Visual Optics Laboratory Materials and Treatments

VISUAL OPTICS LABORATORY
OPTICAL MATERIALS
Prof.Dr.A.Necmeddin YAZICI
GAZİANTEP UNIVERSITY
OPTİCAL and ACOUSTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
http://opac.gantep.edu.tr/index.php/tr/ 1
LENS MATERİALS and TREATMENTS
Optical Glass
• Glass is an inorganic non-crystalline amorphous substance.
• It is a super-cooled liquid.
• Glasses are made of the oxides of silicon, boron and phosphorus.
• Other oxides are added as fluxes to vary specific properties, such as melting
temperatures, index of refraction, dispersion, and the color of the glass.
• Optical glasses are precisely formulated to control their optical, chemical and
mechanical properties.
• More than 250 different optical glasses are manufactured.
2
Desirable Characteristics of Optical Glass
• The two most important optical properties of a glass are the indexes of refraction
and the dispersion of the glass.
• Chemical properties that affect the surface quality of optical elements will also
affect the quality of the images they produce.
• The quality of polished glass surfaces is affected by water vapor, acids and gases.
• These factors may cause surface haze (pus) and staining (leke).
• The mechanical properties of interest are hardness and abrasion (aşınma)
resistance.
• In addition, optical glasses must possess a high degree of homogeneity, i.e., a
uniform refractive index.
• Incomplete stirring (karıştırma) of the molten glass can result in threadlike (iplik gibi)
streaks (şerit) of glass of different composition, density and index of refraction
called striae (çizik).
• They refract light differently.
• Other properties that are rigorously controlled are bubbles (kabarcıklar) and stress
birefringence (çift kırılım).
• Besides refractive indices and dispersion properties, manufacturers provide
mechanical, physical and chemical properties, and light transmittances for
wavelengths between 280 and 700 nm.
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• Ophthalmic lenses can be made from various mineral or organic materials.

• These lens materials must have the following characteristics to be suitable for
spectacle lenses:
• Nearly transparent to all visible wavelengths (freedom from color, unless
otherwise specified)
• Free from defects, like bubbles and inclusions
• Homogeneity (uniform in both physical and chemical composition)
• Chemically and physically stable
• Hard, Durable, Resistant to weather, and scratch-resistant (çizilmeye dayanıklı)
• Safe and impact-resistant (darbeye dayanıklı)
• Lightweight
• A high index of refraction and low dispersion are desired
• Correct index of refraction and chromatic dispersion values.
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PHYSICAL STATE
• Refractive index and structural characteristics of optical glass are strongly
influenced by the thermal history of the material. Improper annealing procedures
can produce:
• (1) index differences throughout the bulk of the glass;
• (2) sufficient double refraction (birefringence) to cause image degradation;
• (3) residual stress that may cause fracture or distortion upon working the glass.
5
Lens Materials: Material Properties
• A list of common lens materials, and their
pertinent characteristics, is provided in
Table.
Table: Lens Material Properties Summary

TABLE: Lens material characteristics
6
• Modern lenses typically belong to either of two broad classes of lens materials:
• organic materials (plastics)
• and mineral materials (glass).
• Organic materials (plastics) can be further classified by whether they are
• thermosetting (ısı ile sertleşen), which once hardened cannot be softened, even at
high temperatures,
• or thermoplastic materials (which soften when heated and therefore can be
remolded (yeniden şekil vermek)
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• A common manufacturing process for producing lenses made from thermoplastic

materials is called injection-molding.
• This process involves first heating and melting down thermoplastic pellets, and
then injecting the melted resin between two metal molds under controlled
pressure.
• The melted plastic is then allowed to cool, and hardens into a completed lens
blank.
• The three main varieties of optical glass are ophthalmic
• crown glass,
• flint glasses,
• and barium crown glasses.
• Flint and barium crown glasses are softer than ophthalmic crown glass, and are
less chemically tolerant.
• Some of the more common glass types are crown (K), borosilicate crown (BK),
barium crown (BaK) and lanthanum crown (LaK). Common flint glasses include
flint (F), dense flint (SF) and lanthanum flint (LaF).
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Lens Materials: Ophthalmic crown Glasses
• Ophthalmic crown derives its name from the sheets of glass originally blown for
window glass.
• However, the term crown now is used to refer to the composition of the glass rather
than to its method of manufacture.
• The ingredients of ophthalmic crown glass are silica (sand), 70%; sodium oxide
(soda), 14— 16%; calcium oxide (lime), 11 — 13%; and small percentages of
potassium, borax, antimony, and arsenic.
• Ophthalmic crown glass is used for the great majority of single-vision glass lenses,
and for the distance portion of most glass bifocal and trifocal lenses. As already
noted, its index of refraction is 1.523 and its nu value is 59.
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Lens Materials: Flint Glasses
• Flint glasses contain from 45% to 65% lead oxide, from 25% to 45% silica, and
about 10% mixture of soda and potassium oxide.
• As compared to crown glass, flint glasses have a higher index of refraction (from
1.580 for light flint to 1.690 for dense flint) and a higher chromatic dispersion (a nu
value of 30 to 40).
• They are used for bifocal segments for some fused bifocals (in which the segment
must have a higher index of refraction than the major lens) and until recently for
single-vision lenses of high power, since due to the high index of refraction a
thinner (although heavier) lens can be produced.
• Other high-index glasses have largely supplanted flint for this purpose.
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Lens Materials: Barium crown Glasses
• Barium crown glasses contain from 25% to 40% barium oxide, which has the same
effect as lead oxide in increasing the index of refraction, but without as great an
increase in chromatic dispersion.
• These glasses have indices of refraction from 1.541 to 1.616, and nu values from 59
to 55 (comparable to that of crown glass).
• Their main use is for segments of the Nokrome series of fused bifocals.
• The optical properties of high-index glasses developed for fused bifocal segments,
as compared to those of ophthlamic crown glass, are shown in below table.
TABLE: Optical Properties of High-Index Glasses Developed for

Bifocal Segments, as Compared to Ophthalmic Crown Glass
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Lens Materials: Glasses
• In recent years, many specific varieties of glass, having special properties, have
been developed.
• These include high-index glasses with refractive indices of 1.60, 1.70, and 1.80.
• These glasses have a high content of titanium oxide and are useful for reducing the
thickness of high-powered lenses.
• Characteristics of some of these glasses are shown in below table.
TABLE: Optical Properties of Currently Available High-Index Glasses, as Compared to

Ophthalmic Crown Glass
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Lens Materials: Glasses
• Glass for absorptive lenses is made by the addition of metallic oxides to the raw
materials in the batch.
• For example, the addition of cobalt results in a blue lens, chromium oxide magreen
lens, magnesium in a violet lens, and uranium in a yellow lens.
• These and other metallic oxides may be used in combination to achieve the desired
effect. In addition, cerium oxide and other materials have the property of absorbing
ultraviolet radiation, and iron oxide has the property of absorbing infrared radiation.
• Photochromic glass contains silver halide crystals, which under the influence of
ultraviolet radiation separate into silver and halide ions.
• The silver and halide ions cluster together, and as the cluster becomes larger, it
becomes opaque, causing the lenses to darken in the presence of ultraviolet light.
• In the absence of ultraviolet radiation, the silver and halide crystals recombine,
causing the lenses to fade.
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Refractive Index
• The refractive index of a lens material indicates how much the material will refract or
bend light as it enters the material from air, by comparing the speed of light in a
given material to the speed of light in air.
• The higher the index number of a given material, the more the light will refract as it
enters the material.
• If a material has a greater ability to refract light, less of a curve is required to obtain
a specific power, resulting in a thinner lens, but usually at the expense of lower
Abbé values.
• For ophthalmic crown glass, the index of refraction for the Fraunhofer D line
(wavelength 589.3 nm)—but not for the C line (656.2 nm) or for the F line (486.1
nm)—is 1.523.
• Dispersive power is based on the change in index for different wavelengths (C and
F, as compared to D):
• If the index of refraction of a substance is the same for all wavelengths, there will
be no chromatic dispersion.
• Therefore, not only must the refractive index for the D line be correct, but the
indices for the C and F lines must also be controlled, in order for the dispersive
power (nu value) to be correct.
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Refractive Index
• The index of refraction increases as the wavelength decreases.
• Dispersion will usually increase in glasses of high refractive index.
• As the density of a glass increases, the index of refraction usually (but not always)
increases.
• Plastic (CR-39) and Crown Glass are considered
base index with indices of 1.498 and 1.52
respectively.
• Materials with an index between 1.53 and 1.57
are sometimes considered mid-index, while 1.58
and greater is considered high-index.
• More frequently, however, anything over 1.53 is
called high-index.
FIGURE: As the index of refraction

