Precession of the perihelion of Mercury’s orbit

M. G. Stewart

Citation: Am. J. Phys. 73, 730 (2005); doi: 10.1119/1.1949625

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Precession of the perihelion of Mercury’s orbit
M. G. Stewarta兲
Department of Physics, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202
共Received 23 July 2004; accepted 20 May 2005兲
The precession of the perihelion of Mercury’s orbit is calculated using the Laplace–Runge–Lenz
vector. An approximate calculation that assumes the orbits of the perturbing planets are circular and
coplanar with Mercury’s orbit is within 4.4% of the correct value. A complete calculation that uses
the correct elliptical orbit and orientation for each of the perturbing planets is then presented. The
precession due to a perturbing planet is proportional to the mass of the planet and is approximately
inversely proportional to the cube of its semimajor axis. © 2005 American Association of Physics Teachers.
关DOI: 10.1119/1.1949625兴

I. INTRODUCTION Ȧ
= 2共ṙ · F兲r − 共r · ṙ兲F − 共r · F兲ṙ, 共2.2兲
Most classical mechanics textbooks mention that the pre- ␮
cession of the perihelion of Mercury’s orbit was one of the
first tests of Einstein’s general theory of relativity. The peri- and the angular velocity of the Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector
helion precesses about 575 s of arc per century 共in a sun is
fixed coordinate system兲 of which 532 seconds of arc can be
A Ã Ȧ Ȧ
explained by the perturbations of Mercury’s orbit by the ␻= = â Ã , 共2.3兲
other planets. From the mid-nineteenth century through the A2 A
early twentieth century several workers calculated these
perturbations.1 The cause of the remaining 43 seconds of arc where â is the unit vector in the direction of A.
per century was not understood until the general theory of
relativity was developed. Several texts calculate the relativ-
istic contribution,2,3 but none 共to my knowledge兲 indicate III. CIRCULAR, COPLANAR ORBITS
how to calculate the precession due to the other planets. This
problem was recognized by Price and Rush,4 who calculated If the orbit of the perturbing planet is assumed to be cir-
the precession using circular, coplanar orbits for the perturb- cular and coplanar with Mercury’s orbit, then from symmetry
ing planets and approximated the perturbing force. considerations, the perturbing force will have only a radial
With the prevalence of computers, we revisit this problem component. If we substitute F = Frr̂ and ṙ = ṙr̂ + r␥˙ ␥ˆ into Eq.
and reexamine the Price and Rush calculation, utilizing the 共2.2兲, where the true anomaly ␥ is the angle between the line
Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector 共also see Ref. 5兲. We then do from the origin to the perihelion and r, we find
the calculation for perturbing orbits that are elliptical and
inclined with respect to Mercury’s orbit. The relativistic con- Ȧ = − mr2Fr␥˙ ␥ˆ . 共3.1兲
tribution also is calculated.
The substitution of Eq. 共3.1兲 into Eq. 共2.3兲 gives
II. THE LAPLACE–RUNGE–LENZ VECTOR r2Fr␥˙ r2Fr␥˙
␻=− 共â ⫻ ␥ˆ 兲 = − cos ␥ẑ⬘ . 共3.2兲
For a Kepler orbit the Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector is de- ke ke
fined as6 Instead of using a point mass for a perturbing planet, we
r will replace it by a uniform ring of radius a P 共equal to the
A = p à L − ␮k , 共2.1兲 semimajor axis of the planet’s elliptical orbit兲 and mass M P,
r and will calculate the force on Mercury from this mass ring.
where p and L are the linear and angular momentum vectors, The gravitational potential of a mass ring at a point that is a
respectively, and ␮ = mM / 共M + m兲 is the reduced mass. For distance r from the origin and in the plane of the ring is7
planetary motion, m is the mass of the planet, M is the mass 2GM P
of the sun, k = GMm, G is the gravitational constant, and r is ⌽共r兲 = K共␣兲, 共3.3兲
the radius vector from the origin to the planet. For Mercury, ␲a P
m / ␮ = 1 + 共1.7⫻ 10−7兲 共see Table I兲, and, thus, m can be used where K共␣兲 is the complete elliptic integral of the first kind
instead of ␮ in the following calculations without affecting and ␣ = r / a P. The gravitational force on a mass m that lies in
the final results. the plane of the ring is

