06-12-2016

Earth’s Ecosystems Weather vs. Climate

Major terrestrial biomes of the World  Weather:
 Local area’s short term temperature, precipitation, humidity, wind, cloud
cover and other physical conditions of the atmosphere measured over
hours or days

 Climate:
 Long-term prevailing weather conditions in an area
 Major components of climate are temperature, precipitation, sunlight, and wind

 Macroclimate:
 Consists of patterns on the global, regional, and landscape (multiple ecosystems)
level

 Microclimate:
 Consists of very fine patterns, such as those encountered by the community of
organisms underneath a fallen log
 Determined by fine-scale differences in the environment that affect light and wind
patterns

Water Currents Affect Climate Air Circulations Affect Climate

Rain Shadow Effect Biomes

 Biomes:
 The Earth’s surface affects climate.
 Major life zones characterized by vegetation type (terrestrial
biomes) or physical environment (aquatic biomes)
 Climate is very important in determining why terrestrial biomes
are found in certain areas
 Climate affects the latitudinal patterns of terrestrial biomes
 Biomes are affected not just by average temperature and
precipitation, but also by the pattern of temperature and
precipitation through the year
 Leads to formation of tropical (hot), temperate (moderate) and
polar (cold) regions – deserts, grasslands and forests

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Figure 52.9

Biomes
30°N
 Terrestrial Biomes:
Tropic of Cancer
 Often named for major physical or climatic factors and for
vegetation Equator
 Characterized by distribution, precipitation, temperature, plants, Tropic of Capricorn
and animals
30°S
 Usually grade into each other, without sharp boundaries which
may be wide or narrow
 Climb a tall mountain from its base to the summit, you’ll see
changes as you might as you travel from the equator to the poles
Tropical forest Temperate broadleaf forest
Savanna Northern coniferous forest
Desert Tundra
Chaparral High mountains
Temperate grassland Polar ice

Earth’s Major Biomes

• Groups of terrestrial
ecosystems that

Biomes of share biotic and

abiotic conditions
• 10 primary biomes:

the World –
–
–
–
–
tropical rain forest
dry forest savanna
desert
temperate rain forest
temperate forest
– temperate grassland
– chaparral
– boreal forest
– tundra

Biomes and Organisms Net Primary Production

• REMEMBER! Natural selection results in • Ecologists compare biomes by not only
the survival of those organisms that are looking at climate and organisms…but also
best suited for their environment! by looking at how much energy and
• Therefore, we see that in each biome organic matter they generate.
there are specific organisms suited to live • Net primary production – describes how
there. ie: desert animals much organic matter (food, energy) is
• There are some that can survive in produced in a region.
multiple biomes. • Warmer and wetter biomes have a higher
productivity than colder and drier ones.

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Tropical Rain Forest Tropical Dry Forest

• Year-round warm temperatures
and at least 2 m (6.6 ft)
precipitation a year
• Soil generally nutrient-poor
• Forest canopy, emergent layer,
and understory support enormous
variety of plants.
• Plants tend to have large, flat
leaves and shallow roots.
• Supports more animal species
than any other biome; animals
tend to be highly specialized.
Did You Know? Some tropical plants
(epiphytes) grow high on other plants to
access sunlight and do not touch the soil.
• Warm year-round, but rainfall highly
seasonal
• Most trees are deciduous—they lose
their leaves and cease photosynthesis
part of the year.
• Plants and animals exhibit
adaptations (e.g. waxy leaf coating,
deep roots, migration) that enable
them to survive the dry season.
• Found in South America, India, and
Australia. Tiger (Panthera tigris)

Savanna Desert
• Receives less precipitation than
tropical dry forests, but more than Did You Know? Cactus spines are • Receives less than 25 cm (9.8 in.) of
modified leaves that protect the plant
deserts; usually has a distinct rainy from thirsty animals. Photosynthesis precipitation per year
season occurs within the green stems and
trunks.
• Temperatures vary widely from day
• Grasses interspersed with groups to night.
of trees
• Plants tend to have thick, leathery
• Tree growth limited by frequent fires leaves, store water in their tissues,
and strong winds and have shallow roots.
• Plants are adapted to dry • Animals get most of their water from
conditions; tend to be deciduous the food they eat, and they tend to
with deep roots, thick bark, and be nocturnal. Mammals have
waxy coatings on leaves. exaggerated appendages to help
• Many animals migrate to find water, regulate body temperature.
or burrow when water is scarce.

