchronous correlations. The correlations between the
ment: phonics, reading comprehension, and vocabulary.
same variable measured at different times (rAlAl and
A causal relationship would be indicated if change in one
rBlB2) are called auto-correlations, and the correlations
of the three variables measured at the beginning of the between the two different variables measured at two dif
year tended to precede change in the other variables at
ferent times (tAib2 and rBlAl) are called cross-lagged cor
the end of the year. We selected cross-lagged panel analy relations.
sis to test for such a pattern between the three variables
This analysis involves a comparison of the cross-lagged
and used a path analysis to verify the relationships im
correlations. Comparing the relative size of the cross
plied by the cross-lagged analysis.
lagged correlations can give an indication of possible
causal relationships between the two variables meas
Cross-Lagged Panel Analysis ured. This inference is possible if we make the assump
tion that cause is temporally antecedent to effect. This
Cross-lagged panel analysis was one of the techniques assumption means that if A is a cause of B, then changes
used to examine causal relationships between measures in A will produce changes in B, but only after enough
of reading achievement. Because this analysis is a rela time passes for the causal effect to occur. Hypothesized
tively new quasi-experimental technique, we provide a mediating events between A and B produce the time lag.
brief discussion of the major features of this method. Other things being equal, this causal relationship occur
Cook and Campbell (1979) reviewed the development of ring over time will result in a correlation between A at
cross-lagged panel analysis and also discussed in detail Time 1 and B at Time 2 that is relatively larger than for
its assumption, limitations, and interpretation. Kenny B at Time 1 and A at Time 2.

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204 Journal of Educational Research

