Mechanical Vibrations

This is a compilation of useful definitions and formulas for mechanical

vibrations. It is under continuous development.

Luleå 2002-09-04

Lars-Erik Lindgren (lel@cad.luth.se) &

Jan-Olov Aidanpää (joa@cad.luth.se)

Formulas in Mechanical Vibration page 1

Content

1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................... 5
2. NOTATIONS AND DEFINITIONS ......................................................................................................................... 5
3. BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR SOLUTION OF EQUATION OF MOTION ............................................................................ 7
4. SINGLE DEGREE OF FREEDOM SYSTEM ........................................................................................................... 9
4. 1 .1 Free Vibration .................................................................................................................................................9
4. 1 .2 Free vibrations of underdamped system, ζ<1. .................................................................................................9
4. 1 .3 Free vibrations of critical damped system, ζ=1. ..............................................................................................9
4. 1 .4 Free vibrations of critical damped system, ζ>1. ..............................................................................................9
4. 2 Forced Vibration...................................................................................................................................10
4. 2 .1 Harmonic force applied on underdamped SDOF system...............................................................................10
4. 2 .2 Rotating unbalance in underdamped system .................................................................................................11
4. 2 .3 Harmonic base motion of underdamped system ............................................................................................11
4. 2 .4 Transmissibility for base motion and force excitation ...................................................................................12
4. 2 .5 Shock loading and arbitrary loading applied to a damped SDOF system, Impulse .......................................12
4. 2 .6 Arbitrary periodic loading applied to a damped SDOF system, Fourier series..............................................13
4. 2 .7 Arbitrary loading applied to an damped SDOF system, Laplace Transform .................................................14
4. 2 .8 Random loading applied to an damped SDOF system, Fourier Transform ...................................................15
5. MULTIPLE DEGREE OF FREEDOM SYSTEM ....................................................................................................16
5. 1 Free Vibration....................................................................................................................................... 16
5. 2 Forced Vibration...................................................................................................................................18
5. 3 Modal Analysis.....................................................................................................................................19
6. LAGRANGE’S EQUATIONS ..............................................................................................................................19
7. CONTINUOUS SYSTEM ...................................................................................................................................20
7. 1 Wave Equation .....................................................................................................................................20
7. 2 Bending vibration of beam ...................................................................................................................21
8. DAMPING ......................................................................................................................................................22
9. APPENDIX A. LAPLACE TRANSFORMS ........................................................................................................... 19
10. APPENDIX B. MOMENTS OF INERTIA ........................................................................................................... 21
11. APPENDIX C. MATHEMATICAL FORMULAS ..................................................................................................23
12. APPENDIX D. BENDING VIBRATION OF FOR BEAM......................................................................... ..............24

Formulas in Mechanical Vibration page 3

 1. Introduction
Basic assumptions if not stated otherwise are those of linear systems. Thus we assume
small displacements and rotations, linear spring and viscous damping.

It is important to use consistent units. Note that units must be consistent with Newton’s
second law, F=ma. See the Table below for two common choices. Note that radian is
always used for angles. This is a nondimensional quantity.

Table 2.1 Consistent units for mechanical vibration

force N MPa=N/mm2
mass kg tonne=1000kg
length m mm
time s s
density kg/m3 tonne/mm3

Whether inertia forces are important or not for a design depends on the relation between
the frequencies of the loading and the natural frequencies of the structure. If the time of
load application is greater than about three times the natural period of a structure, then the
loading can be specified as being static. Then inertia can be ignored. This is called a
quasistatic problem. If the time of load application is less than about half the natural period
of vibration, then it is an impact or shock, i.e. the loading is dynamic.

2. Notations and definitions

The following notations are used if not otherwise stated.

Boldface is used to denote a vector or a matrix. Thus k is a stiffness matrix and F is a force
vector. Subscripts denote components of matrices or vectors. A prime (‘) denotes
.
derivative w.r.t. to coordinate and a dot ( ) means derivative w.r.t .time.

m mass
J moment of inertia
k stiffness
c damping
ωn natural angular frequency
F force
M moment or mass
t time
ω angular frequency
φ angle
f frequency
T period
A amplitude
x displacement
x0 initial displacement
Formulas in Mechanical Vibration page 5
version 2002-09-06
v velocity
v0 initial velocity
a acceleration
ui eigenvector
vi orthonormal eigenvector

The following abbreviations are used

SDOF - Single Degree Of Freedom
MDOF - Multiple Degree Of Freedoms
FEM - Finite Element Method

Definitions

Resonance - when loading frequency equals the natural frequency

lim 1 T
T → ∞ T ∫0
x= x(τ )dτ average or mean value

lim 1 T 2
T → ∞ T ∫0
x =
2
x (τ )dτ mean square value

x rms = x2 root mean square value (rms-value)

 x  
2

dB = 10 log10   = 20log10  x  decibel

 x ref   x ref 

Formulas in Mechanical Vibration page 6

version 2002-09-06
3. Basic principles for solution of equation of motion

Analytical solution of Newton’s second law, F=ma, can be performed in several ways.
There is no method that is the best for all cases. They are illustrated below for the simple
case of one particle given a constant net force in x-direction. However, quite often energy
methods are simple as they reduce vector field problems to scalar problems. This is not
obvious for this simple case. They can also form the basis for numerical procedures.

m
F

Figure 2.1 Mass accelerated by a constant force F in x-direction.