Temperate Rain Forest Temperate Deciduous Forest

• Precipitation evenly spread
• Year-round moderate temperatures
and heavy rainfall throughout the year
• Largest extent found in Pacific • Varied temperatures (hot
Northwest of United States summers, cold winters)
• Characterized by tall evergreen • Plants tend to be broad-leafed and
trees, like cedars and hemlocks,
that don’t lose leaves annually; deciduous.
many are conifers. • Soil is enriched with nutrients from
• Forest floor is shaded, damp, and annual leaf drop.
covered in moss.
• Animals may migrate, hibernate,
• Animals that require moisture, such
as amphibians, thrive here. or store food to survive cold
conditions.

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Temperate Grassland (Prairie) Taiga (Boreal Forest)

• Moderate seasonal precipitation and fairly extreme
• Long, cold winters; short,
seasonal temperatures; droughts and fires common cool summers
• Not enough precipitation to support large trees; grasses, • Nutrient-poor, slightly
which grow from their base, thrive despite droughts, fires, acidic soils
animals grazing • Low species diversity
• Animals are adapted to deal with lack of cover. • Coniferous trees with
• Soil tends to be rich in nutrients; most of world’s grasslands waxy needles and conical
shape, adapted to harsh, snowy
have been converted to farmland. conditions are common.
• Animals feed, breed, and care for
young mostly during short warm
season; year-round residents tend
to have thick insulation and small
extremities that maintain heat.

Chaparral
• Highly seasonal conditions with mild,
wet winters and warm, dry summers
• Prolonged hot, dry periods; droughts
and fires common
• Plants are drought-resistant; many have
thick, waxy leaves or leaves with hairs
that trap moisture;
succulents are common.
• Plants may have thick bark and
deep roots to resist fire; some plants
require fire to germinate.
• Many animals burrow or are nocturnal
to avoid heat.
Tundra
• Extremely cold, dark winters; relatively
sunny and cool summers
• Found at very high latitudes in the
Northern Hemisphere
• Harsh winds, nutrient-poor soil, and
freezing temperatures limit plant
growth; no tall trees; mosses and
lichens common
Did You Know? Some
chaparral plants contain • Characterized by permafrost
oily compounds that
facilitate the spread of fire. (underground soil that is frozen year-
round)
• Birds and caribou migrate to the tundra
during the mild summer to feed on
insects and lichens; only a few species
live here year-round.

Polar Ice and Mountains

• Not classified as biomes Biomes Based on Elevation
• No land under polar ice in
Northern Hemisphere; ice sits
atop Antarctica in Southern
Hemisphere
• Very few plants; most life
is in surrounding ocean
• Mountain communities
change with elevation,
similar to how biome
communities change
with latitude.

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Biomes Tropical Rain Forests

 Similar characteristics can arise in distant biomes through Convergent Evolution
 For example, cacti in North America and euphorbs in African deserts appear
similar but are from different evolutionary lineages

Tropical Rain Forest

 Tropical Rain Forests:

 Hot temperature, moisture laden air rises resulting in constant rainfall (200 inches
per year)
 Temperature is high year-round (25–29C) with little seasonal variation
 High Biodiversity: home to millions of animal species, including an estimated 5–30
million still unknown species of insects, spiders, and other arthropods
 2% of the land but ½ of world’s species; single tree can have several thousand
insect species
 Dominated by broadleaf evergreen plants; their dense tops block out most of the
sun not reaching the forest floor
 Ground has little vegetation (those that do have large leaves); vines (lianas) grow
on trees to reach the sun
 Little wind because of the dense vegetation; plants depend on bats, birds, bees
and other species for pollination
 Rapid human population growth is now destroying many tropical forests