increases, light is refracted to a greater
extent.
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• Consider a comparison between two -4.00 D lenses,

one with a refractive index of 1.500 and the other with
an index of 1.700.
• These lenses are shown in below figure.
• Notice that the 1.700 high-index lens is 25% thinner
than the 1.500 lens.
• High-index lenses (high-index plastics) produce thinner
lenses with less mass.
• These lens materials often have lower densities than
CR-39, as well.
FIGURE: A -4.00 D lens

comparison.
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Specific Gravity
• Specific gravity describes the density of a lens material by comparing its density to
the density of water.
• The specific gravity is the ratio of the mass of a material or liquid compared to the
mass of an equal volume of water (at 4°C).
• The higher the specific gravity of a lens material, the higher the density, and
consequently, the heavier a lens of that material will be for a given power and size.
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Impact Resistance
• Unlike metals, glass does not exhibit ductility, being so brittle that it displays virtually
no plastic deformation prior to fracturing.
• The surface and edge flaws are the primary contributors to reduced impact
resistance of ophthalmic lens materials.
• The flaws may be either intrinsic (tabiatında var olan) or acquired (sonradan olan).
• The drop-ball test involves dropping a 15.9 mm (5/8”), 16 g (0.56 oz) steel ball upon
the lens from a distance of 127 cm (50”).
• This impact is equivalent to about 0.2 joules of energy.
• To survive (dayanmak) this test without fracturing, most glass lenses must be
tempered to increase their impact resistance, and then tested individually.
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Impact Resistance
• Tempering places the outer surface of the lens in a state of compression.
• Tempering increases impact resistance by placing the outer surfaces of the lens into
a state of compression.
• Two methods of tempering are currently in use for spectacle lenses:
• Thermal or Air Tempering
• Chemical Tempering
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Impact Resistance
1. Thermal tempering:
• This process involves heating the lens to its softening point, and then rapidly
cooling the lens with blasts of air.
• The heating process causes the glass to expand.
• When subsequent rapid cooling of the lens, its outer surfaces cool quickly, while the
inner core of the lens cools more slowly.
• Therefore, the interior mass of the lens is still slightly plastic.
• As the interior mass of the lens cools, it contracts and exerts tension on the
resisting rigid surface volume.
• When reaching room temperature the surface is under compression and the central
portion of the lens (i.e., below the surface) is under tension.
• This places the outer surfaces of the lens in a state of compression, and the inner
core in a state of tension.
• This process takes only a few minutes.
• The resulting strain produced within the lens makes the material birefringent (or
doubly refracting). (çift kırılmalı)
• If a heat-tempered lens is placed between two Polaroid filters oriented at right
angles to each other (in an instrument called a polariscope) the birefringence
patterns are readily visible.
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2. Chemical tempering:
• This process involves exchanging larger ions (ions exchange system) from a
heated salt bath for smaller ions from the surfaces of the lens.
• These larger ions place the surfaces in a state of compression.
• For instance, potassium ions from the salt bath might be exchanged with smaller
sodium ions from the lens surface (for crown glass lenses).
• The amount of ion exchange is proportional to the square root of the time, and
depends also upon the temperature.
• This process takes between four to sixteen hours, depending upon the method.
• The required temperature varies, depending upon the variety of glass.
• For clear crown glass, the bath requires a temperature within ±5° of 470°C,
whereas for tinted crown glass the required temperature is within ±5° of 440°C.
• For photochromic lenses, the temperature is somewhat lower, being within ±5° of
400°C.
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2. Chemical tempering:
• It is also done at lower temperatures than thermal tempering.
• Due to the lower temperature (as compared to the temperature required for heat
tempering), there is less chance of lens warpage (eğilmek, bükülmek), and irregularities
do not occur as with heat tempering.
• Since the compressive stress developed in chemically strengthened lenses is much
greater than that of heat tempered lenses, these lenses are from two to three times
more impact resistant.
• To visually identify a chemically tempered lens, the lens should be immersed in
glycerine between crossed polarizing plates.
• When viewed through the surfaces, a narrow band is visible around the periphery
of the lens.
• One disadvantage of chemical tempering is the fact that it requires a 16-hour
(overnight) period, thus adding one day to the time required to receive the finished
lens from the laboratory.
• Recently, equipment has been developed that ultrasonically stimulates the chem-
tempering process.
• The ultrasonic stimulation of a chem-tempering bath appears to result in higher
strength lenses than conventional processing, and requires a treatment time of only
2½ to 4 hours.
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Lens Fractures
• Two particularly common types of lens fractures are
1. The first breakage (Figure) is a fracture of
rear surface origin, caused by a compound
flexure of the lens that sets up a tension
stress at the rear surface resulting in a tear
at the back surface. This occurs primarily
when a minus-powered (thinner at the
center) lens is hit by a missile of moderate FIGURE: Lens fracture of rear surface origin.
mass and velocity.
2. The second breakage (Figure) is a fracture

of front surface origin, caused by simple
elastic denting of the front surface and a
tear that propagates to the back. This
occurs primarily when a small, lightweight,
and high-velocity missile hits the lens. FIGURE: Lens fracture of front surface origin.
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Abbe Value
• White light is composed of the visible spectrum of wavelengths each corresponding
to a different color.
• When light enters a prism it is bent toward the base of the prism. Shorter
wavelengths (e.g., violet) are bent at a greater angle than longer wavelengths (e.g.,
red).
• Since a lens can be likened to two prisms (apex to apex for a minus lens and base
to base for a plus lens), light passing through a lens has a tendency to separate into
its respective colors as its varying wavelengths are focused at differing points.
• The tendency to of a material to separate light in this manner is called chromatic
aberration and it is measured by its Abbe value.
• The Abbé value of a lens material is a measure of the refractive efficiency of the
material; or how efficiently the material bends light without breaking it up into its
component colors (dispersion).
• Put another way, the Abbé value provides us with a comparison between the mean
refractivity (nD - 1) of a lens material and its mean dispersion (nF - nC):
where v is the Abbé value of the material, nD is the
refractive index of the material at 587.56 nm (yellow light),
nF is the refractive index at 486.13 nm (blue light), and nC is
the refractive index at 656.28 nm (red light).
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Abbe Value
• The Abbe value of a material is inversely proportional to the chromatic aberration
induced as light passes through it.
• In other words, the higher the abbe value, the lower the amount of chromatic
aberration.
• Generally speaking, the higher the index of a lens material, the higher the chromatic
aberration, and the lower the Abbe value.
• Materials with lower Abbé values are more susceptible to chromatic aberration,
since they disperse light more.
• It is important to consider the fact that the Abbé value of both mineral and organic
lens materials generally decreases as the refractive index of the material increases.
• Consequently, higher-index materials
have more chromatic aberration for the
same power.
• Notice the decrease in Abbé values as
the refractive indices increase in figure.
FIGURE: A comparison between the Abbé value and refractive