冋 册
The vector A lies in the plane of the elliptical orbit, is
parallel to the major axis, and points in the direction of the ⳵⌽ 2GmM P 1 E共␣兲
Fr = m = − K共␣兲 , 共3.4兲
perihelion. Its magnitude is ␮ke, where e is the eccentricity ⳵r ␲a2P ␣ 1 − ␣2
of the orbit. If there are no perturbing forces, A is conserved,
and the major axis of the orbit is fixed in space. However, if where E共␣兲 is the complete elliptic integral of the second
there are perturbing forces, then A is not constant, and, in kind.
general, the perihelion will precess. If the perturbing force is Because A points in the direction of the perihelion, the
F, the time derivative of A is given by7 contribution to the precession of the perihelion of Mercury’s

730 Am. J. Phys. 73 共8兲, August 2005 http://aapt.org/ajp © 2005 American Association of Physics Teachers 730

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 Table I. The ratio of the sun’s mass to the planet’s mass, the semimajor axis a p, and the contribution to the
precession of the perihelion of Mercury are given for each planet.

␦␥ 共arcsec/century兲 ␦␥ 共arcsec/century兲 Doolittlea

Planet M / MP a P 共AU兲 from Eq. 共3.5兲 from Eq. 共4.14兲 共arcsec/cent.兲

Mercury 6 023 600 0.387 098 93 ¯ ¯ ¯

Venus 408 523.5 0.723 331 99 292.84 277.42 277.37
Earth+ Moon 328 900.55 1.000 000 11 95.89 90.88 90.92
Mars 3 098 710 1.523 662 31 2.38 2.48 2.48
Jupiter 1 047.350 5.203 363 01 156.94 153.95 154.09
Saturn 3 498.0 9.537 070 32 7.57 7.32 7.32
Uranus 22 960 19.191 263 93 0.14 0.14 0.14
Neptune 19 314 30.068 963 48 0.04 0.04 0.04
Total 555.80 532.23 532.36
a
Reference 1, p. 179, but corrected for current values of M / M P.

orbit, ␦␥ due to the perturbing planet P, can be found by Mercury’s perihelion due to these planets that is 4.4% too
calculating the angle of rotation of A for one revolution of large. In Sec. IV we extend the above methods to compute
Mercury, the perihelion precession for elliptical and inclined orbits.

␦␥ = 冕 0
␶
␻dt

冕 冋 册
2␲ IV. ELLIPTICAL AND INCLINED ORBITS
2M P E共␣兲
=− r − K共␣兲 cos ␥ d␥ . 共3.5兲
␲ea PM 0 1 − ␣2 If the perturbing planet’s orbit is elliptical and inclined
with respect to Mercury’s orbit, we have the geometry de-
The magnitude of the radius vector from the origin to Mer- picted in Fig. 1; the perturbing planet’s orbit lies in the xy
cury is plane, and Mercury’s orbit lies in the x⬘y ⬘ plane. The angle
a共1 − e2兲 ⍀ is measured from the perihelion of the perturbing planet’s
r= , orbit, ␲ P, to the ascending node of Mercury’s orbit.12 The
1 + e cos ␥
mutual inclination of the two orbits is i, and ␻ is the angle
where a is the semimajor axis, and e is the eccentricity of the measured from the ascending node to Mercury’s perihelion,
orbit of Mercury. ␲M .13 These three angles are the three Euler angles which
The values8 of M / M P and a P 共in astronomical units兲9 for specify the rotation of the axes from 共x , y , z兲 to 共x⬘ , y ⬘ , z⬘兲.14
the planets are listed in Table I, along with each planet’s To find the gravitational potential at r, we replace a per-
contribution to the precession in seconds of arc per century turbing planet by an elliptical ring of mass M P that coincides
as calculated from Eq. 共3.5兲10 using numerical integration. with its orbit. Doolittle has shown that this replacement gives
The values of e are listed in Table II. For comparison, the the same results as those derived from the moving planet.15
values calculated by Doolittle,11 corrected for current mass However, because a planet does not move with constant
values, also are listed. speed, the mass element dM P is proportional to the time the
The approximation of circular, coplanar orbits for the planet spends in the line element ds. The gravitational poten-
seven perturbing planets gives a result for the precession of tial of this elliptical ring at r is7