If one of the cross-lagged correlations (rA1B2 or rB1A2) is


cause of the other.
found to be significantly different from the other, sup Finally, the technique tests confounded pairs of hy
pose, for example, that rA1B2 > rB1A2, then according to potheses against each other. If one observes that rAlB2 >
the logic of this analysis, the inequality indicates that rBlA2, then the possibility exists that either A is a direct
changes in Variable A (measured at Time 1) are followed cause of B (increases in A lead to increases in B) or that
by changes in Variable B (measured at Time 2). If the as B is an inverse cause of A (increases in B lead to de
sumptions of the analysis can be met, this result would be creases in A). Even if the observed correlation between
an indication that Variable A is a cause of Variable B. On A and B is positive, other factors may mask an inverse
the other hand, if rBlA2 > rAlB2, then Variable B may be relationship. Typically, one would need additional in
inferred to be a cause of Variable A. When a significant formation from other research and theory to distinguish
correlation is observed between the two variables, but between the confounded pairs of hypotheses; cross
there is no significant difference between the cross-lagged lagged analysis itself cannot be used to make the dis
correlations, one would conclude that the observed corre tinction.
lation is spurious. A spurious correlation between Vari
ables A and B would result if a third factor caused both A Path Analysis
andB.
Because cross-lagged panel analysis is a relatively new
Assumptions of the analysis. In order to interpret the
quasi-experimental technique, we undertook further
results of cross-lagged analysis, two assumptions need
analysis of the data using path analysis to provide a
to be met: synchroneity and stationarity (Kenny, 1975;
check against the findings obtained from the cross
Kenny & Harackiewicz, 1979). Synchroneity means that
the variables involved are measured at the same time. In lagged analysis. Five theoretical models were developed
describing various ways that phonics knowledge, vocab
addition, the measures involve attributes manifested at
ulary knowledge, and reading comprehension ability are
that time and not aggregated over some time prior to
or are not causally related at the second-grade level.
measurement. In Figure 1, the correlations between the
These models were tested by using the linear structural
synchronous measures are rAlBl and rAlB2.
relationship (LISREL) model developed by Joreskog
Stationarity is the assumption that the structural
(1978).
equation for a variable is not different at the two points
of measurement. There are two models for stationarity: The LISREL model comprises a structural equation
model and a measurement model. The structural equa
perfect and quasi-stationarity (Kenny & Harackiewicz,
tion model describes the theoretical relationships be
1979). Perfect stationarity implies equal synchronous
tween variables through a set of general linear equations
correlations (rAiBl = rAlB2). Quasi-stationarity implies
(as in regression analysis). The measurement model
that the structural equation for each variable is unique
allows for an assessment of measurement error.
and changes over time by a constant. The underlying as
The general intent of the LISREL analysis is to re
sumption is that synchronous correlations could be cor
construct the observed correlation matrix as well as pos
rected for attenuation due to unreliability and thus be
sible by imposing a theoretical structure on the data.
made equal.
The smaller the residual differences between the ob
If the comparison of synchronous correlations indi
served correlation matrix and the reconstructed correla
cates perfect stationarity, the test for cross-lagged corre
tion matrix (based on the imposed structure), the better
lations could be conducted by using the Pearson-Filon
the fit of a particular model. One model-fitting index is
(PF) test for dependent correlations (Peters & Van
the chi-square test, in which the fit is a direct function of
Voorhis, 1940). If perfect stationarity is not indicated,
sample size. For a large sample, a good fit cannot easily
procedures for quasi-stationarity may be used to adjust
be found using this index, even though the residuals
for communality ratio differences (Kenny & Harackie
may be essentially zero.
wicz, 1979).
Limitations of the analysis. As Cook and Campbell Another model-fitting index, which is unrelated to
(1976) have commented, cross-lagged panel analysis is a sample size, is the root mean square residual (RMSR),
which is a measure of the average residual correlation.
passive technique for determining cause. As a result, al
though it can be helpful in detecting existing causal rela A third model-fitting index is the goodness-of-fit index
tionships, the analysis gives relatively little information (GFI). The GFI is a measure of the relative amount of
about the susceptibility of the causal variables to manip the sample correlation matrix accounted for by the
ulation. model and also is independent of sample size. The final
Second, the technique gives information only about model-fitting index is the AGFI (adjusted GFI), which
the predominance of causation between two variables. adjusts for the number of degrees of freedom in the
The technique does not rule out the possibility of both model. The values of the GFI and AGFI range from
variables having some causal influence on the other, but zero to 1, with 1 indicating a perfect fit. All four indices
only that between the two variables, one is a stronger were used in the analysis of the data.

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March/April 1990 [Vol. 83(No. 4)1 205