index of representative glass and plastic lenses. Notice how the
Abbé value decreases as the index of refraction increases for
both materials.
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Abbe Value
• For spectacle lenses, chromatic aberration can be minimized with the judicious
selection of lens materials (i.e., low Abbé value).
• For precision optical instruments, achromatic doublets are often used to minimize
chromatic aberration.
• Doublets are constructed by combining two lenses made from glasses of differing
refractive index and Abbé values.
• When a lens with power disperses light, each color can create its own focal length
and image size.
• Spectacle lenses can suffer from both monochromatic and chromatic aberrations.
• Like the monochromatic aberrations, chromatic aberration also increases towards
the periphery, as shown in below figure.
Prentice’s rule
FIGURE: Chromatic aberration will vary directly with the

amount of prism Δ at a given point through the lens using
Prentice’s rule (above equation), and is inversely
proportional to Abbé value of the lens material.
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Abbe Value
• The amount of lateral chromatic aberration produced by a lens is given by
where δ is the amount of chromatic aberration in prism diopters (Δ), Δ is the amount of
prism at a given point through the lens, and ν is the Abbé value of the lens material.
Example
A person looks 10 mm (1 cm) away from the optical center of a +5.00 D polycarbonate
lens, which has an Abbé value of 30. How much chromatic aberration does the wearer
experience?
∴ Chromatic aberration is 0.17Δ.
The calculated amount of chromatic aberration is the prismatic difference between the
red and blue portions of the spectrum.
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Categories of Absorptive Lenses
• Absorptive lenses may be arbitrarily considered in terms of the following
categories:
• 1. Lenses, designed for general wear, that absorb the spectrum evenly,
absorbing little more ultraviolet, visible light, or infrared radiation than is
absorbed by clear ophthalmic crown glass.
• 2. Lenses that selectively absorb ultraviolet radiation and transmit the visible
spectrum more or less evenly.
• 3. Lenses that selectively absorb both ultraviolet and infrared radiation, while
having little effect on the visible spectrum.
• 4. Lenses that selectively absorb portions of the visible spectrum in a
nonuniform manner.
• 5. Lenses designed for occupational use, selectively absorbing particular
wavelength bands or having extremely high absorption.
• 6. Lenses whose absorption characteristics vary with illumination
(photochromic lenses).
• 7. Miscellaneous absorptive lenses.
• 8. Cosmetic lenses.
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Categories of Absorptive Lenses
• Most of the lenses absorb sufficient radiation in the visible spectrum to be
considered as "sunglass" lenses.
• The American Bureau of Standards has defined a sunglass lens as one that
transmits less than 67% of incident light.
• This is an arbitrary definition: In order to afford sufficient protection for bright
daylight conditions, transmission should be on the order of 10 to 20%.
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Reflectance
• Clear optical glass must have the highest transparency and transmission possible
for light in the spectral region for which it is designed.
• Clear optical glass transmits only 92% of the incident light, due to a loss of
approximately 4% at each of the surfaces due to reflections.
• Surface reflections decrease with increasing wavelength; therefore, an optical glass
with no absorption would have a spectral variation in transmission that would
change the color of the light passing through it.
• A typical ophthalmic lens reflects 8% or more of incident light.
• High-index glasses transmit less than 92% of the incident light because of increased
surface reflectance.
• High-index lenses reflect slightly more light than either crown glass or CR-39,
thereby transmitting less light.
• High-index lens materials generally absorb more ultraviolet radiation than CR-39.
• According to this formula, a CR-39 plastic lens (index of 1.498) reflects about 4.0%
of the light incident on its front surface, while a polycarbonate lens (n = 1.586)
reflects 5.1%.
30
Transmittance
• The transmittance of a lens material describes the amount of light (usually
specified for a given waveband) that will pass through that material.
• The fraction of incident light transmitted through a lens is referred to as its
transmittance τ.
• The transmittance of a lens may vary from wavelength to wavelength, especially
for tinted lenses with color.
• Ocular protection from ultraviolet radiation can be provided by means of either
absorptive or reflective filters.
• Absorptive filters are manufactured by adding substances to the lens material,
whereas reflective filters are designed by coating the lens with the appropriate
reflecting material.
• It has been recommended that an ultraviolet filter should absorb all radiation up to
380 nm.
• The absorption characteristics of clear spectacle lenses differ slightly from one
manufacturer to another, and differ for different materials (i.e., glass vs. plastic).
31
Transmittance
FIGURE: Transmittance of a clear polycarbonate lens. Note that the lens transmits no ultraviolet radiation (below
380 nm). Most high-index plastic lens materials absorb 100% of UVB radiation and 98% or more of UVA.
• The transmission properties of a lens are illustrated by means of a spectral

transmission curve, such as those shown for clear polycarbonate lens in above
figure.
• A spectral transmission curve shows the percentage transmission for all of the
visible spectrum and for portions of the ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths.
32
Transmittance
• These curves depict the amount of radiant energy transmitted as a percentage of
the radiant energy incident upon the lens, as a function of wavelength.
• The single percentage number given for a particular lens refers to the area under
the curve within the visible spectrum.
FIGURE: Spectral transmission curves: A, for clear crown glass 33

Transmittance
• For certain occupational or recreational visual needs, a selective filter may be
appropriate.
• Unwanted color in a batch of glass is due to the presence of impurities in the raw
materials or is a result of material from the pot's walls-entering into solution with the
glass.
• Iron oxide is the

most serious
source of
problems, causing
an intense green
or yellow
discoloration
FIGURE: Transmittance of a yellow CR-39 lens. Note that, like amber lenses,
the lens significantly attenuates blue light.
34
Transmittance
FIGURE: Transmittance of a brown CR-39 lens. This color can also be used for glare and sun protection.
• Although the spectral transmission curve of a lens is the major consideration, the
color of the lens is useful for identification purposes, and may have important
psychological and cosmetic ramifications.
• In addition, the depth of the color provides a general indication of the level of
transmission of the visible spectrum.
35
Transmittance
• A variation in transmission across the lens will occur due to the variation in
thickness.
• Normally, absorptive lenses are rated in terms of transmission for a lens of a
constant thickness of 2 mm.
36
Absorption
• Absorption refers to the loss of light as it passes through a lens material.
• The coating has been formulated to incorporate special ultraviolet absorbers that
screen out all ultraviolet radiation below 380 nm. Spectral transmission curve for
clear polycarbonate lens with coating which incorporates ultraviolet absorbers.
FIGURE: Spectral transmission curve for clear polycarbonate lens with coating which incorporates ultraviolet
absorbers 37
Absorption
• It should be understood that the specific absorption and transmission properties of a
lens cannot be determined by the color of the lens.
• Spectral transmission curve for Optical Radiation UV-400 is shown in below figure.
FIGURE 7-12. Spectral transmission curve for Optical Radiation UV-400. 38