1. Newtons’ second law solved as an Ordinary Differential Equation (ODE)

m&x&(t ) = F
F 2
x= t + c1t + c2
2m
initial conditions x (0) = x0 and x& (0) = v0 ⇒
F 2
x = x0 + v0 t + t
2m

A Free Body Diagram is drawn in order to find all forces acting on the body. A
corresponding kinetic diagram can be drawn that corresponds to the left hand side of
Newton’s second law. Note that this is a vector equation in the general case.

2. Change of momentum

t t

∫ Fdt = ∫ m&x&(τ )dτ

0 0
t

∫ Fdt = mv(t ) − mv0

0
the impuls equals the change in momentum
Ft = mv (t ) − mv0
F
v= t + v0
m

Formulas in Mechanical Vibration page 7

version 2002-09-06
The velocity is obtained. It must be integrated in order to get displacement. Note that this is
a vector equation in the general case.

3. Energy method

x x

∫ Fdκ = ∫ m&x&dκ
0 0

[ ]
x x t
 substitute dv m t
∫ ∫
Fdκ = mv&dκ =   = m vdτ = v 2
 vdτ = dκ  0 dt 2 ∫ 0
0 0
the work changes the kinetic energy

F ( x − x0 ) =
m
2
(
v ( t ) 2 − v02 )
2 F ( x − x0 )
v(t ) = + v02
m

The velocity is obtained as function of coordinate. Note that this is a scalar equation also in
the general case. Lagrange’s equations in chapter is an energy formulation that can generate
equations from a scalar equation, the Lagrangian, see chapter 6.

Energy methods are usually used for creating approximate solutions or formulating
approximate computational methods like FEM.

Numerical procedures are often required for more complex problems, for eg several
unknowns or nonlinearity. Simple analytic models can serve as a first rough estimate
giving the basic properties of the design. It may be advantageous to use numerical packages
like Matlab for models that can be limited to some, 3-≈100, unknowns. Special packages,
often Finite Element or Rigid Body Dynamics codes, are used for larger problems.

Sometimes a more complex analytical model can be useful and a symbolic manipulation
package like Maple can be applied.

Formulas in Mechanical Vibration page 8

version 2002-09-06
4. Single Degree Of Freedom system

4. 1 .1 Free Vibration
The typical model for SDOF is shown to
the right. There is a large variety of x(t)
physical problems that also can be k
modelled as SDOF, for eg torsion of
shaft. m
The gravity can be accounted for
seperately and vibration can be solved as
the displacement x(t) from the static c
equilibrium position.

k
ωn = is the natural frequency of the system. It is the frequency of free
m
vibration for an undamped system.
ccr = 2 km = 2mω n is called the critical damping.
c
ζ = is the damping factor.
ccr

4. 1 .2 Free vibrations of underdamped system, ζ<1.

ωd = ωn 1 − ζ 2 is the damped frequency of free vibration.
The homogenous solutions is of the form x h = e −ζω n t A sin(ω d t + φ )and with initial
conditions

x f = e −ζω n t
(v0 + ζω n x0 )2 + (ω d x0 )2 sin(ω + φ ),
dt
ω d2
 ω d x 0 
φ = tan −1  .
 v 0 + ζω n x 0 

4. 1 .3 Free vibrations of critical damped system, ζ=1.

The homogenous solutions is of the form x h = (a1 + a 2 t )e −ωn t and with initial conditions
x f = (x0 + (v0 + ω n x0 )t )e −ω n t .

4. 1 .4 Free vibrations of over damped system, ζ>1.

 −ω t ζ 2 −1 ω n t ζ 2 −1  − ω n t
The homogenous solutions is of the form x h =  a1e n + a2 e e and
 
initial conditions give

Formulas in Mechanical Vibration page 9

version 2002-09-06
  − v +  − ζ + ζ 2 − 1 ω x v0 + ζ + ζ 2 − 1 ω n x0 
 0   n 0 
xf =   −ω t
e n
ζ 2 −1
+   ω t
e n
ζ 2 −1
e −ζω n t
 2ω n ζ 2 − 1 2ω n ζ 2 − 1 
 
.