Research Hypotheses these classrooms used the Economy program as outlined


by the publisher and also grouped the students homoge
The following research hypotheses were tested in this
neously for reading instruction. Another six classrooms
study: (a) Second graders' phonics knowledge, specific
involved in the study used the Economy Reading Pro
ally a knowledge of the graphophonic patterns in words,
gram, but the teachers in these classrooms grouped their
has a causal impact on their reading comprehension
students for reading instruction in small heterogeneous
growth, (b) Second graders' vocabulary knowledge, a
groups. These students were taught to read using the
comprehension of word meanings, has a causal impact
same-level Economy book. The prereading activities
on their reading comprehension growth, (c) Second
outlined in the teacher's manual were taught to the en
graders' vocabulary knowledge has a causal impact on
tire class at one time. The story reading and the post
their growth in phonics knowledge.
reading activities were completed in the small heteroge
neous groups. The students in the remaining six class
Method
rooms were taught to read in a literature-based envi
ronment.
Sample Paperback literature books were used as the primary
The sample consisted of 504 second-grade students. teaching materials, and students were provided total-class
Second-grade students were selected because it was hy skills instruction for brief periods each day. Although the
pothesized that any effects of phonics instruction on social conditions and the instructional programs differed
word recognition and comprehension would be most in the classrooms involved in the study, the correlations
visible at this age. Once a child's sight vocabulary is obtained between the variables of phonics, reading com
largely developed, the time may be too late to determine prehension, and vocabulary achievement did not differ
the variables contributing to its development. While significantly (p > .05) for students involved in different
sight vocabulary skills are in the process of growing, school or district reading programs.
however, an investigation seems to be possible. There were a total of 24 classes and 531 second-grade
We selected nine elementary schools from the Provo students in the initial sample. Because of student absen
and Alpine school districts in Utah at the beginning of teeism on the days tests were administered, complete data
the 1984-85 school year. These schools were in subur were available on 504 students. The analysis was per
ban or rural communities, and consisted of predomi formed only for students with complete data. The teach
ers did not believe that those students who were absent
nantly White upper-middle- to lower-middle-class fami
lies. The second-grade classes in each of these schools when the second data set was collected were significantly
were selected for participation in the study (N = 24). different from those who were present at the time of
The students in these classes were slightly above average testing. Therefore, the 5% attrition rate probably had lit
tle effect on the results.
in reading ability. The mean grade equivalent reading
score of the group was 2.4 (Gates-MacGinitie Reading
Instruments
Test) at the beginning of the school year, and 3.4 at the
end of the year. Researchers generally recognize that there is a differ
The reading environment in which students are taught ence between a child's ability to recognize a word by sight
to read might influence the causal relationships ob and his or her ability to apply phonics skills to identify
tained. One of the limitations of this study was that we words not recognized by sight. Many attempts to measure
could not control the environments or context in which the latter skill have been considered invalid because the in
the subjects were taught to read. However, the social struments testing the graphophonics skills used real words
conditions in their classrooms and the instructional pro ?casting doubt on whether the test tested graphophonics
grams used to teach them to read were observed and can skills or sight vocabulary skills. An acceptable way to test
be described. graphophonics skills is to ask readers to read a list of non
The instructional materials used with the subjects and sense words created according to the graphophonic struc
their social environments differed in many respects. Stu ture of real words (Doehring et al., 1981; Jorm & Share,
dents in six of the classrooms involved in the study were 1983).
taught to read using the Houghton Mifflin Reading Pro Phonics achievement in this study was measured using
gram. These students were placed in reading groups ac an 81-item multiple-choice group-administered test devel
cording to their reading abilities. There were either three oped by one of the authors. We examined the validity of
or four homogeneous reading groups in each classroom. the test against the criteria outlined above for acceptable
The teachers used the Houghton Mifflin program ac testing of graphophonics skills, that is, the reading of
cording to the procedures outlined by the publisher. nonsense words in a list. The items in this measure re
Students in another six classrooms were taught to read quired students to identify which nonsense word read by
using the Economy Reading Program. The teachers in the teacher matched one of four possible nonsense words

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206 Journal of Educational Research