 No true winter
 Dominant Controls
 “Winter” in tropics refers to the “low-sun” half of the year
 ITCZ influence entire year
“Summer” refers to the “high-sun” half of the
year
 High temperatures prevail every month
 A climates are distinguished by the monthly pattern of rainfall
summer
NH winter winter
SH summer
 f = year-around rainfall wetseason
dry season
cT dry season
Wet season
 m = year-round rainfall, but with a brief drier
cT
Convective
period precipitation
0º
 w = wet summer and dry winter
Af

• Animated Drawing (toggle forward-back-forward)

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Climographs Tropical Rain Forest

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Tropical Monsoon

Temperate Rain Forest Deserts

 Coastal Coniferous Forest or

Temperate Rain Forests:
 Found in scattered coastal
temperate areas that have ample
rainfall or moisture from dense
ocean fogs
 Douglass firs and redwoods

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Deserts Arid and Semiarid Climates

 Desert:
 Annual precipitation is low; often scattered unevenly throughout the year
 Heat of day bakes the earth causing evaporation of water from leaves and soil
 Soils have little vegetation and moisture to store the heat so you can roast during
the day and freeze at night
 Tropical Deserts:
 Hot and dry most of the year; few plants and a hard wind blown surface of rocks
and some sand
 Temperate Deserts:
 Daytime temperatures are high in the summer and low in winter; more
precipitation than in the topical deserts; drought resistance vegetation - cacti
 Cold Deserts:
 Vegetation is sparse; winters are cold; summers warm or hot and precipitation is
low; plants and animals have adapted to stay cool and get enough water
 Potential for evaporation exceeds rainfall (called
“moisture deficiency”)
 Cover 35% of Earth’s surface
 Most extensive geographically of the major climate
groups
 One-third of U.S. is classified as arid/semiarid
 Plants are sparse but specifically adapted:
 Xerophytes: adapted to aridity, drought resistant, able to
store moisture

Fragile Ecosystem: slow plant growth; low species diversity; slow nutrient
recycling and lack of water

Arid and Semiarid Climates Arid and Semiarid Climates

 Climatic controls:
 STHP: dry subsiding air over land masses
 Shifting STHP: produces semiarid conditions
around periphery of arid areas
 Rain shadows: leeward sides of mountain
ranges that intercept rainfall on windward side
 Continentality: interiors of continents far from
moderating effects of water bodies

Dry Climates Distinctive Features of Desert Climate

Cover 34% of the total land area of the world

 More area than any other climate group
Dry conditions prevail all year
 Potential evapotranspiration is greater than precipitation
Two main sub-types based on precipitation
 BW is extremely arid (desert)
 BS is steppe (semi-arid)
The two sub-types are further subdivided based on
temperature
 Distribution of B Climates  h is for the hot subtropical desert (BWh, BSh)
 k is for the cold midlatitude desert (BWk, BSk)
 Subtropical Dry Climates within 20–35º of latitude
 Midlatitude Dry Climates within 35-55º of latitude

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Main locations Characteristics

Subtropical Desert (BWh)
 Precipitation: extremely arid
 Centered at latitudes 25–30º  Scarce (most nearly rainless regions on Earth)
 Unreliable (extremely long periods without rain)
 Western sides of continents, including
 Very hot summers
coasts  Enormous daily temperature range
 Extend into continental interiors  Coastal fog
 Northern Hemisphere
 Sonora-Colorado
 Sahara
 Arabian
 Southern Hemisphere
 Peru-Atacama
 Kalahari-Namib
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 Great Australian

Dominant Controls
 Subsidence from subtropical highs (STHs)
Cold ocean currents
 Equatorward extensions

Climographs
Deserts

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Savannah Savannah

 Savannah
 Equatorial and subequatorial regions
 Warm temperatures year round with wet and dry seasons
 Precipitation is seasonal
 Temperature averages (24–29C) but is more seasonally variable than in the
tropics
 Contains widely scattered clumps of trees (aracia with thorns to prevent being
eaten)
 Grasses and make up most of the ground cover; fire-adapted and tolerant of
seasonal drought
 Plants have adapted to survive drought and extreme heat
 Grazing animals (grass and herb eating; wildebeest) and browsing animals (twig
and leaf eating; giraffe) along with predators (lion)