Absorption
• Lenses that absorb light evenly across the visible spectrum are referred to as
neutral filters, and will be gray in appearance.
• Lenses that selectively absorb light across the visible spectrum are referred to as
selective filters.
FIGURE: Transmittance of a neutral gray CR-39 lens. Note that the lens attenuates light quite evenly over the
majority of the visible spectrum (between 380 to 760 nm).
39
Absorption
• For instance, a lens that selectively absorbs blue light may appear amber or yellow
in hue since it transmits wavelengths other than blue.
• The principal use of absorptive filters is for protection against glare (sunglasses).
• Both neutral and selective filters are shown in figure-1 and 2.
FIGURE-2: Transmittance of a selective amber CR-39 lens. Note that the lens significantly attenuates blue light,
while transmitting a considerable amount of the yellow and red end of the spectrum—giving it an amber hue. 40
Absorption
• Lambert’s law states that light passing through a given thickness of a homogenous
material is absorbed by the same percentage.
• From Lambert’s law; if a 2-mm layer of a given lens material transmits 50% of the
incident light, 4 mm of this lens material—which is 2 layers at 2 mm—will transmit
50% × 50% = 25% of the original light intensity.
• The final transmittance τ of a lens, after passing through N layers, can be
mathematically expressed by:
• where τ is the final transmittance of the lens, IO is the original intensity of the
incident light, q is the transmission factor for a layer of the material at a given
thickness, and N is the number of layers.
• N is given by the thickness of the lens divided by the thickness of the ‘layer,’ which
is generally chosen to be 2 mm for spectacle lenses.
• Plastic (organic) lenses, on the other hand, are tinted by dyeing the surface of the
lens in a bath of organic dye.
• The depth of the tint is a mere fraction of the overall lens thickness.
• Therefore, lens thickness has no significant effect on the tint appearance of plastic
lenses. 41
42
Glass
• The majority of mineral lenses are made from a variety of glass known as crown
glass.
• Crown glass, which dominated the industry for centuries, is comprised chiefly of
silica, soda, and lime, to which small amounts of potassium, aluminum, and barium
oxides are added in order to provide the desired physical and chemical properties.
• Glass is most stable, scratch-resistant (çizilmeye dayanıklı), and provides the best
optical quality of all lens materials.
• However, since glass is more brittle than most materials, lenses made of glass
must be tempered or heat-treated to give them more strength and make them safer
to wear.
• Glass is available in a number of indices of refraction.
• The higher the index, the thinner a lens will be for a given power.
• However, the specific gravity also increases dramatically with the index making
high-index glass lenses much heavier.
• Chromatic aberration is also more pronounced in high-index glass.
• Index: Crown 1.52; High index 1.60, 1.70, 1.80
43
Glass
Advantages Disadvantages
Superior optics, Does not accept tint,
Stable material, Not impact resistant,
Scratch resistant. Heavy
44
CR-39
• The majority of spectacle lenses are made from allyl diglycol carbonate, a
thermosetting plastic lens material referred to as CR-39 (Columbia Resins).
• CR-39 also known as plastic or hard resin, serves as a much lighter lens material
(approximately 50% lighter- (1.32/2.54 = 0.52)) than glass.
• This material has an index of refraction of 1.498, a nu value of 58, and a specific
gravity of 1.32.
• CR-39, however, is far less scratch resistant and often must be coated to improve
its scratch resistant characteristics.
• It is impact-resistant (IR) (FDA-IR test) and can be tinted (renklendirmek) to various
shades with chemicals.
• CR-39 lenses are resistant to virtually all solvents including acetone, benzene, and
gasoline, and to most chemicals other than highly oxidizing acids.
• CR-39 material is more resistant than glass to pitting from small hot particles.
• CR-39 material has a much lower thermal conductivity than glass, and hence
fogging (buğulanma) do not occur as readily as a result of sudden temperature
changes as with glass.
• Almost any tint or color can be applied to the surface of a CR-39 lens.
45
CR-39
• Almost any tint or color can be applied to the surface of a CR-39 lens.
• The resistance to surface abrasion (aşınma) is appreciably lower in CR-39 material
than in ophthalmic crown glass.
• Warpage (zaman ile eğilme, bükülme) changes the initial form of the lens and affects its
performance, as well as the magnification and distortion properties of the lens.
• As a result of its relatively low index of refraction, a CR-39 lens of a given power
will have a greater thickness difference between the center and the edge than will a
glass lens.
• A CR-39 photochromic lens, loses 50% of its photochromic properties in
approximately 2 years.
Advantages
Lighter than glass,
Readily tintable
Less likely to fog
Disadvantages
Susceptible to scratching (correctable by coating)
Lower index of refraction makes it less suitable for higher powered prescriptions
46
Polycarbonate
• The most common thermoplastic lens material is polycarbonate.
• While its optical characteristics are less than ideal, polycarbonate, the same
material used for bullet-proof glass, is the most impact resistant of lens materials.
• Consequently, polycarbonate is the material of choice for safety and children’s
eyewear.
• With an index of 1.586, polycarbonate also produces thinner, lighter lenses than
glass or plastic.
• The specific gravity of polycarbonate material is less than that of CR-39 ( 1.20 as
compared with 1.32), resulting in a lens of lighter weight.
• These factors along with polycarbonate’s inherent UV protection and pricing make it
a popular material.
• Index: 1.586
47
Polycarbonate
• An optical disadvantage of polycarbonate, as compared to either CR-39 or glass, is
its low nu value (of only 30), resulting in a larger amount of chromatic dispersion.
• Surfaces of polycarbonate lenses are difficult to mold (şekil vermek).
Advantages
Thinner and lighter than glass and plastic
Highly impact resistant (used for safety glasses)
Inherent UV protection
Disadvantges
Poor optical quality
Susceptible to stress fractures in drill mounts
Does not readily accept tint
48
Hi-Index
• High index lenses polymers typically refer to products with an index higher than
1.58.
• High index lenses require flatter curves than their lower index counterparts,
resulting in thinner and lighter lenses.
• Furthermore, aspheric curves come standard in many high index products,
particularly 1.66 and 1.70 products, and are available in 1.60.
• Asphericity reduces spatial distortion, reduces magnification or minification, and
further helps maintain a thin and flat lens profile.
• High index material, however, tends to have a lower Abbe value which could
potentially affect patients who are sensitive to chromatic aberration.
• Also higher index and flatter curves tend to result in more backside and inner-
surface reflections.
• AR coatings are usually recommended for high index lenses to eliminate these
reflections.
Advantages
Thinner and lighter than glass and plastic
Better optical quality than polycarbonate
Disadvantages
Susceptible to backside and inner-surface reflections (correctable with AR)
49
Trivex
• Trivex combines impact resistance of polycarbonate, exceptional optical clarity,
and a specific gravity of 1.11 (the lightest available).
• Trivex’s tensile strength makes it ideal for drill mount frames.
• All Trilogy products are aspheric and guaranteed for life against stress fractures
and drill mount cracking.
• Some Phoenix products are now available with aspheric curves.
• Index: 1:53
Advantages
Impact resistance of polycarbonate
Better optical quality than polycarbonate
Tintable
Lightest material on the market Inherent UV protection
High tensile strength (ideal for drill mounts)
Disadvatages
50
• The major forms of absorptive lenses produced by lens manufacturers are:
• (1) tinted solid glass lenses;
• (2) glass lenses with surface coatings;
• (3) tinted plastic lenses;
• (4) photochromic lenses; and
• (5) Polaroid lenses.
51
Photochromic Lenses
• There are also lens materials available, in both glass and plastic, that are sensitive
to sunlight.
• These lens materials are referred to as photochromic lense (filters), and
automatically darken when exposed to sunlight (or ultraviolet radiation).
• Photochromic is a generic term to define a lens with a characteristic of changing
state from clear to sunglass dark when exposed to light.
• Figure demonstrates both the faded and darkened states of a common glass
photochromic lens.
• A photochromic lens changes its transmission characteristics depending upon the
intensity of incident radiation.
• The lens becomes darker in brighter light.
• The process of darkening is more rapid than that of lightening.
• The reactions in glass and plastic are different.
52
Photochromic Lenses
FIGURE: Transmittance of a photochromic glass lens in both its faded (solid line) and darkened (dashed) states.
 Below is a list of the most popular flavors of photochromic lenses.