4. 2 Forced Vibration
The loading cases below ranges from
single harmonics, arbitrary periodic, x(t)
arbitrary to random loading. k
Loading via base motion is also included.
m
F (t ) F(t)
f (t ) = is the loading per unit
m
c
mass.

4. 2 .1 Harmonic force applied on underdamped SDOF system

The loading is assumed to be F0 cos(ωt )
ω
r= is ratio of loading frequency and natural frequency.
ωn
The steady state solution is xs = X cos(ωt − φ ) which gives
F0
δ static
xs = k cos(ωt − φ ) = cos(ωt − φ )
(1 − r )
2 2
+ (2ζr )
2
(1 − r )
2 2
+ (2ζr )
2

and
 2ζr 
φ = tan −1   , which is the phase shift between displacement and load.
 1− r2 

It is often convenient to plot the nondimensional amplitude

Xk Xω n2 1
= =
F0 f0
(1 − r )
2 2
+ (2ζr )
2

The undamped case, ζ=0, can not be obtained from above.

Formulas in Mechanical Vibration page 10

version 2002-09-06
 4. 2 .2 Rotating unbalance in underdamped system
The motion is restrained to occur only in
x direction. This is not shown in the x(t)
figure. k
M
The mass M includes m as it is the total
mass. e
This is the same as harmonic loading with ωt m
F0=meω2.
For eg the nondimensional amplitude is c

Xk 1 y(t)
= or
meω 2
(1 − r )2 2
+ (2ζr )
2

MX r2
=
me
(1 − r )
2 2
+ (2ζr )
2

The undamped case, ζ=0, can not be obtained from above.

The solution can be extended to synchronous whirl with M=m and the force above applied
both in the x- and y-directions independently.

4. 2 .3 Harmonic base motion of underdamped system

The base motion is assumed to be
y = Y sin(ω t) x(t)
ω k
r= is ratio of loading frequency and
ωn
natural frequency. m

y(t)
The steady state solution is x p = X sin(ωt − φ ) which gives

1 + (2ζr )2
xs = Y sin(ωt − φ )
(1 − r ) 2 2
+ (2ζr ) 2

and
 2ζr 3 
φ = tan −1   , which is the phase shift.
 ( )
 1 − r 2 + (2ζr ) 
2


It is often convenient to plot the nondimensional amplitude

X 1 + (2ζr )2
=
Y (1 − r )
+ (2ζr )2
2 2

The relative motion between base and mass if sometimes important, like for eg in the case
of accelerometer or seismometer. Then we introduce z p = x p − y = Z sin(ωt − ϕ ) that gives

Formulas in Mechanical Vibration page 11

version 2002-09-06
 r2
zs = Y sin(ωt − ϕ )
(1 − r ) 2 2
+ (2ζr ) 2

and
 2ζr 
ϕ = tan −1   , which is the phase shift.
( 2 
 1− r  )
It is often convenient to plot the nondimensional amplitude
Z r2
=
Y
( )
1 − r 2 + (2ζr )2
2

The undamped case, ζ=0, can not be obtained from above.

4. 2 .4 Transmissibility for base motion and force excitation

The transmissibility can be defined for the two cases above. One has to be careful and
notice the difference between them even if there are some similarities. Note the difference
between reduce forces or vibrations.

Transmissibility of force for harmonic load on mass is a measure of how much of the
loading on the mass that affects the base. The force on the base is FT. It is
FT 1 + (2ζr )2
TR = =
(1 − r )
.
F0 2 2
+ (2ζr ) 2

Transmissibility of vibrations of base is a measure on how much the base vibrations is

affecting the mass.
X 1 + (2ζr )2
TR = =
(1 − r )
.
Y + (2ζr )2
2 2

So in this respect the isolator will do the same job for the two cases. However, if the force
affecting the mass due to base motion is of interest, then the following should be used.
FT 1 + (2ζr )2
TR = = r2
kY (1 − r ) 2 2
+ (2ζr )2

4. 2 .5 Shock loading and arbitrary loading applied to a damped SDOF system, Impulse
The loading is assumed to be F0 δ (t − τ ). The application of loading is assumed to be so
short that it gives the system a momentum due to an impulse. Thus the velocity is changed
instantaneously without any change in displacement. Assuming zero initial displacement
and zero initial velocity gives
0 0 ≤ t <τ
x(t ) = 
 Fˆh(t - τ ) τ ≤t
where

Formulas in Mechanical Vibration page 12

version 2002-09-06
 e −ζω n t sin(ω d t ) is the unit impulse response function of an underdamped
1
h(t ) =
mω d
SDOF. It gives x(t) for the system when loaded with an initial unit impulse.
F̂ = mv 0 is the impulse. It is expressed in the velocity increase that can be observed.
The general defintion of impulse if
∫
Fˆ = F ( t )dt
The solution above can, with superposition, be used to find the displacement to an arbitrary
loading. The superposition or convolution integral is
t

∫
x ( t ) = F (ξ )h(t − ξ )dξ
0
The unit impulse response function, h(t), for the system is required. In general, it is more
convenient to use the Laplace Transform to find the motion of the system as the integral
may be quite elaborate.