on their answer form. Students indicated their choice by their responses were correct or incorrect. A week later,
selecting one word. The test was scored by summing cor these students were given the group-administered version
rect answers. of the test. A validity correlation of .814, significant at the
A portion of the Teacher Directions, which introduces .005 level, was obtained by comparing the individual test
the test, is presented below. Everything that the teacher results with the group test results. At the end of the
says to the students is printed in uppercase letters, and all 1983-84 school year, a test-retest reliability correlation of
instructions are printed in lowercase letters: .73 was obtained, using 1,100 second-grade students (El
Distribute place markers and a test to each student. dredge & Butterfield, 1986).
LOOK AT THE WORDS ON YOUR TEST. EACH Reading comprehension and vocabulary were meas
WORD IS A NONSENSE WORD. HOWEVER, THEY ured using the Gates-MacGinitie Reading Test, Level B,
CAN BE READ AS IF THEY WERE REAL WORDS. I
Form I (Gates-MacGinitie, 1978). The test yields two sub
AM GOING TO READ ONE OF THE NONSENSE
WORDS ON EACH ROW. PLEASE CIRCLE EACH test scores?reading comprehension and vocabulary. The
WORD THAT I READ. numer of correct answers on these subtests was computed
Print 'tep mep tup teb' on the chalkboard. PLACE for each student. A total reading score was not computed
YOUR MARKERS UNDER THE SAMPLE ROW. CIR from this test for this study.
CLE THE WORD TEP . . . Wait for the students to re
spond. Circle the word tep in the chalkboard sample. DID Procedure
YOU CIRCLE THIS WORD? Point to the word tep. IF
YOU DID, YOU CIRCLED THE CORRECT WORD. The students were given the achievement tests during
NOW THAT YOU UNDERSTAND HOW TO TAKE
THIS TEST WE WILL BEGIN THE ACTUAL TEST. the first week of September, 1984, and again in the second
CIRCLE ONLY THE WORD THAT I READ FOR week of May, 1985. During the school year, the teachers
EACH ROW. PLACE YOUR MARKERS UNDER ROW involved in the study conducted their reading classes as
1 AND CIRCLE THE WORD BAB . . . BAB. Continue usual. Although the instructional and grouping strategies
the instructions using the following words: utilized by the teachers in the study differed, the correla
Notice that each of the three distractor words (mep, tions obtained between the variables of phonics, reading
tup, teb) in the sample row is identical to the word read by comprehension, and vocabulary achievement did not dif
the teacher (tep), with the exception of only one graphem fer significantly (p > .05) for students involved in differ
ic/phonemic element. The word mep differs from tep in ent school or district reading programs. Therefore, in
the initial graphophonic element?the word tup in the structional strategies were not included as a factor in the
medial element?and the word teb in the final element. analysis.
This format was followed throughout the test.
All of the words used in the test were created according Findings
to the graphophonic structure of real words. The spelling Descriptive Statistics
sound relationship of each nonsense word on the test was
checked against the common spelling-sound relationships Student scores increased for all three reading achieve
found in the written language. This check was done by ment measures between the pretest and the posttest. The
first comparing the spelling of the nonsense word up to distributions of the scores for the three measures from
and including the vowel with spelling relationships found both testing occasions were approximately normal. Table
in commonly used words. For example, in the word bab, 1 gives the descriptive statistics for the reading achieve
the ba spelling for the ba sound is consistent with the ba ment measures involved in the study. The measures were
spelling in words like bat, back, bag, band, etc. Second, acceptably reliable using the auto-correlations as test
we checked the spelling of the nonsense word from the
vowel to the end of the word. In the word bab, the ab Table 1.?Descriptive Statistics on Achievement Measures
spelling for the ab sound is consistent with the ab spelling
in words like lab, tab, stab, crab, etc. A nonsense word Variables M SD
like mik would not be used because there are no single
syllable words where the ik sound is spelled ik. In real Phonics
words, the ik sound is spelled ick such as in pick, stick, Pretest 58.0 13.7
Posttest 70.6 9.4
quick, trick.
At the beginning of the 1983-84 school year, 30 second Reading comprehension
Pretest 23.8 8.4
grade students in one of the Utah school districts were Posttest 32.1 6.8
asked to read a list of nonsense words created according
to the graphophonic structure of real words. The words Vocabulary
Pretest 24.8 8.9
that each student read to the examiner were the stimulus Posttest 34.4 7.5
words that the teacher reads on the group-administered
phonics test. No feedback was given regarding whether Note, n = 504.

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March/April 1990 [Vol. 83(No. 4)1 207