• Transitions
• PGX/PBX
• Sunsensors
• LifeRx 53
Photochromic Lenses TABLE: Transmittance of popular photochromics
• The luminous transmittance of a

lens is its spectral transmittance
weighted by the photopic (or daytime
vision) sensitivity of the human eye.
• This is a more meaningful measure of
lens transmittance, since the
sensitivity of the human eye varies
between the colors of the visible
spectrum.
• Glass photochromics work by the
action of silver halide crystals
distributed throughout the lens blank.
• Upon exposure to sunlight, these
crystals break apart into free silver
and halogen atoms.
• The silver particles then cluster together, forming silver colloids that absorb visible
light—causing the lens to darken in color.
• Upon removal from sunlight, the process reverses itself—causing the lens to fade in
color and lens becomes lighter.
54
Photochromic Lenses
• The darkening rate is temperature dependent; the lower the temperature the faster
and deeper the amount of darkening.
• Hence, the degree of darkening is dependent on a number of factors, including the
intensity of the radiation, the length of exposure, and the ambient temperature.
• Heat opposes the effect of light.
• Thus, glass darkens more easily when cold and lightens more easily when warm.
• A glass lens becomes gradually darker over time if it is used repeatedly.
55
Photochromic Lenses
• The most common plastic photochromics work by the action of a thin organic layer
of indolino spironaphthoxazine molecules that are imbibed (or impregnated) into the
front surface of the lens blank.
• These molecules undergo a chemical reaction when exposed to sunlight, which
causes a change in their structure.
• This new configuration absorbs visible light.
• As with the glass photochromics, the process reverses itself once the sunlight is
removed.
• Most of the plastic photochromics, however, are not affected by lens thickness—
since only a thin layer of the front surface actually contains the photochromic
molecules.
• There are some plastic materials that contain the photochromic molecules
throughout the lens, and their performance is affected by lens thickness.
• Fatiguability of the material over time reduces the darkening which occurs.
• The time delay in the reaction of photochromic lenses makes them unsuitable for
use where lighting conditions change rapidly, e.g. when driving through tunnels.
56
Photochromic Lenses
• The wavelength that induces darkening depends on the chemical composition of
the glass.
• Glasses containing only silver chloride are sensitive to wavelengths from
approximately 300 to 400 nm with optimum activation around 350 nm.
• The longer wavelength limit of spectral sensitivity for darkening is higher for glasses
containing the heavier halogens such as silver bromide (up to 550 nm) and silver
iodide (up to 650 nm).
• The addition of other "sensitizers" in trace quantities enhances the sensitivity and
photochromic darkening.
• These include the oxides of arsenic, antimony, tin, and copper.
• Copper oxide is an especially effective sensitizer and is believed to enter the silver
halide crystals as a cuprous (bakırlı) ion.
57
Photochromic Lenses
• The photochromic performance of glass lenses is affected by several variables:
1. Method of tempering. Thermally tempered lenses will generally have a lower
transmittance in both their faded and darkened states than chemically tempered
lenses.
2. Lens thickness. As the thickness of the lens increases the transmittance
decreases in its darkened state, because of the additional level of silver halide
crystals present throughout the greater mass of the lens.
3. Ambient temperature. Photochromic lenses are temperature sensitive, and will
darken more in colder temperatures than in warmer.
4. Ultraviolet radiation. Photochromic lenses are activated by ultraviolet radiation
and short wavelength visible light. Therefore, the lenses do not darken as much
when some of the ultraviolet radiation is blocked—such as by an automobile
windshield.
5. Photooxidation. The photochromic performance of plastic materials gradually
deteriorates over time, through a process called photooxidation.
6. The intensity of the incident radiation.
7. The wavelength of the incident radiation
8. The previous heat treatment
9. The exposure history.
58
Tinted Lenses
• A tinted lens modifies the spectral profile of the radiation passing through it.
• Tints are either absorptive or reflective; absorptive tints absorb light passing
through them, whereas a reflective tint reflects unwanted wavelengths.
• Unequal absorption of different wavelengths produces a coloured tint.
• For example, a yellow-tinted filter absorbs all wavelengths of light except those in
the yellow part of the spectrum, which it transmits.
• A neutral density filter absorbs all wavelengths to the same degree and does not
alter the spectral composition of the light.
• Tints may be of fixed colour (cf. Fluorescein angiography) or photochromic (in
which transmission characteristics vary with the intensity of incident light).
• The purpose of tinted lenses may be to screen out unwanted or harmful radiation
(e.g. Laser protective goggles) or cosmetic.
59
Tinted Lenses
• A tint may be added to a lens by permeation, by means of a coating or as a solid
tint.
• Most plastic lenses are tinted by immersion in a dye which permeates the lens to a
uniform depth to produce an even tint; darker tints are produced by prolonged
immersion.
• Coating applied to the lens surface may be absorptive (Cr, NiCr, MgF2, SiO) or
reflective (Cr, NiCr).
• A solid tint is incorporated evenly throughout the lens and absorption of radiation is
therefore greater where the lens is thicker.
• The performance of a tinted lens is described by a transmittance curve which plots
the percentage transmission of incident light for each wavelength.
• A lens may be tinted by depositing a thin metallic oxide on the surface of the lens.
• The coating is deposited on the lens by an evaporation process conducted under a
vacuum at high temperatures.
• Due to the high temperature required, the vacuum coating process cannot be used
with plastic lenses.
• Consequently, plastic lenses are tinted by dipping them in a solution containing the
appropriate organic dye.
60
Tinted Lenses
• The resulting density is dependent upon the nature of the dye and the time the lens
is immersed in the solution.
• In order to achieve a particular tint and transmission, the lens may be dipped into
several different tinted solutions.
• Since the dye penetrates the surface layer of the lens to a uniform depth, the
lenses are of uniform density regardless of the variation in thickness from the
center to the edge.
• If the tint is found to be too dark, or for any reason needs to be changed, some of
the tint can be removed by dipping the lens in a bleaching solution.
61
Tinted Lenses
• To produce a tinted lens, one or more metals or metallic oxides are introduced into
the basic batch at the start of the process.
• The spectral transmission characteristics of the finished lenses are controlled by
the quantities of these metals and metallic oxides present at the initial batch stage.
• The concentration of metals and metallic oxides incorporated to produce colors
(even dense colors) in lenses is less than 1%.
• The elements most commonly used and the colors they produce are:
iron green uranium yellow
Manganese pink chromium green
cobalt blue gold red
cerium pinkish brown silver yellow
nickel brown didymium pink
vanadium pale green
62
Polarized Lenses
• Another popular filter for glare attenuation is a polarized filter.
• The polarized lenses remove the glare and improve the visual quality of a
photograph, polarized ophthalmic lenses improve the vision and comfort of those
wearing them, in addition to playing an important safety role for drivers, particularly
in morning and late afternoon sun.
• Although the electrical and magnetic
fields of an electromagnetic radiation
wave train remain perpendicular to their
direction of propagation as they move
through space, they don’t necessarily
start out vibrating in any particular
orientation about this path.
• Light waves from many sources, like the
sun and incandescent lamps, can vibrate
in every possible orientation as they
travel along their path.
63
Polarized Lenses
• When the vibration of light waves is confined to
a single plane (i.e., horizontal, vertical, or some
plane in between), the light is referred to as
polarized.
• Below figure depicts the difference between
non-polarized and linearly (or completely)
polarized light from a front view of an imaginary FIGURE: Light waves from many sources are
wave train. not polarized, and vibrate in every possible
direction about their direction of propagation
• Light waves reflected off many dielectric (or travel). When light waves only vibrates in
surfaces, such as water, asphalt, and glass, one plane, they are linearly polarized. The
become partially or completely polarized linearly polarized light above is horizontally
polarized.
parallel to the surface.
• Brewster’s angle β is given by
β = tan−1 n
• where n is the index of refraction.
• For specularly reflected light from ophthalmic crown glass of refractive index 1.523,
Brewster's angle is about 57°; for water, having an index of 1.333, Brewster's angle is
about 53°.
64
Polarized Lenses
• When the angle of incidence is near Brewster's angle, the reflected light is
strongly polarized, but at adjacent angles the reflected light will consist of both
polarized and unpolarized light (partial polarization).
• The plane of polarization (vibration) of the reflected light is parallel to the reflecting
surface, or perpendicular to the plane of the incident light, as shown in below
figure.
FIGURE: The plane of polarization of reflected light is parallel to the reflecting surface.
65
Polarized Lenses
• Glare specularly (ayna parlaması) reflected