The solution of the convolution integral for a damped SDOF loaded by an initial step load
is
F  
x ( t ) = 0 1 − e −ζω n t cos(ω d t − φ ) 
1
k  1−ζ 2

 
 ζ 
φ = tan −1  
 2 
 1−ζ 

4. 2 .6 Arbitrary periodic loading applied to a damped SDOF system, Fourier series

Any periodic function, F(t), can be represented by an infinite series of the form
a0 ∞
F (t ) = +
2 n =1 ∑
(an cos( nωT t ) + bn sin(nωT t ) )
where
2π
ωT =
T
and the coefficents are computed by
T
2
a0 =
T ∫ F (t )dt
0
T
2
an =
T ∫ F (t ) cos( nwT t )dt n = 1,2...
0
T
2
bn =
T ∫ F (t ) sin(nwT t )dt n = 1,2...
0
a0
Note that is the average force, F .
2

Formulas in Mechanical Vibration page 13

version 2002-09-06
The solution of the equation of motion is then written as
x( t) = x h + xp
where the homogenous solution is given in the sections about free vibrations and the
particular solution is written as
∞
x p (t) = x 1 + ∑ (x cn (t) + x sn (t))
n =1
where the different parts are solutions to the equations below.
a a F
m&x&1 + cx&1 + kx1 = 0 ⇒ x1 = 0 =
2 2k k
m&x&cn + cx& cn + kxcn = an cos( nωT t )
m&x&sn + cx& sn + kx sn = bn sin(nωT t )
The solutions to the two latter equations can be constructed from the solution for a
harmonic loaded system.

Note that it is the sum of particular and homogenous solutions, i.e. the total solution, that
should fulfil initial conditions. Thus, first put together the general solution and finally
apply initial conditions to find unknown coefficients.

4. 2 .7 Arbitrary loading applied to an damped SDOF system, Laplace Transform

The definition of the Laplace Transform and its properties together with a table of
computed transformations are given in Appendix A.
Applying the transform to the equation of motion changes the problem of solving an
ordinary differential equation into an algebraic problem as shown below
m&x& + cx& + kx = F ( t )
( )
m s 2 X − sv0 − x0 + c (sX - x0 ) − kX = L[F ( t )] = F ( s )
⇓
F ( s ) + m(sv0 + x0 ) + cx0
X =
ms 2 + cs + k
Finding the Laplace Transform of the load and applying the formula above gives the
Laplace Transform of the motion. The inverse Laplace Transform (also from table) gives
x ( t ) = L−1[X ( s )] .
The special case of zero initial displacement and velocity gives
1
X= 2 F ( s) = H ( s)F ( s)
ms + cs + k
The function H(s) is called the receptance transfer function (also called compliance or
admittance)
X ( s) 1
H (s) = = .
F ( s ) ms 2 + cs + k

Formulas in Mechanical Vibration page 14

version 2002-09-06
Other transfer function that are used in vibration measuring are given in the table below.
Response Transfer Function Formula Inverse Transfer
Measurement Function
2
Acceleration Inertance s H(s) Apparent mass
Velocity Mobility sH(s) Impedance
Displacement Receptance H(s) Dynamic stiffness

4. 2 .8 Random loading applied to an damped SDOF system, Fourier Transform

The Fourier Transform is defined in a way similar to the Laplace Transform. It is very
useful in measurements due to the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) that makes the calculation
very fast and possible to perform digitally with the Digital Fourier Transform (DFT). It is
not a tool for analysis like the Laplace Transform.

The purpose of the Fourier Transform is to study the amplitude, energy etc as a function of
frequency instead of time.

The mean value, x , is assumed to be zero for random vibration. It can be accounted for
separately as a static mean value added to the motion.

Autocorrelation contains the information of how fast a signal is changing. It is defined as

T
lim 1
R xx (τ ) =
T →∞T ∫ x(t ) x(t + τ )dt
0
It can be seen that R xx (0) = x 2 . It can be shown that the Fourier Transform gives the
distribution of energy, as it is related to the amplitude in square. This transform is called
the Power Spectral Density (PSD). It is written as
∞
1 − iωt
S xx (ω ) =
2π ∫ Rxx (τ )e dt
−∞
The same quantities can be defined for the loading. The relation between the PSD of the
load and the motion is
2
S xx (ω ) = H (ω ) S ff (ω ) .
The mean square value can be computed as
∞
x = ∫ S xx (ω )dω
2

−∞
Measuring the input, force, and the output, motion, of the system makes it possible to
compute the transfer function. The system can be described as a ”black box” where the
determination of H(ω) is a way to find out what is inside.