Table II. The orbital parameters for the planets. Columns 2–7 are in degrees. The quantities ⍀ P, i P, and ␻ P are
the longitude of the ascending node, the inclination, and the argument of the perihelion, respectively, for each
planet measured with respect to the ecliptic 共Ref. 9兲. The quantities ⍀, i, and ␻ are the orbital parameters for
Mercury measured with respect to the plane of the perturbing planet’s orbit. 共See Fig. 1.兲 The angle ⍀ is
measured from the perihelion of the perturbing planet’s orbit to the ascending node of Mercury’s orbit. The
angle i is the mutual inclination of the two orbits, and the angle ␻ is measured from the ascending node to
Mercury’s perihelion. Column 8 lists the eccentricities of the planetary orbits 共Ref. 9兲.

Planet ⍀P iP ␻P ⍀ i ␻ e

Mercury 48.331 67 7.004 87 29.124 87 ¯ ¯ ¯ 0.205 630 69

Venus 76.680 69 3.394 71 54.846 08 255.023 19 4.327 27 51.004 69 0.006 773 23
Earth+ −11.260 64 0.000 05 114.207 83 305.384 06 7.004 96 29.124 87 0.016 710 22
Moon
Mars 49.578 54 1.850 61 286.462 30 71.844 12 5.154 97 29.573 62 0.093 412 33
Jupiter 100.556 15 1.305 30 274.197 70 24.181 27 6.290 18 38.584 12 0.048 392 66
Saturn 113.715 04 2.484 46 338.716 90 −64.730 81 6.381 11 49.893 18 0.054 150 60
Uranus 74.229 88 0.769 86 96.734 36 234.331 83 6.321 35 32.180 62 0.047 167 71
Neptune 131.721 69 1.769 17 273.249 66 4.558 53 7.023 65 43.650 17 0.008 585 87

731 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 73, No. 8, August 2005 M. G. Stewart 731

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 the precession of the perihelion occurs in the plane of the
orbit, we have ṙ = ṙr̂ + ␥˙ ␥ˆ . If we substitute for F and ṙ in Eq.
共2.3兲, we obtain
Ȧ 1
␻ = â Ã = 关2r2Fr共â ⫻ r̂兲␥˙ − rṙF␩共â ⫻ ␩ˆ 兲
A ke
− 共rṙF␥ + r2Fr␥˙ 兲共â ⫻ ␥ˆ 兲兴, 共4.2兲
where â ⫻ r̂ = sin ␥ẑ⬘, â ⫻ ␩ˆ = ŷ ⬘, and â ⫻ ␥ˆ = cos ␥ẑ⬘.
The term â ⫻ ␩ˆ gives rise to rotation about the y ⬘ axis and
does not contribute to the precession of the perihelion.16 If
we substitute for â ⫻ r̂, â ⫻ ␥ˆ , and
r2e sin ␥
ṙ = ␥˙ ,
a共1 − e2兲
we have
Fig. 1. The orbits of Mercury and the perturbing planet.
␻=
1
ke
冋
− r2 cos ␥Fr + r2 sin ␥
2 + e cos ␥
1 + e cos ␥
冉
F␥ ␥˙ ẑ⬘ , 冊册
共4.3兲
GM P
冕 2␲
r2Pd␾ where

冉 冊
⌽共r兲 =
2␲a2P冑1 − e2P 0 冑r2 + r2P − 2rrP sin ␪ cos共␤ − ␾兲 , ⳵⌽ m ⳵⌽ m ⳵⌽ ⳵␪ ⳵⌽ ⳵␤
Fr = m , F␥ = = + .
共4.1兲 ⳵r r ⳵␥ r ⳵␪ ⳵␥ ⳵␤ ⳵␥
To express ␪ in terms of the variable ␥ we write
where r P = a P共1 − e2P兲 / 共1 + e P cos ␾兲.
If we use spherical polar coordinates 共r , ␩ , ␥兲 in the cos ␪ = r̂ · ẑ = cos ␥共x̂⬘ · ẑ兲 + sin ␥共ŷ ⬘ · ẑ兲. 共4.4兲
primed coordinate system, the gravitational force on m due The relation between the primed and the unprimed coordi-
to the elliptical mass ring is F = Frr̂ + F␩␩ˆ + F␥␥ˆ , and because nates is x⬘ = Tx, where the matrix T is17