off a horizontal surface, for instance, is
horizontally polarized.
• To reduce this reflected glare, a
polarized filter can be employed that
transmits only the vertical components of
incident light—absorbing the horizontally
polarized veiling glare, which has been
reflected off the surface. FIGURE: The molecules in a polarized filter only
allow light vibrating in a single plane to pass
• The action of a polarized filter on non- through—thereby acting like imaginary ‘slits.’ Light
polarized light waves is depicted in vibrating perpendicularly to these slits is absorbed.
Figure
66
Polarized Lenses
• Polarizing filters are created by heating and stretching a thin sheet of polyvinyl
alcohol (PVA) to about four times its original length so its molecules align in long
directional chains of strectch.
• The sheet (PVA) is then passed through a weak iodine solution, and the iodine
molecules diffuse into the polyvinyl layer and attach themselves to the chains of
long molecules, thereby creating a polarizing filter.
• The light absorbing iodine molecules attach to the molecular chains forming the
microscopic blinds.
• The film is then incorporated (dahil etmek) into the lens blank as it is poured (dökmek),
creating polarized lenses.
• For glass lenses, the polarizing material is laminated (üst üste konmak) between two
layers of glass which may be tinted and surfaced to any desired power.
67
Polarized Lenses
• Standard polarized sunglasses are uniformdensity lenses from the center to the
edge, because the tinted layer has a uniform thickness.
• Special additives in the tint coating increase the absorption of ultraviolet.
• These filters are particularly useful for people engaged in water, snow, or driving
activities.
• It is important to note that polarized filters selectively attenuate certain forms of
glare (horizontally reflected glare), not just the overall amount of light passing
through the lens like the conventional filters previously discussed.
• The unaided eye does not usually distinguish between polarized and unpolarized
light (Haidinger's brushes).
68
Lens Coating
• The density of the coated lens depends upon the thickness of the metallic oxide
coating.
• Since the index of refraction of the metallic oxides is higher than the index of
refraction of the underlying glass, the amount of light reflected from the absorptive
coating is greater than the amount reflected from the uncoated front surface of the
glass (note that the coating is deposited on the back surface of the glass).
• To reduce the amount of light reflected by the coating, an antireflective coating of
magnesium fluoride is placed on the metallic oxide coating.
• When the lens is thoroughly cleaned and the coating properly applied, the resulting
hardness is equal to that of ophthalmic crown glass.
• The coating has high resistance to wear and to chemical interaction.
69
Lens Coating
• Each surface of a spectacle lens acts as a curved mirror, and reflects a fraction of
the incident light.
• The reflected image of an object is often referred to as a ghost image.
• While the size and clarity of the reflected ghost images vary with the power and
form of the spectacle lens, the brightness (or intensity) of the ghost images
increases with the refractive index of the lens material.
• Specular surface reflections and ghost images produce visual “noise,” which
degrades retinal image quality without contributing useful visual information.
• Glare from lens reflections serves to reduce both contrast sensitivity and visual
acuity.
• The reflectances of some common lens materials are shown in below table.
• They reduce visual performance TABLE: Reflectances of common lens materials
and comfort via two principal
phenomena:
• visual disturbance caused by
ghost images
• and reduced visual
discrimination caused by
veiling glare.
70
Lens Coating
• There are five unique specular reflections that the wearer may notice from
spectacle lenses, as shown in figure.
• These reflected ghost images could become visually disturbing to the wearer when
the following conditions are met:
1. The reflected ghost image is bright (or intense) enough to stand out (gözü
çarpmak) against the background.
2. The vergence (or power) of the reflected ghost image is similar to the focal
power provided by the spectacle lens, or can be made similar through
accommodation.
3. The reflected ghost image lies close to, but not necessarily in, the wearer’s
line of sight.
FIGURE: The Specular lens reflections from front

(III–V) and rear (I & II) light sources. 71
Principles of Anti-Reflection (AR) Coatings
• AR coating can minimize lens surface reflections,
significantly reducing or eliminating the problems
discussed above, reducing eye strain, while
allowing more light to reach the eye, improving
contrast and clarity.
• Anti-reflective coatings consist of one or more
thin layers (or films) of various inorganic oxides
such as magnesium fluoride, titanium dioxide,
and silicon dioxide.
• These films are often applied by vacuum
deposition, and utilize the principles of
constructive and destructive light
interference.
• These principles are illustrated below figure.
FIGURE: Light interference produced by thin films. A) Light

waves ‘out of phase,’ so that their crests and troughs do not
coincide, exhibit destructive interference and cancel out each
other. (The dotted lines are the resultant wave.) B) Light waves
‘in phase,’ so that their waves do coincide, exhibit constructive
interference and reinforce each other. 72
• When light is reflected from a surface whose

index of refraction is higher than the index of
the medium in which the light has previously
traveled, a phase change of 180 degrees
takes place.
• When the reflecting surface has a lower index
of refraction than the incident medium, no
phase change occurs.
• When a transparent coating has been applied
to the surface of an ophthalmic lens, two
reflection waves will occur, one from the front
surface of the coating and one from the
interface between the coating and the glass.
73
• According to the principles of interference,

these two reflection waves will cancel one
another provided that two conditions are met:
• The first, called the amplitude condition,
requires that the two reflection waves must
be of equal amplitude; the second, called the
path condition, requires that they be one-half
wavelength out of phase.
• Examination of the amplitude condition will
tell us the index of refraction of the coating
and the path condition will reveal the proper
thickness of the coating.
74
• The reflection of light from the surface of a lens may be reduced by coating it with a
material the thickness of which is a quarter of the wavelength of the incident light
(see below figure).
• Light rays which are reflected from the surface of the lens travel a distance of one
half of a wavelength further than those which are reflected from the surface of the
antireflective coating.
• This causes destructive interference and reduces the reflection of light.
• In contrast, a coating which has a thickness half the wavelength of the incident light
produces a mirror coating because of constructive interference.
• Any wavelength may be
selectively reflected by a coating
which is half a wavelength thick.
• A coating is maximally effective
for only one wavelength.
• Mirror coatings are usually
combined with an absorptive tint.
Figure: Antireflective coating.

75
• As can be seen in below figure, destructive interference occurs when light rays
reflected by the surfaces of the lens and coating are 180 degrees out of phase.
• For this to happen, light reflected off the lens front surface must travel one-half
wavelength farther than light reflected by the coating front surface.
• Consequently, the coating must be an odd number of quarter wavelengths thick (i.e.,
one-quarter, three-quarters, etc., wavelengths thick).
• To obtain maximum destructive interference, the amount of light reflected from the
lens and coating surfaces should be equal.
• This occurs when
• where nL is the index of the lens and nc is the index of the coating.
• This relationship can be simplified to
Example:
A CR-39 lens requires an antireflection coating. What should be the refractive index of
the coating?
76
• In addition to having the ideal index of refraction, the coating must have good
adhesive properties, it must be sufficiently hard, and it must be insoluble in water.
• Magnesium fluoride has the optimum combination of optical and physical
properties, and is used almost universally for antireflective coatings of glass
lenses.
• Its refractive index, approximately 1.38, is too high to completely satisfy the
amplitude condition when applied to ophthalmic crown glass:
• This results in an incomplete neutralization of reflections with the result that the
reflectance of a surface cannot be reduced to zero for any wavelength.
• The first step in the production of a magnesium fluoride coating is a thorough
cleaning of the lens to be coated.
• The lens is then placed in a bell-shaped chamber in which a vacuum is created, to
remove all of the air which might interfere with the deposition of magnesium
fluoride.
• The lens is then heated to about 300°C, which contributes to the hardness of the
coating.
• Magnesium fluoride pellets are then heated to about 2500°C in order to produce
vaporization.
• As the magnesium fluoride evaporates, it is deposited on the surface of the lens.
77
• In order to satisfy the path condition the two reflected waves must be out of phase
by one-half wavelength at the point of interference.
• Since the wave reflected from the coating-glass interface will traverse the coating
twice, this wave will be one-half wavelength out of phase with the reflected wave at
the air-coating interface providing that the coating is made with an optical thickness
of one-quarter wavelength.
• The minimum optical thickness (one-quarter wavelength) produces the highest
quality coating and is the thickness that is usually applied.
78
• It is important to distinguish between optical thickness and physical (actual)

thickness.
• The optical thickness is the product of the physical thickness and the index of
refraction of the coating.
• Hence, the optical thickness is /4, and the physical thickness is /4n.
• The optical principles involved in antireflective coatings may be understood with
the help of the diagram shown in below figure.
• In this diagram, Ng represents
an ophthalmic crown glass
lens, and Nc represents a
coating of one-quarter
wavelength applied to the
lens.
FIGURE: Optical principles of an antireflective coating.