The response computed from measurements will in the ideal case of a damped SDOF be as
in the figure below. The parameter identification can be performed on the response
spectrum.

Formulas in Mechanical Vibration page 15

version 2002-09-06
 10 1

10 0

10 -1

10 -2

10 -3

10 -4 -1
10 10 0 10 1

Figure. Magnitude of compliance transfer function versus frequency.

The static displacement gives

lim 1
H (ω ) →
ω →0 k
The peak gives the following information
ω peak = ω n 1 − 2ζ 2
1 1
H peak =
k 2ζ 1 − ζ 2
These three equations determines the parameters of the system.

5. Multiple Degree Of Freedom system

5. 1 Free Vibration
The typical model for MDOF is shown below. Most equations are given for 2-DOF
models. The general relations are also valid for any number of degrees of freedom (N).
x1(t) x2(t)

k1 k2

m1 m2
c1 c2

Figure. 2-DOF model without external load.

Formulas in Mechanical Vibration page 16

version 2002-09-06
M is mass matrix, C is damping matrix, K is stiffness matrix, X is displacement vector and
F is load vector.

The equation of motion for the 2-DOF model above with no load is
m1 0   &x&1  c1 + c2 − c2   x&1  k1 + k 2 − k 2   x1  0
 0 m   &x&  +  − c  +
c2   x& 2   − k 2
 = 
k 2   x2  0
 2  2   2

A more general notation valid for any 2-DOF with lumped mass-matrix is
 m11 m12   x&&1   c11 c12   x&1   k11 k 22   x1  0
m   +    +    =  
 21 m22   &x&2  c21 c22   x& 2  k 21 k 22   x2  0
This is a coupled system of second order ordinary differential equations.

Determination of eigenmodes and natural frequencies

Harmonic motion is assumed which gives X && = −ω 2 X . This is applied to the equations of
motion for the undamped system
MX && + KX = 0
The requirement for a non-trivial solution, X≠0, requires det( K − ω 2 M) = 0 , which is
called the characteristic equation.
Solving by setting in a natural frequency gives the shape of the corresponding eigenmodes.
The scaling of this eigenvector is arbitrary.

For the 2-DOF model above this gives the characteristic equation
m1m2ω 4 − (m1k 2 + m2 (k1 + k 2 ))ω 2 + k1k 2 = 0

The solution gives the two natural frequencies

 2 
ω12  1  k1 + k 2 k 2  k1 + k 2 k 2  4k1k 2 
=  + ±  +  −
ω 22  2  m1 m2  m1 m2  m1m2 
 
This gives the ratio between the amplitudes of the corresponding eigenvectors by solving
the original system of equations with an eigenvalue inserted.
 1 
 X 1    
u i =   =  k2   i = 1,2
 X 2 i  k − m ω 2  
 2 2 i 

Determination of free vibrations for given initial conditions, undamped system

The initial conditions are
X = X0
X& =V
0
Writing the motion as a linear combination of modal vibrations gives a motion of the form

X= ∑ Ai sin(ωi t + φi )ui
Matching this with the initial conditions gives the solution for the unknown coefficients.

Formulas in Mechanical Vibration page 17

version 2002-09-06
5. 2 Forced Vibration

Undamped 2-DOF problem with load on one mass, vibration absorber, is shown below.
x1(t) x2(t)
F1(t)
k1 k2

m1 m2
c1 c2

Figure. Vibration absorber, m2, on a loaded primary mass m1.

The equation of motion for the 2-DOF model above, but without damping, with is
m1 0   &x&1  k1 + k 2 − k 2   x1   F1 
 0 m   &x&  +  − k  = 
k 2   x2   0 
 2  2   2
The loading is assumed to be harmonic F=F0sin(ωt)
x  X 
Assuming  1  =  1  sin(ωt ) and inserting into equation of motion give
 x2   X 2 
 X1  1 ( )
 F0 k 2 − m2ω 2 
 =
( )( )
 X 2  k1 + k 2 − m1ω k 2 − m2ω − k 2
2 2 2 
 F0 k 2


k k
We introduce the following variables ω11
2
= 1 and ω 22 2
= 2 .
m1 m2
m ω
Then we can define the design variables µ = 2 and β = 22 .
m1 ω11

The natural frequencies of the system can be written in these variables.

 ω1  
2
  
ω
 22   = 1 1 + β 2 (1 + µ ) ± 1 − 2 β 2 (1 − µ ) + β 4 (µ + 1)2 
2 2  
 ω2   2β  
  
 ω 22  

Formulas in Mechanical Vibration page 18

version 2002-09-06
 5. 3 Modal Analysis
It is possible to uncouple the equation of motions by analysing the vibration in terms of the
participating natural modes. Representing the motion as a linear combination of the
eigenvectors, mode shapes, can decouple the undamped equations of motion. Proportional
damping must be assumed in the case of damping. See chapter ??? about damping.