Chaparral Chaparral
 Chaparral:
 Occurs in mid-latitude coastal regions on several continents
 Summer is hot (30C+); fall, winter, and spring are cool (10–12C)
 Close to sea provides a slightly longer winter rainy season than nearby temperate
deserts
 Precipitation is highly seasonal with rainy winters and dry summers
 Fogs in the spring and fall reducing evaporation
 Consist of dense growth of low growing evergreen shrubs and occasional small
trees with leathery leaves to reduce evaporation
 Dominated by shrubs, small trees, grasses, and herbs; adapted to fire and
drought
 Prone to fires in the dry season
 Many plants produce seeds that only germinated after a wildfire
 Animals include amphibians, birds, reptiles, insects, small mammals, and
browsing mammals

 People like to live here because of its moderate, sunny climate with mild wet winters
and warm dry summers; risk losing their homes to frequent fires and mud slides

Temperate Grassland
Chaparral

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Temperate Grasslands Mountain Ecosystem

 Temperate Grassland
 Found on many continents
 Precipitation is highly seasonal
 Winters are cold (often below –10C) and dry; summers are hot (often
near 30C) and dry
 Dominant plants are grasses and adapted to droughts and fire
 Little tree growth
 Large grazers such as bison and wild horses and small burrowers such
as prairie dogs
 Most grasslands have been converted to farmland (Midwest)

Mount Rainier National Park

Mountains
 Mountains: Forests
 Some of the world’s most spectacular environments are high on Mountains, steep
or high lands that cover ¼ of the Earth’s surface; dramatic changes in altitude,
slope, climate, soil and vegetation occur in a very short distance
 1.2 bil people (18% of the world’s population) live on them or their edges; 4 bil
(59%) depend on mountain systems for all or some of their water
 Majority of the world’s forests; habitats for biodiversity and contain endemic
species found no where on Earth
 Help regulate the earth’s climate: mountains covered in ice and snow help to
reflect solar radiation back into space helping to cool the planet and offset global
warming
 Can affect sea levels: storing or releasing water in glaciers; as the earth warms,
water can be released in oceans causing them to rise
 Major storehouses of water

 Despite their significance, mountain ecosystems are not a high priority for
governments and/or environmental groups

Northern Coniferous Forest Northern Coniferous Forest

 Northern Coniferous Forest or Taiga:
 Spans northern North America and Eurasia and is the largest terrestrial
biome on Earth
 Cold forests are often found just south of Artic tundra and above certain
altitudes in the High Sierras or Rockies
 Precipitation varies; some have periodic droughts and others, especially
near coasts, are wet
 Winters are cold; summers may be warm (Siberia ranges from –50C to
20C)
 Subarctic climate: winters are long, dry and extremely cold; sunlight may
only be available 6-8 hrs; summers are short, with cool to warm
temperatures; sun shines 19 hrs
 Plant diversity is low as few species can survive the winters when soil
moisture is frozen
 Conifers such as pine, spruce, fir, and hemlock dominate; conical shape
of conifers prevents too much snow from accumulating and breaking
their branches
 Migratory and resident birds; large mammals such as moose, brown
bears, and Siberian tigers

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Temperate Broadleaf Forest Temperate Broadleaf Forest

 Temperate Broadleaf Forest:
 Found at midlatitudes in the Northern Hemisphere, with smaller areas in
Chile, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand
 Significant amounts of precipitation fall during all seasons as rain or snow
 Winters average 0C; summers are hot and humid (near 35C)
 Long warm summers, cold but not severe winters and abundant moisture,
often fairly spread throughout the year
 Dominated by deciduous trees in the Northern Hemisphere; evergreen
eucalyptus in Australia
 Broad-leaf trees: oak, hickory, maple and beech; survive cold winters by
dropping their leaves in the fall and becoming dormant; each spring, new
leaves form and turn colors in the fall
 Mammals, birds, and insects make use of all vertical layers in the forest
 Eastern US were home to bears, foxes and pumas (many have been killed)
and the dominant mammal often is deer
 In the Northern Hemisphere, many mammals hibernate in the winter
 Impact of human activities: disturbed more than any other for growing of
crops, wood or cities; within 100-200 years after it’s left undistributed, it can
return to forest