retest reliability indexes. The auto-correlation was .689 Phonics effects. The third step in the analysis was to
for phonics, .629 for reading comprehension, and .737 test for differences between the cross-lagged correlations.
for vocabulary. In the analysis, there were statistically significant differ
ences in the cross-lagged correlations for each of the three
Cross-Lagged Analysis comparisons. When phonics was paired with the other
Simple correlations. The first step in the cross-lagged two variables, the cross-lagged correlations for phonics
analysis of the data was to determine the three pairs of were significantly greater than the correlations for reading
correlations (auto-, synchronous, and cross-lagged) for comprehension or for vocabulary (see Table 2).
the panel. All correlations between phonics, reading com The differences between the cross-lagged correlations
prehension, and vocabulary were positive and fairly large, for phonics and the other two variables were large as well
r(502) = .506 to .757, p < .001. as statistically significant (see Table 2). The cross-lagged
Stationarity. The second step in the analysis was to test correlation for phonics measured at the beginning of the
for stationarity of the relationships between the three vari school year accounted for 57% of the variability in vocab
ables. Because six tests of significance were involved in the ulary achievement measured at the end of the school year.
study, the critical value of the Pearson-Filon test statistic Vocabulary achievement measured at the beginning of the
was adjusted (PFcrit(502) = 2.435, p = .008) to give an school year related to only 30% of the variability in phon
experiment-wide level of about .05 that any of the com ics achievement at the end of the school year. Further
parisons for stationarity or temporal predominance more, the cross-lagged correlation for phonics measured
would be judged statistically significant (Rozell, 1965). at the beginning of the school year accounted for 39% of
When the synchronous correlations were examined for the variability in reading comprehension measured at the
the three pairs of variables?phonics with reading com end of the school year. Reading comprehension measured
prehension, phonics with vocabulary, and reading com at the beginning of the school year related to only 26% of
prehension with vocabulary?the results indicated that the variability in phonics achievement at the end of the
the assumption of perfect stationarity is tenable (see Table school year.
2). Table 2 includes the correlations for the analysis and Comprehension effect. In addition to findings that sug
the results of both the test for stationarity and the test for gest that phonics knowledge was a cause of higher scores
cross-lagged differences. on reading comprehension and vocabulary tests, the find

Table 2.?Auto, Synchronous, and Cross-Lagged Correlations for Reading Measures

Auto Synchronous Cross-lagged


Pearson-Filon Pearson-Filon
Variables rBA testa rBlA2 test3

Phonics and .6887 .6292 .6416 .6272 -0.45 .6251 .5059 3.42
comprehension
Phonics and .6887 .7367 .7212 .7493 1.27 .7569 .5432 7.21
vocabulary
Comprehension and .6292 .7367 .7345 .7437 0.40 .6864 .5846 3.43
vocabulary

Note. Variables listed first in each pair were in the position of variable A in Figure 1; variables listed second were in the position of variable B. For
all correlations, n = 504.
ap < .008.

Table 3.?Means and Standard Deviations, and Intercorrelations Between Vocabulary, Comprehension, and
Phonics Measurement Variables

Description Pretest Posttest


Time Var. M SD

V 24.8194 8.8995
Pre C 23.8274 8.3839 .7345
P 58.0060 13.7444 .7212 .6416 ?
v 34.3849 7.5407 .7367 .6864 .7569
Post c 32.0992 6.8088 .5846 .6292 .6251 .7437
p 70.5972 9.4114 .5432 .5059 .6887 .7493 .6272 ?

Note. V = vocabulary; C = comprehension; P = phonics, n = 504.

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208 Journal of Educational Research

ings indicate that reading comprehension causes growth in bles are shown in Table 3. From the correlation matrix of
general vocabulary knowledge. The differences between the observed measurement variables, we used the LISREL
the cross-lagged correlations for reading comprehension VI computer program (Joreskog & Sorbom, 1984) to test
and vocabulary achievement showed a predominant five theoretical models describing possible causal relation
causal effect for reading comprehension (see Table 2). ships between phonics, vocabulary, and reading com
The cross-lagged correlation for reading comprehen prehension.
sion measured at the beginning of the school year ac The five models that were tested are shown in Figure 2.
counted for 47% of the variability in vocabulary achieve Through a series of model-fitting procedures (as described
ment measured at the end of the school year. Vocabulary in Lomax, 1982), we eventually produced a best fitting
achievement measured at the beginning of the school year model from the testing of the five models. Model A, tested
accounted for only 34% of the variability in reading com first, is a no cause model, based on the assumption that the
prehension achievement at the end of the school year. variables of (a) vocabulary knowledge, (b) phonics knowl
edge, and (c) ability to comprehend written text have no
Path Analysis causal impact on each other. Model A proved to be the
Five alternative causal or no causal models. Means and worst fitting model of the five tested (x2 = 503.9, df = 9, p
standard deviations and intercorrelations between vocab < .0001, RMSR = .165. GFI = .781, AGFI = .232).
ulary, phonics, and comprehension measurement varia Models B and C were tested next. Model B is based on