The modal analysis is presented in nondimensional form but can be performed without this
normalization of the equations.

Nondimensional equations of motion is created by the transformation

X = M −1 / 2 Q with the inverse Q = M1 / 2 X . Inserting into the equations of motion and
premultiplying with M −1 / 2 gives
M −1 / 2 MM −1 / 2 Q
&& + M −1 / 2 KM −1 / 2 Q = M −1 / 2 F
~
&& + K ~
IQ Q=F
I is the unity matrix and K̃ is the spectral matrix.
The normalized eigenvectors, v, to the nondimensional form are set as columns in a matrix
P = [v1 v 2 . v N ]
We apply one more transformation Q = PR with the inverse R = P T Q . Inserting this into
the nondimensional equations of motion and premultiplying with PT gives
&& + PT KPR = PT F~
PT PR
&& + ΛR = F ~
IR
The equations looks like below
~
1 0 . 0  &r&1  ω12 0 . 0   r1   f1 
0 1 . 0  &r&      ~ 
 
  +
2   0 ω 2
2 . 0   r2  =  f 2 
   
 . . . .  .   . . . .  .   . 
    ~
0 0 . 1 &r&N   0 0 . ω N2  rN   f N 

The uncoupled equations, modal equations, can be solved as SDOF problems when given
transformed intial conditions. The modal coordinates, r, must be transformed back to X
using the inverse transformations given above,

Damping can be included to give damped SDOF equations. Then damping is assumed to be
proportional. Modal dampfactors may be obtained from measurements also.

6. Lagrange’s equations
Is an alternative to set up the equations of motion that can be easier than those methods
described in the introduction. It can generate the N equations based on scalar functions for
kinetic, T, and potential energy, U.

N independent generalized coordinates, qi, are required to define the motion uniquely for a
N-DOF problem. More coordinates can be used if it is convenient for the problem but they
should then be followed by constraint equations. The same number of constraints are then
required as the number of superfluous coordinates.

Formulas in Mechanical Vibration page 19

version 2002-09-06
Corresponding generalized forces, Qi, are defined. They are related to the coordinates via
the change in virtual work, W, that is produced for a virtual displacement.
δW
Qi =
δqi
They are zero for a conservative system. System is defined as the structure including
applied forces.

The Lagrange formulation states that the equation of motion can be derived from
d  ∂T  ∂T ∂U
 − + = Qi i = 1,2....N
dt  ∂q&i  ∂qi ∂qi

7. Continuous system

7. 1 Wave Equation

The one-dimensional wave equation is

∂ 2w ∂ 2w
c2 =
∂ x2 ∂ t2
It governs several physical systems as shown in the table below.

Table. Physical problems for one-dimensional wave equation.

Problem type Variable w Other variables Wave speed c
Free lateral lateral displacement τ is tension in string τ
vibrations of string ρ is density (kg/m) c=
ρ
Free longitudinal axial displacement E is Young’s modulus E
vibrations in bar ρ is density (kg/m3) c=
ρ
Free torsional angular rotation G is shear modulus G
vibrations in massive ρ is density (kg/m3) c=
ρ
shaft

It is assumed that w(x,t)=X(x)T(t).

The solution of the spatial equation is outlined below.

∂ 2 X ( x)
+ σ 2 X ( x) = 0
∂x 2

The general solution is X=asin(σx)+bcos(σx). Applying boundary conditions at the ends

x=0 and x=L and looking for non-trivial solutions for the coefficients gives the
characteristic equation for the eigenvalue problem.

An infinite number of eigenmodes are then found.

X n (x ) = an cos(σ n x ) + b n sin(σ n x ) n = 1, 2...∞
It can be seen from the temporal equation that the corresponding natural frequencies will be
ω n = σnc

Formulas in Mechanical Vibration page 20

version 2002-09-06
The solution of the temporal equation is outlined below.
∂ 2T ( t )
+ σ 2 c 2T ( t ) = 0
∂t 2

The general solution is Tn=Ansin(σnct)+Bncos(σnct). This gives infinte number of

independent solutions and we will have
∞
w( x , t ) = ∑ (An sin(σ n ct ) + Bn cos(σ n ct ))(an sin(σ n x ) + bn cos(σ n x ))
n =1
Applying initial conditions gives the remaining unknown coefficients.