79
• Since the angles of incidence
and refraction are very small and
since the coating has an optical
thickness of one-quarter
wavelength, ray APKO has
traveled one-half wavelength
farther than ray BO upon arrival
at point O.
• Since the index Nc is greater
than Na (of air) and since Ng is
greater than Nc, there is a
change in phase of 180° in the
reflected ray KO, at K, and in the
reflected ray ON, at O.
• Therefore, as a result of the phase changes in the reflected rays at K and O and
the difference in path lengths of APKO and BO, the reflected ray ON (dashed) and
the refracted ray ON (solid) are out of phase by 180° at point O, and neutralization
(cancellation) occurs.
• It is apparent in above figure that at point O the refracted ray (dashed line) and the
internally reflected ray (solid line) are in phase, with the result that reinforcement
occurs, therefore increasing the transmission of the lens. 80
• The application of an anti-reflection (AR) coating can increase the transmittance of a
lens up to nearly 100%, while virtually eliminating visible reflections from the surface
of the lens.
• This can be thought of as a two step process:
• The reflections are almost completely
canceled by destructive interference,
while the light passing through the lens
is reinforced to almost 99% or more
transmittance by constructive
interference.
• These optical interference effects are
produced by the interaction of
reflections between the various
interfaces of the AR-coated lens (i.e.,
the interfaces between air, the AR
FIGURE: Transmittance of both a clear (solid line) and
layers, and the lens substrate). an AR-coated (dashed) CR-39 lens. Note that the lens
• For comparison, the transmittance transmits little ultraviolet radiation (below 380 nm), and
evenly transmits the visible spectrum (between 380 to
spectra of an AR-coated and a 760 nm). With the application of an anti-reflection
noncoated CR-39 lens are provided in coating, the transmittance of the lens material
Figure. approaches 100%.
81
• The index of refraction of the AR layer is in between that of the lens medium and
that of air.
• Light incident upon an AR coated lens experiences reflection at both the AR layer
and the surface of the lens.
• However, the thickness of the AR layer is such that the light waves reflected from
the AR surface are 180° out of phase with light waves reflected from the surface of
the lens.
• Consequently, the reflected light waves undergo destructive interference and
effectively cancel each other.
• Anti-reflection coatings on glass lenses generally employ a single layer of
magnesium fluoride.
• This coating allows for maximum interference in the yellow-green band of the
visible spectrum.
• Red and blue light is not completely canceled, so these lenses produce a slight
purple surface reflection (or reflex color).
• Modern AR coatings on plastic lenses often employ five or more layers, which
alternate between lower and higher indices of refraction.
• These multi-layer (or broadband) coatings are able to cancel reflected light over a
wider band of colors. 82
Scratch-Resistant Coating (SRC)
• The purpose of adding a scratch resistant coating to lenses is to protect the lens
from abrasions (aşınma) and scratches (çizilme).
• The majority of lenses used in today are some form of plastic.
• These lenses tend to be rather soft materials.
• The SRC hardens the lens surface and makes them much more abrasion
resistant.
• The hard coat is applied to the lens can affect the overall abrasion resistance and
ability to tint the lens.
• Scratch-resistant and also anti-reflective coatings can be quite brittle and glass-like
in nature, which can reduce impact resistance.
• Consequently, lenses with these coatings may be more susceptible to fracturing
upon impact.
83
Scratch-Resistant Coating
• SR coatings can be applied at the manufacturing, laboratory, or in-office level.
• The quality of these coatings may vary.
• Many scratch-resistant (SR) coatings are made from chemical resins containing
compounds, such as polysiloxane, which contain silica (like glass) and organic
polymers.
The main types of coatings are:
Dip-Coating -This coating is applied by dipping the lens into a chemical solution and
curing the lens in an oven.
Spin-Coating -These coatings are applied to a spinning lens. The lenses must be
cured after the hardcoat chemicals are applied. The curing can be done in an oven or
by ultraviolet light.
In-mould Coating -These coatings are made by adding the hardcoat chemical at the
time that the lenses are being formed. These coatings tend to be non-tintable.
Vacuum Coatings -This is a process that is becoming more popular with the rise in
anti-reflective coating use.
84
UV Coating
• It is now generally accepted that lenses used for sun protection should attenuate
nearly all ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
• Ultraviolet light comprises approximately 5% of total solar radiation.
• Ozone in the earth's atmosphere absorbs almost all solar UV-C radiation.
• Of the remainder which strikes the earth's surface, approximately 90% is UV-A and
10% is UV-B.
• Ultraviolet light exposure may also come from arc welding and UV-emitting light
bulbs.
• CR39 lenses absorb UV light shorter than 370 nm.
• Infrared (IR) wavelengths near 1400 nm are very hazardous; filters for these
wavelengths are usually incorporated into protective goggles (koruyucu gözlük) and
face masks.
• Heat absorbing filters also act as IR filters but maximise the transmission of visible
light.
• Blue light filters vary in tint between yellow and red.
• They increase contrast and facilitate distinction of light and dark areas and are
used by mountaineers and skiers.
85
UV Coating
• Anti-reflective coatings can be applied to glass and plastic lenses to minimize
surface reflections.
• Over the years, it has been determined that UV radiation contributes to the
development of various ocular disorders.
• An ultra violet coating is added to CR-39 lenses to increase the absorption of
harmful UV rays.
• It is applied by dipping the lens into a solution for a period of time so that the lens
can absorb the UV blocking chemical.
• The Spectra-Shield Human II lens is a unique glass lens, coated with twenty-eight
layers of a dielectric material on the concave surface of the lens.
• It is designed to reflect all ultraviolet radiation below 400 nm, and all infrared
radiation above 700 nm.
86
Mirror Coating
• Mirror coatings are highly reflective and are used to reduce the light transmission
through a lens.
• They are produced in a vacuum process.
• The chemicals used vary greatly depending on the color and density of the mirror
desired.
• The coating generally will have a combination of various metal oxides that when
combined will result in the specified color.
• Mirror coatings are available as a solid, gradient, double, and triple gradients.
87
Multifocal Lenses
• It should be apparent that the primary purpose of a multifocal lens is to