Model A
(A No Cause Model) .457 uv
.737
Vocabulary Vocabulary

.721
.526 uv
.689
.735 Phonics Phonics
A
.642
.604 uv

.629
Comprehension Comprehension

Note. Curved lines indicate correlation coefficients.


Straight lines indicate causal path coefficients.
Unaccounted variables are indicated by letters uv.

Model B
(Phonics Causes Growth in Vocabulary Knowledge and
Reading Comprehension.)
.351 uv
.398
Vocabulary Vocabulary

.721
.526 uv

.735
X.642
Phonics Phonics

.521 uv

Comprehension Comprehension

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March/April 1990 [Vol. 83(No. 4)] 209

Model C
(Vocabulary Causes Growth in Phonics Knowledge.
Comprehension Causes Growth in Phonics Knowledge.)

y At
457 uv

Vocabulary Vocabulary

.721
.518 uv

.735
A Phonics Phonics

.642
^604 uv

Comprehension Comprehension

Model D
(Full Causal Model)

.331 uv

Vocabulary Vocabulary

.721
.518 uv
.735

)l Phonics Phonics

.642 <519 uv

Comprehension Comprehension

Model E
(Phonics Causes Growth in Vocabulary Knowledge and Reading
Comprehension. Reading Comprehension Causes Growth in
Vocabulary Knowledge.)
.333 uv.

.205
Vocabulary Vocabulary
.187
.721 .526 uv

.735
>
.642
Phonics Phonics
.522 uv^
.1741

Comprehension Comprehension

Figure 2. Models Describing Causal Relationships Between Phonics, Vocabulary, and Reading Comprehension

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210 Journal of Educational Research