7. 2 Bending vibration of beam

The equation of motion for a free vibrating Bernoulli beam is
∂ 2w 2 ∂ 4w
+c =0
∂ t2 ∂ x4
EI
c=
ρA

Assuming separation of variables gives a temporal equation that together with the four
boundary conditions defines the eigenvalue problem. The general solution to this is
X ( x ) = a1 sin( β x ) + a2 cos( β x ) + a3 sinh( β x ) + a4 cosh( β x )
ω2 ρ Aω 2
β4 = =
c2 EI

Solution for some modes and different boundary conditions are given in Appendix C.

Formulas in Mechanical Vibration page 21

version 2002-09-06
 8. Damping
Damping are nonconservative forces that dissipates energy. Linear, viscous damping is
defined as usually assumed. Equivalent damping for other cases are defined as the damping
that should be used in the linear, viscous damping model in order to get the same energy
loss per cycle. Different sources of damping are given in the table below.

Table. Source of damping.

Name Fd ( x , x& ) c eq Source
Linear, viscous damping cx& c Slow fluid
Air damping a sgn( x& ) x& 2 8aωX Fast fluid
3π
Coulumb damping β sgn( x& ) 4β Sliding friction
πωX
Displacement squared damping d sgn( x& ) x 2 4dX Material
3πω damping
Solid damping b sgn( x& ) x& 2b Material
πω damping

Proportional damping is defined as being proportional to stiffness and mass. In matrix form
for a MDOF problem C = α M + β K . The coefficients are not the same as in the table
above.

Damping can be measured several ways. One option is to compute the logaritmic
decrement which is the natural logaritm of the amplitude of any two successive amplitudes.
x(t ) 2πζ
δ = ln =
x( t + T ) 1−ζ 2
Thus the dampfactor can be computed
δ
ζ =
4π 2 + δ 2

9. 9. Appendix A. Laplace transforms

Definition of Laplace transform of a function f(t)

∞
L[ f (t )] = F ( s ) = ∫ f ( t )e
− st
dt
0
This gives
[ ]
L f& ( t ) = sF ( s ) − f (0)
[ ]
L &f&( t ) = s 2 F ( s ) − sf ( 0) − f& ( 0)
etc.
The inverse transform is written as

Formulas in Mechanical Vibration page 22

version 2002-09-06
L−1 [F ( s )] = f ( t )

The Table A.1 below can be used for computing transforms and inverse transforms.

Table A.1 Laplace transforms for functions with initial zero conditions and t>0.
Eq. # F(s) f(t)
(1) δ(t)
(2) 1 H( t)
s
1
(3)
n
( n = 1,2,...) t n −1
s
( n − 1)!
(4) 1
( s + a )( s + b)
1
b−a
(
e − at − e − bt )
(5) ω sin ωt
(s + ω )
2 2

(6) s cos ωt
(s2 + ω 2 )

(7) 1 1
(1 − cos ωt )
s( s + ω )
2 2
ω2

e −ζωt sin ωt 1 − ζ 2  , ζ < 1

(8) 1 1
( s + 2ζωs + ω )
2 2
ω 1−ζ 2  

(9) ω2 1−
1
e −ζωt sin ωt 1 − ζ 2 + φ  ,
s ( s 2 + 2ζωs + ω 2 ) 1−ζ 2  

φ = cos −1 ζ , ζ < 1

(10) n! t n eωt , n = 1,2...

( s − ω ) n +1

(11) 1
s( s + ω )
1
ω
(1 − e ω ) − t

(12) 1
s (s + ω )
2
ω
1
2
(e ω − ωt − 1)
− t

ω sinh ωt
(13)
(s − ω 2 )
2

s cosh ωt
(14)
(s2 − ω 2 )

(15) 1 1
(ωt − sin ωt )
s (s + ω )
2 2 2
ω3
Formulas in Mechanical Vibration page 23
version 2002-09-06
 1
(16)
(s + ω 2 )2
2
1
(sin ωt − ωt cos ωt )
2ω 3
s t
(17) sin ωt
( s + ω 2 )2
2 2ω

(s2 − ω 2 ) t cos ωt
(18)
( s2 + ω 2 )2

(19) (ω12 − ω 22 ) 1
sin ω 2 t −
1
sin ω1t
(s 2
+ ω12 )( s 2 + ω 22 ) ω2 ω1

(20) s(ω12 − ω 22 ) cos ω 2 t − cos ω1t

( s 2 + ω12 )( s 2 + ω 22 )

(21) ω e − at sin ωt
(s + a)2 + ω 2

(22) s+a e − at cos ωt

(s + a)2 + ω 2

Formulas in Mechanical Vibration page 24

version 2002-09-06
10. 10. Appendix B. Moments of inertia
Definition of mass moments of inertia

∫
I = r 2 ρdV ,
where r is the orthogonal distance from the axis of rotation. It is a measure of resistance to
rotational acceleration of a body.

Definition of radius of gyration

I
k=
m

Transfer of axes
The moment of inertia of a body about a centroidal axis can be found from that of a
parallell axis through the mass center
I = I + md 2 ,
where I is the moment of inertia about a axis through the mass center and d is the distance
between the axes.