supplement—or replace, if necessary—the loss of accommodation that was once
provided by the eye to bring near objects into focus.
• This loss of accommodation is usually age-related, in which case the condition is
called presbyopia.
• However, multifocals are also sometimes used in younger patients for
accommodative or binocular vision disorders, such as accommodative esotropia.
• Multifocal lenses include bifocals (with two focal powers), trifocals (with three focal
powers), and progressive addition lenses (with a continuously varying focal power
from distance to near).
• A multifocal lens can be thought of as two lenses on one.
• The larger lens is sometimes referred to as the carrier, while the smaller lens is
typically called the segment.
• The power of the segment is always a plus and is also commonly referred to as the
reading add.
• The add power is used to correct presbyopia, compensating for the lack of
accommodation, and allowing the wearer to clearly view objects at near.
88
Multifocal Lenses
• There are cemented (yapışık), fused (eriterek birleştirmek), and one piece construction
methods for creating multifocal lenses.
• Cemented multifocals are worked as two separate lenses with the multifocal section
being worked to the equal but opposite curve of the surface it is being glued to
(tutkallanmış, yapıştırılmış).
• Fused construction is made in glass where sections of higher index glass are fused
using heat into a countersunk corresponding curve in the lens blank.
• The addition of a fused multifocal is created by the following relationship:
• n = index of the main lens
• ns = index of the segment
(n – 1) / (ns – n)
• This formula gives the ratio of the base curve to the addition created.
89
Bifocal Lenses
• Split bifocals were the earliest design and comprise a distance lens whose flat
bottom abuts (bitişik olmak) the flat top of a separate near lens (see below figure).
• In newer types of bifocal lenses, the near portion is constructed by modifying the
main lens to incorporate a near addition.
• This modification is called a segment and is achieved either by attaching a
supplementary lens, or by changing the surface curvature.
• The distance portion is usually the larger of the two – the major portion.
• The near portion usually occupies the lower part of the lens.
Figure: Split bifocal lens – Franklin design.
90
Bifocal Lenses
• Cemented (yapışık) bifocals have a near portion
constructed by attaching a supplementary lens to the
surface of a distance lens of the same refractive
index (see figure).
• The segment edge of a wafer bifocal is almost
imperceptibly (belli belirsiz bir halde) thin on the rear
surface and the bifocal lens appears as if it were a
single piece of glass. Figure: Cemented wafer bifocal lens.
• However, this lens design is now almost obsolete
(modası geçmiş).
• Solid bifocals are of single piece construction.

• The near addition is produced by a different
curvature of either the front or back surface of this
portion.
• The executive-style solid bifocal has a full-width
horizontal junction between the near and distance
portions (see figure).
• Plastic bifocals are always of the solid type.
Figure: Solid bifocal (executive).
91
Bifocal Lenses
• Bifocal segments act like small lenses fastened (bağlanmış) to the major (distance)
portion of the lens.
• The segment surface of a plastic bifocal is cast in the mold.
• The curvature of the segment will be steeper than the curvature of the major portion
by the amount needed to produce a difference in surface powers equal to the add
power.
• Therefore, the add power is given by Add = FS - F1, where F1 and FS are the surface
powers of the major portion and segment, respectively.
• For instance, a +6.00 D surface power in the major portion combined with a +8.00 D
surface power in the segment will yield an add power of +8.00 - 6.00 = +2.00 D.
92
Bifocal Lenses
• For glass lenses, a segment made from a higher-index glass lens material is fused
into the major portion of the lens.
• The gain in surface powers, caused by the increased refractive index of the
segment at the interfaces between air and the segment front and between the
segment and major portion, produces the desired add power.
• Both types of lenses (glass and plastic) are shown in below figure.
FIGURE: A) Glass major portion with a countersink curve ground into it; B) Major portion with a high-index
glass segment button fused into the countersink curve; and C) Completed bifocal lens after grinding and
polishing the excess button. D) Plastic, one-piece bifocal created by molding a steeper curvature in the
segment area of the lens.
93
Bifocal Lenses
• In fused (kaynaşık) bifocals, the near portion is made by heat-fusing a button of flint
glass (kristal cam) to a corresponding depression in a crown glass (mercek camı) main
lens which has a lower refractive index (see below figure).
• Different types of flint glass allow
variation in the refractive index and
power of the segment.
• The near addition therefore depends
on the refractive index of each glass
type, and the surface curvatures of
the depression and the distance
portion. Figure: Fused bifocal lens.
• The higher refractive index of a fused bifocal segment may cause chromatic
aberration near the segment edge.
• Cemented and
fused segments
can be made in
different shapes to
suit occupational
requirements (see
figure).
Figure: Segment shapes for right eye fused bifocal lenses.

94
Bifocal Lenses
• Below figure demonstrates how a bifocal
lens can completely replace the need for
accommodation, if necessary, by rendering
diverging rays of light from near objects
completely parallel as they pass through the
segment.
• This produces an object located at infinity for
the distance—or major—portion of the lens,
which then brings it to a focus at the
secondary focal point F' (as well as the far
point of the eye).
FIGURE: Bifocal correction. The diverging rays of

light from a near object, positioned at the primary
focal length of the lens through the bifocal
segment, are rendered parallel and hence properly
focused on the retina after refraction through the
major portion of the lens. For this plastic lens, the
add power is produced by a difference in the
surface powers of the major portion and the
segment.
95
Trifocal Lenses
• A small degree of accommodation may allow use of the bifocal distance portion to
focus for middle distance, but where little or no accommodation remains, trifocal
lenses are useful.
• These comprise a distance portion and a near segment separated by an
intermediate segment of lesser (usually half) power to allow clear middle distance
vision (see figure).
• Trifocals may not be tolerated by anisometropic patients or if prisms are required
for near work.
• Trifocals add a second segment, as shown in below figures, directly above the
bifocal segment, for intermediate vision.
Figure: Trifocal lenses. 96

Trifocal Lenses
• The ranges of vision for

both bifocal and trifocal
lenses have been illustrated
in below figure.
• A loss of intermediate vision
occurs with higher add
powers for two reasons:
FIGURE: A) The intermediate vision of a bifocal becomes blurred as

the add power increases, leaving the wearer with a gap in the range
of vision afforded by the lenses. B) Trifocal lenses have an additional
segment that provides intermediate vision for mid-range distances.
97
Progressive Addition Lenses
• The lens power of progressive addition

lenses (PALs) changes gradually
between the distance and near visual
points so that a single pair of spectacles
suffices for all distances.
• There is no visible interface between
distance and near portions and this
avoids the cosmetic disadvantages of a
segment edge crossing the eye.
Figure: Progressive power lens.
98
99
TEŞEKKÜRLER
Prof.Dr.A.Necmeddin YAZICI
University Of Gaziantep,
Optic and Acoustic Engineering
mail:yazici@gantep.edu.tr
100

Visual Optics Laboratory Materials and Treatments

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Visual Optics Laboratory Materials and Treatments

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VISUAL OPTICS LABORATORY

• Ophthalmic lenses can be made from various mineral or organic materials.

Table: Lens Material Properties Summary

• A common manufacturing process for producing lenses made from thermoplastic

TABLE: Optical Properties of High-Index Glasses Developed for

TABLE: Optical Properties of Currently Available High-Index Glasses, as Compared to

FIGURE: As the index of refraction

• Consider a comparison between two -4.00 D lenses,

FIGURE: A -4.00 D lens

2. The second breakage (Figure) is a fracture

FIGURE: A comparison between the Abbé value and refractive

FIGURE: Chromatic aberration will vary directly with the

• The transmission properties of a lens are illustrated by means of a spectral

FIGURE: Spectral transmission curves: A, for clear crown glass 33

• Iron oxide is the

FIGURE 7-12. Spectral transmission curve for Optical Radiation UV-400. 38

 Below is a list of the most popular flavors of photochromic lenses.

• The luminous transmittance of a

• Glare specularly (ayna parlaması) reflected

FIGURE: The Specular lens reflections from front

FIGURE: Light interference produced by thin films. A) Light

• When light is reflected from a surface whose

• According to the principles of interference,

Figure: Antireflective coating.

• It is important to distinguish between optical thickness and physical (actual)

FIGURE: Optical principles of an antireflective coating.

• It should be apparent that the primary purpose of a multifocal lens is to

Figure: Split bifocal lens – Franklin design.

• Solid bifocals are of single piece construction.

Figure: Segment shapes for right eye fused bifocal lenses.

FIGURE: Bifocal correction. The diverging rays of

Figure: Trifocal lenses. 96

• The ranges of vision for

FIGURE: A) The intermediate vision of a bifocal becomes blurred as

• The lens power of progressive addition

Figure: Progressive power lens.

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