Tundra Tundra
 Tundra:
 Covers expansive areas of the Arctic; alpine tundra exists on high
mountaintops at all latitudes
 Precipitation is low in arctic tundra and higher in alpine tundra
 Winters are cold (below –30C); summers are relatively cool (less than 10C)
 Treeless and bitterly cold
 Swept by cold winds and covered by ice and snow
 Winters are long and dark
 Little precipitation
 Permafrost, a permanently frozen layer of soil, prevents water infiltration
 Vegetation is herbaceous (mosses, grasses, forbs, dwarf shrubs and trees,
and lichen) and supports birds, grazers, and their predators; alpine can be
flowers
 Most of the growth occurs in the 7-8 week summer when the sun shines
almost 24 hrs
 Mammals include musk oxen, caribou, reindeer, bears, wolves, and foxes;
many migratory bird species nest in the summer

Herbaceous Plants Water

 Earth is covered with water - known as the “Water Planet”
 Saltwater covers 71% of the Earth
 Freshwater 2.3%
• Aquatic Life Zones: determined by the amount of salinity – amount of
salt (NaCl) in the water

 Saltwater:
 Marine: brackish which is a combination of salt and freshwater and are
considered to be saltwater and include
 Global ocean is a single and continuous body of water
 4 oceans: Atlantic, Arctic, Indian and Pacific; Antarctic
 Oceans and estuaries, coastlands and shorelines, coral reefs and
mangrove forests

 Freshwater
 Lakes, rivers and streams and inland wetlands

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Aquatic Biomes
Water Planet
 Aquatic Biomes:
 Account for the largest part of the biosphere in terms of area
 Marine biomes have salt concentrations of about 3%
 Largest marine biome is made of oceans, which cover about 75% of Earth’s surface and
have an enormous impact on the biosphere
 Freshwater biomes have salt concentrations of less than 0.1%
 Freshwater biomes are closely linked to soils and the biotic components of the surrounding
terrestrial biome

 Stratified into Zones or layers defined by light penetration, temperature, and depth:
 Pelagic Zone:
 Photic Zone has sufficient light for photosynthesis; most animals live here
 Aphotic Zone receives little light; extensive with little life
 Deep in the Aphotic Zone lies the Abyssal Zone with a depth of 2,000 to 6,000 m

 Benthic Zone:
 Organic and inorganic sediment at the bottom of all aquatic zones
 Communities of organisms are collectively called the Benthos
 Detritus:
 Dead organic matter, falls from the productive surface water; important source of food

Figure 52.15

Aquatic Biomes
30°N
Tropic of
Cancer
Equator
Tropic of
Capricorn
30°S

Oceanic pelagic and benthic zones

Intertidal zones
Estuaries
Coral reefs
Rivers
Lakes

Lakes
 Lakes:
Lakes
 Natural bodies of freshwater formed from precipitation, runoff or groundwater that fill in
depressions in the surface caused by glaciers (Bear Mountain), volcanoes (Crater Lake) or
other ways such as supplied with water from rain (precipitation) or streams
 Size varies from small ponds to very large lakes

 Oligotrophic Lakes:

 Nutrient-poor and generally oxygen-rich

 Small supply of plant nutrients
 Generally deep with steep banks; fed by glaciers and mountain streams with little sediment;
crystal clear

 Eutrophic Lakes:
 Nutrient-rich and often depleted of oxygen if ice covered in winter
 Rooted and floating aquatic plants live in shallow and well-lighted area close to shore
 Water is too deep to support rooted aquatic plants; small drifting animals called zooplankton
graze on the phytoplankton
 Invertebrates live in the benthic zone; Fishes live in all zones with sufficient oxygen

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Wetlands
Lakes  Surface Water: precipitation that does not sink into the ground or evaporate