Appended excerpt at the end of this collection of formulas Table B.1 gives the mass
moment of inertia for some bodies. Note that these can be combined to form those of other
bodies.

Table B.1 Properties of homogeneous solids

Body Mass Mass moments of inertia
center
1. Circular cylinder - 1 2 1 2
z I xx = mr + mL
4 3
1
L
I zz = mr 2
r
2

Semicylinder 4r 1 2 1 2
x= I xx = mr + mL
3π 4 3
1
I zz = mr 2
2

Formulas in Mechanical Vibration page 25

version 2002-09-06
 r
z

x
y

Cylindrical shell 1 1
I xx = mr 2 + mL 2
2 3
I zz = mr 2

m=ρ2πrh
h=thickness z
r= mean radius
x

Half cylindrical shell 2r 1 2 1 2

x= I yy = mr + mL
m=ρπrh r π 2 3
z
h=thickness  4
r=mean radius I zz = 1 − mr 2
L  π

x
y

Sphere - 2 2
I zz = mr
5
Rectangular parallellepiped -
I xx =
1
3
(
m H 2 + L2 )
1
(
I yy = m B 2 + L2
3
)
1
(
I zz = m B 2 + H 2
3
)

Formulas in Mechanical Vibration page 26

version 2002-09-06
 L B

z y

11. Appendix C. Mathematical formulas

Some formulas often used, but easily forgotten, in this context are given here.

Quadratic equations
−b ± b2 − 4ac
ax 2 + bx + c = 0 ⇒ x=
2a

Inverse of 2 by 2 matrix
−1
a b  1  d − b
c d  =
ad − bc  −c a 

Trigonometrics
Dsin(x)=cos(x)
Dcos(x)=-sin(x)
sin(a+b)=sin(a)cos(b)+cos(a)sin(b)
cos(a+b)=cos(a)cos(b)-sin(a)sin(b)
cos(x)=-sin(x-90°)
sin(x)=cos(x-90°)
acos(x ) + bsin(x) = r cos(x − ϕ )
asin(x) + bcos(x) = rsin(x + ϕ )
b
r = a 2 + b 2 , ϕ = arctan 
 a
ae iωt + a e iωt = A sin(ωt ) + B cos(ωt )
A = 2 Re( a ) , B = -2Im(a)

Formulas in Mechanical Vibration page 27

version 2002-09-06
The Heaviside function or step function is defined as
0 t <τ
H (t − τ ) = 
1 τ ≤t

The dirac function, δ(τ) is defined as the limit of the curve in the figure below when ε goes
to zero and the height goes to infinity with the area being unity.

2Aε=1
A

2ε

τ t
Illustration for definition of δ(τ)

The dirac function has the property that

∞

∫ f (t )δ (τ )dt = f (τ )
−∞

Formulas in Mechanical Vibration page 28

version 2002-09-06
12. 12. Appendix D. Bending vibration of beam

The solutions for the equation for beam bending vibration in Chapter 7.

Frequencies and mode shapes for some beam configurations. Beam length is L.
Configuration Weighted frequencies (ββ L) Mode shape σ
and characteristic equation.
0 (rigid body mode) cosh β x + cos β x − 0.9825
σ (sinh β x + sin β x )
x 4.73004074 1.0008
7.85320462 0.9999
10.9956078 1.0000
14.1371655 0.9999
free-free 17.2787597 1 for n>5
(2 n + 1 )π n>5
2
1.87510407 cosh β x − cos β x − 0.7341
σ (sinh β x − sin β x )
x 4.69409113 1.0185
7.85475744 0.9992
10.99554073 1.0000
14.13716839 1.0000
clamped-free (2 n − 1 )π n> 5 1 for n>5
2

cos βL cosh βL = − L cosh β x − cos β x − 1.0008

σ (sinh β x − sin β x )
x 1 for n>1
3.92660231
7.06858275
10.21017612
clamped-pinned 13.35176878
16.49336143
(4 n + 1 )π n> 5
4
tan βL = tanh βL cosh β x − cos β x − 0.9825
σ (sinh β x − sin β x )
x 2.36502037 1 for n>1
5.49780392
8.63937983
11.78097245
clamped-sliding
14.92256510
(4 n − 1 )π n> 5
4

tanβL + tanhβL = 0 cosh β x − cos β x − 0.9825

σ (sinh β x − sin β x )
x 4.73004074 1.0008
7.85320462 1 for n>2
10.9956079
clamped-clamped 14.1371655
17.2787597
(2 n + 1 )π n> 5
2
cos β L cosh β L = 1 sin
nπx
= 0 -
L
x nπ

pinned-pinned

Formulas in Mechanical Vibration page 29

version 2002-09-06