the assumptions that (a) phonics knowledge influences .020, GFI = .996, AGFI = .993), verifying the findings
growth in vocabulary knowledge, and (b) phonics knowl obtained from the first path analysis and the cross-lagged
edge influences growth in reading comprehension. Model panel analysis.
C is based on opposite assumptions, that is, (a) vocabu
lary knowledge influences growth in phonics knowledge, Discussion
and (b) comprehension ability influences growth in phon
A major goal of explicit phonics instruction is to teach
ics knowledge. Of the two models, Model B provided the
students how to segment and blend sounds in words. Sev
best fit (Model B: x2 = 296.55, df=7,p< .0001, RMSR
eral studies have demonstrated that both processes?seg
= .087, GFI = .833, AGFI = .562; and Model C: x2 =
mentation and blending?must be mastered before the re
496.43, df=79p< .0001, RMSR = .157, GFI = .777,
sults of phonics instruction is transferable to the reading
AGFI = .416).
of unfamiliar words (Fox & Routh, 1976; Jeffrey & Sam
Model D is based on the assumptions that (a) vocabu uels, 1967; Jenkins, Bausell, & Jenkins, 1972; M?ller,
lary knowledge influences growth in both phonics knowl 1973). There is evidence that students learn the grapho
edge and comprehension ability; (b) phonics knowledge phonic patterns in words quickly in the early grades when
influences growth in both vocabulary knowledge and they are taught how to segment and blend sounds in words
comprehension ability; and (c) comprehension ability in (Dank, 1976). This knowledge may result in improved
fluences growth in both vocabulary knowledge and phon word recognition skills, which, in turn, results in im
ics knowledge. This model is a full causal one, assuming proved comprehension. An attempt was made to test this
that all of the variables have a causal impact on each hypothesis.
other. Although Model D was not the best fitting model Phonics skills, including graphophonic knowledge, seg
of the five (x2 = 257.69, df = 3, p < .0001, RMSR = mentation of sounds, and blending of sounds, can be
.070, GFI = .847, AGFI = .732), it did indicate that the tested by giving readers a list of nonsense words created
strongest causal paths were going from phonics knowl according to the structure of real words and asking them
edge to vocabulary knowledge; from phonics knowledge to to read them (Doehring et al., 1981; Jorm & Share, 1983).
comprehension ability; and from comprehension ability to The assessment of phonics achievement used in this study
vocabulary knowledge. The weak causal path extending attempted to test segmentation, blending, and grapho
from vocabulary knowledge to comprehension ability (.08) phonic skills through an author-developed group test. The
suggested that the best fitting model would probably have a test was validated before it was used in this study by com
causal path going in the opposite direction. paring students' scores on the test with the scores they ob
Model E proved to be optimal in terms of statistical tained by reading the nonsense words in isolation.
goodness-of-fit (x2 = 9.09, df = 3,p < .0001, RMSR = One of the limitations of this study may be the use of an
.023, GFI = .994, AGFI = .990). This model had the author-developed phonics instrument that is relatively un
lowest residuals (error), the smallest chi-square, and the known. The use of single indicators to assess all of the var
best goodness-of-fit indices of the five models tested. iables in the study is another limitation. Further research
Model E is based on the assumptions that (a) phonics regarding the issues raised in this study needs to be con
knowledge influences growth in vocabulary knowledge ducted using multiple measures of the variables under
and reading comprehension ability at the second-grade study.
level and (b) reading comprehension ability influences
This study tried to explore possible causal relationships
growth in vocabulary knowledge. These assumptions are
between phonics, vocabulary knowledge, and reading
consistent with the findings obtained from the cross comprehension at the second-grade level. It was not
lagged panel analysis.
assumed that these relationships would be the same at
Replication of path analysis with a second data sample. higher grade levels. Comprehension and vocabulary
We collected, over 8 months, identical vocabulary, com issues at the second-grade level probably differ at higher
prehension, and phonics measurements from another grade levels where students encounter more words and
group of second-grade students (n = 1,585), following concepts unfamiliar to them. The question under study is,
the same testing procedure as that followed with the sam "Do phonics skills contribute to better word recognition
ple described in this study. Means and standard deviations skills, which, in turn, contribute to improved reading
and intercorrelations between vocabulary, phonics, and comprehension?" The question is relevant only before
comprehension measurement variables obtained from word recognition skills are fairly well developed. After
this data source are shown in Table 4. Note that intercor readers develop fluent decoding skills, the issue is irrele
relations between the measurement variables are similar vant.
to those obtained from the first set of data (see Table 3). The causal impact of phonics knowledge on reading
The best fitting model (Model E) was applied to this sec comprehension implied in this study is consistent with the
ond data sample (see Figure 3). This model again proved to findings of other studies. For example, when comparisons
be a good fit (x2 = 20.18, df= 3,p < .0001, RMSR = of initial reading approaches are based on standardized

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March/April 1990 [Vol. 83(No. 4)1 211

.381 uv

.222
Vocabulary Vocabulary
.252
.721

.783 Phonics Phonics

.642

Comprehension Comprehension

Figure 3. "Best Fit" Model Applied to Second Data Sample (Phonics Causes Growth in Vocabulary
Knowledge and Reading Comprehension. Reading Comprehension Causes Growth in
Vocabulary Knowledge)

Table 4.?Means and Standard Deviations, and Intercorrelations Between Vocabulary, Comprehension, and
Phonics Measurement Variables

Description Pretest Posttest


Time Var. M SD

V 22.4751 9.2549
Pre C 20.8416 8.8347 .7829
p 55.0883 14.4960 .7208 .6422
V 33.1394 8.3705 .7131 .6633 .7321
Post C 31.0612 7.2764 .5818 .6030 .6154 .7753
p 68.4662 10.9101 .5605 .5150 .7244 .7657 .6658 ?