 Runoff: precipitation that runs into a stream

 Watershed, Drainage Basin: land that delivers runoff, sediment and dissolved substances into a
stream; small streams form rivers and rivers flow downhill to the ocean

 Aquatic Life Zones:

 Source Zone:
 Headwaters or mountain highland streams; usually shallow, cold, clear and swift flowing;
waterfalls and rapids
 Not productive because of lack of nutrients and producers; food is from decomposition;
algae; fishes
 Transition Zone:
 Middle; become wider, deeper and warmer; slower; more turbid (cloudier)
 Producers; both cold and warm water fish (black bass)
 Floodplain Zone:
 Over time, they shape the land including leveling or cutting through mountains forming
canyons; streams can join others, forming wider and deeper rivers
 Large amount of producers and fish; rivers end in a mouth or delta; absorb the floodwaters
and add nutrient rich land

Human Activity
Human activities are disrupting and degrading many of the ecological and economic services provided
by fresh water rivers, lakes and wetlands:

 Dams and Canals on rivers fragment about 40% of the world’s 237 large rivers
 Alter or destroy aquatic wildlife habitats by reducing water flow and increasing damage from
coastal storms

 Flood Control Levees and Dikes:

 Built along rivers and disconnect the rivers from their floodplains
 Destroy aquatic habitats and alter or reduce the function of nearby wetlands
 Hinders the spawning cycle of fishes and birds and can disrupt food chains; species are lost
and the biodiversity is threatened
 Interrupts sediment flow and distribution

 Pollutants from cities and farms add excess nutrients causing algal explosions (blooms) and
depleting the oxygen

 Wetlands have been drained or filled to grow crops or covered to build buildings or roads

Wetlands Wetlands

 Wetlands
 Habitat that is inundated by water at least some of the time and that supports plants adapted
to water-saturated soil
 High organic production and decomposition and have low dissolved oxygen content
 Can develop in shallow basins, along flooded river banks, or on coasts of large lakes and seas
 Wetlands are among the most productive biomes on Earth
 Plants include lilies, cattails, sedges, tamarack, and black spruce
 Wetlands are home to diverse invertebrates and birds, as well as otters, frogs, and alligators
 Humans have destroyed up to 90% of wetlands; wetlands purify water and reduce flooding

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Wetlands Restoration of Wetlands

Streams and Rivers Streams and Rivers

 Streams and Rivers:
 Most prominent physical characteristic of streams and rivers is current
 Headwaters are generally cold, clear, turbulent, swift, and oxygenrich; they are often narrow
and rocky
 Downstream waters form rivers and are generally warmer, more turbid, and more oxygenated;
they are often wide and meandering and have silty bottoms
 May contain phytoplankton or rooted aquatic plants
 Diversity of fishes and invertebrates inhabit unpolluted rivers and streams
 Damming and flood control impair natural functioning of stream and river ecosystems

Coastal Wetlands Coastal Wetlands

 Mangrove Forests:
 Estuaries:
 Found along 70% of gently sloping sandy and silt coastlines in the tropics and sub-tropics
 Where rivers meet the sea; partially enclosed bodies of water where sea water mixes with
fresh water as well as nutrients from streams, rivers and runoff from the land  Grow in salt water and have extensive root systems that can support during changes in water
levels
 Coastal Wetlands:
 Coastal Aquatic Systems provide important ecological and economic services:
 Coastal land areas covered with water all or part of the year
 Combined with Estuaries, they are some of the Earth’s most productive ecosystems because
of nutrients, rapid flow of water and ample sunlight:  Maintain water quality by filtering toxic pollutants, excess plant nutrients, sediments and
absorb other pollutants
 Provide food, habitats and nursery sites
 Estuaries and Coastal Wetlands: include river mouths, inlets, bays, sounds, salt marshes and
mangrove forests  Reduce storm damage and coast erosion by absorbing waves and storing excess water
produced by storms and tsunamis
 Provide timber and wood for fuel
 Seagrass Beds:
 Species of plants that grow underwater in shallow marine and estuaries along the coastline
 UN estimates that between 1980 and 2005 at least 1/5 of the mangrove forests were lost due
 Highly productive and support a variety of marine species
mainly to human coastal development
 Stabilize shorelines and reduce wave impact

 Loss of mangroves can lead to polluted drinking water caused by inland intrusion of saltwater into
 Life is harsh; adapt to daily and seasonal changes in tidal and river flow; water temperatures and fresh water aquifers used to supply drinking water
salinity; and runoff from the land including soil sediment and pollutants; because of this, they may
have low plant diversity but high productivity

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River Delta Estuaries

Life in Coastal Wetlands

Mangrove Trees

Coastal Shoreline
Intertidal Zones
 Intertidal Zone:
 Area between high and low tides (gravitational pull of the moon and sun)
 Organisms must adapt to movement of water; high tides to drying out at low tides
 Oxygen and nutrient levels are high
 Deal with daily salinity and moisture changes
 Organisms need to “hold on”:

 Rocky Shores:
 Pounded daily by waves
 Numerous pools and other habitats with a great variety of species; marine algae
 Animals have adapted to attach themselves to the hard surface
 Sandy Shores:
 Barrier beaches
 Many organisms are hidden from view by burrowing, digging or tunneling in the sand;
home to shore birds that feed on crustaceans – sea grass and algae
 Barrier Islands:
 Narrow islands that form offshore parallel to the coast

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Life Along the Coast Importance of Sand Dunes

 Importance of Sand Dunes:
 Sand is held in place by plant roots
 1st line of defense against the sea
 Often removed by developers; and when large storms hit and cause damage, they are
incorrectly called “Natural Disasters”

Oceanic Pelagic Zone

Oceanic Pelagic Zone

 Oceanic Pelagic Zone:

 Constantly mixed by wind-driven oceanic currents
 Oxygen levels are high
 Turnover in temperate oceans renews nutrients in the photic zones; year-round stratification
in tropical oceans leads to lower nutrient concentrations
 Biome covers approximately 70% of Earth’s surface
 Phytoplankton and zooplankton are the dominant organisms in this biome; also found are
free-swimming animals
 Zooplankton includes protists, worms, copepods, krill, jellies, and invertebrate larvae
 Other animals include squids, fishes, sea turtles, and marine mammals

Coral Reefs
Coral Reefs
 Coral Reefs:
 World’s oldest, most diverse and most productive ecosystem
 Known as “Natural Wonders”
 Biodiversity – marine equivalent of Tropical Rain Forests
 Formed by tiny animals known as polyps – jellyfish; calcium carbonate
 Occupy only 0.2% of the ocean’s floor
 15% have been destroyed and another 20% damaged
 They provide important ecological and economic services;
 Moderate atmospheric temperatures
 Act as natural barriers protecting coasts from erosion
 Provide habitats
 Support fishing and tourism businesses
 Provide jobs and building materials

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 06-12-2016

Life on a Coral Reef Death of a Coral Reef

Marine Benthic Zone

Marine Benthic Zone
 Marine Benthic Zone:
 Consists of the seafloor below the surface waters of the coastal zone
 Organisms in the very deep benthic zone are adapted to continuous cold and extremely high
water pressure
 Mainly soft sediments; some areas are rocky
 Shallow areas contain seaweeds and filamentous algae
 Deep-sea hydrothermal vents of volcanic origin on mid-oceanic ridges are surrounded by
unique chemoautotrophic prokaryotes, as well as echinoderms and arthropods
 Benthic communities include invertebrates and fishes

Human Problem
 Human activities are causing major threats to marine systems, especially coastal wetlands, shore
lands, mangrove forests and coral reefs; threatened by man is the biological diversity and
ecosystems provided by the oceans that cover 71% of Earth:

 Coastal Development: by 2006, 46% of the world’s population (more than ½ of US) lived
along or near coasts; by 2040, up to 80% may
 Overfishing: depletes population of commercial fish
 Pollution: fertilizers or animal waste; sewage from ships; oil spillage
 Habitat Destruction: development but also, trawler fishing
 Introduction of Invasive Species (non-native)
 Climate Change from Human Activities: rise in levels
 Pollution of coastal wetlands and estuaries

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