Note. V = vocabulary; C = comprehension; P = phonics, n = 1,585.

semantic,
test scores, explicit phonics instruction, background, discourse,
emphasizing seg and graphophonic
mentation and blending, appears to be knowledge.
superior to the im
plicit phonics instruction (Anderson, etTheal., 1985;
findings Becker,
regarding the vocabulary-comprehension
1977; Bond & Dykstra, 1967; Calfeeconnection
& Piontkowski,
are not easy to explain. The hypothesis sug
1981; Chali, 1967; Guthrie & Tyler, 1978;
gestingPflaum
that improvedetwordal.,
knowledge will result in im
1980; Samuels, 1981; Williams, 1980; Williams,
proved 1985).cannot be supported from
reading comprehension
the data
Research findings also indicate that good obtained. use both
readers
graphophonic and contextual cues whenMost reading, whereas
of the research literature regarding the vocabu
inadequate phonological recoding seems to be a hallmark
lary-comprehension relationship suggests that vocabulary
of poor readers (Camine, et al., 1984; Jorm
instruction & Share,
improves reading comprehension, but it also
1983; Lesgold & Curtis, 1981). The ability to use
seems logical grapho
to suggest that the individual who reads and
phonic cues may be more important tocomprehends
beginning readers
well can increase his or her vocabulary by
than was previously supposed. This study suggests
wide reading. that
This comprehension-vocabulary relation
growth in reading comprehension andship word
deserves knowledge,
more attention. The findings of the study
as measured by standardized test scores, suggest
is influenced
that wide readingbyinfluences
a general vocabulary
student's graphophonic knowledge?at least at than
growth more thevocabulary
second instruction influences read
grade level. ing comprehension, at least at the second-grade level.
Approaches to phonics teaching and reading instruc Cross-lagged path analysis does not rule out the possibil
tion differ. Some approaches seem to encourage children ity that both variables have some causal influence on each
to focus on the individual words in text material at the ex other, but only the likelihood that between the two varia
pense of reading for meaning. Those who read this discus bles, one is a stronger cause of the other. The findings of
sion should not imply support for this type of reading in the path analysis offer support for this position. This
struction. An analysis of the decoding literature suggests study suggests that reading comprehension is a stronger
that beginning reading programs should teach children cause of general vocabulary growth than vice versa.
how to use all available knowledge sources: syntactic, Anderson and Freebody (1979) offered three alter

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212 Journal of Educational Research

native views to explain why vocabulary knowledge is such grades. However, if concept-driven reading affects vocab
an extraordinary correlate of linguistic competence. The ulary development as much or more than text-driven read
instrumentalist position suggests that vocabulary knowl ing affects reading comprehension, as the vocabulary
edge causes growth in text comprehension. The aptitude comprehension relationship found in this study suggests,
position indicates that vocabulary test performance is then phonics instruction should be provided in a compre
merely another reflection of mental ability rather than a hension-focused reading environment. Young children
direct cause of reading comprehension (i.e., persons with should be provided with many holistic reading experi
large vocabularies comprehend better because they pos ences, and they should be encouraged to make sense out
sess superior mental agility). The knowledge hypothesis of everything that they read.
emphasizes the importance of conceptual frameworks or It is hoped that the findings of this study will influence
schemata. Performance on a vocabulary test is seen as a educators to ask additional questions about the reading
reflection of the extent of exposure to the culture. The process. The relationships examined in this study should
person who scores high has deeper and broader knowl be examined further using other measurement devices and
edge of the culture, and this knowledge is crucial for text children of various ages.
comprehension. Anderson and Freebody hastened to
point out that no serious scholar in reading rigidly adheres
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