冢 冣
cos ␻ cos ⍀ − cos i sin ⍀ sin ␻ cos ␻ sin ⍀ + cos i cos ⍀ sin ␻ sin ␻ sin i
T = − sin ␻ cos ⍀ − cos i sin ⍀ cos ␻ − sin ␻ sin ⍀ + cos i cos ⍀ cos ␻ cos ␻ sin i . 共4.5兲
sin i sin ⍀ − sin i cos ⍀ cos i

Then cos共␻ + ␥兲
cos共␤ − ⍀兲 = . 共4.10兲
cos ␪ = cos ␥ sin ␻ sin i + sin ␥ cos ␻ sin i sin ␪
= sin i sin共␻ + ␥兲. 共4.6兲 We then have
If we differentiate cos ␪ with respect to ␥ and solve for cos i sin共␻ + ␥兲
⳵␪ / ⳵␥, we find sin共␤ − ⍀兲 = , 共4.11兲
sin ␪
⳵␪ sin i cos共␻ + ␥兲
=− . 共4.7兲 and
⳵␥ sin ␪
tan共␤ − ⍀兲 = cos i tan共␻ + ␥兲. 共4.12兲
To find the relation between ␤ and ␥ we have
If we differentiate tan共␤ − ⍀兲 with respect to ␥ and solve for
cos共␻ + ␥兲 = r̂ · n̂, 共4.8兲 ⳵␤ / ⳵␥, we obtain
where n̂ is the unit vector pointing to the ascending node. ⳵␤ cos i
Then = . 共4.13兲
⳵␥ sin2 ␪
cos共␻ + ␥兲 = 共sin ␪ cos ␤x̂ + sin ␪ sin ␤ŷ
The precession, in radians per revolution, is given by in-
+ cos ␪ẑ兲 · 共cos ⍀x̂ + sin ⍀ŷ兲 tegrating Eq. 共4.3兲 over one revolution. We substitute for
= sin ␪ cos共␤ − ⍀兲. 共4.9兲 ⳵⌽ / ⳵r, ⳵⌽ / ⳵␪, ⳵⌽ / ⳵␤, which are obtained by differentiating
Eq. 共4.1兲, ⳵␪ / ⳵␥ from Eq. 共4.7兲 and ⳵␤ / ⳵␥ from Eq. 共4.13兲,
Thus and write the precession as

732 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 73, No. 8, August 2005 M. G. Stewart 732

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 ␦␥ = 冕 ␶

0
␻dt = −
1 MP
2 冑
1 1
2␲ M a P 1 − e P e
2 冕 冕
0
2␲
r2
2␲

0 关r +
2
r2P
r3P
− 2rr P sin ␪ cos共␤ − ␾兲兴 3/2 再 冋
· cos ␥ sin ␪ cos共␤ − ␾兲 −
r
rP
册
+ 冉
sin ␥ 2 + e cos ␥
sin ␪ 1 + e cos ␥
冊
⫻ 冋 sin2 i sin共␻ + ␥兲cos共␻ + ␥兲
cos共␤ − ␾兲 + cos i sin共␤ − ␾兲
册冎 d␾d␥ , 共4.14兲

where
a共1 − e 兲 2
a P共1 − e2P兲
r= , rP = , that the inclinations of the perturbing planets’ orbits with
1 + e cos ␥ 1 + e P cos ␾
cos ␪ = sin i sin共␻ + ␥兲,
cos ⍀ cos共␻ + ␥兲 − sin ⍀ cos i sin共␻ + ␥兲
cos ␤ =
sin ␪
The constants ⍀, i, and ␻ 共actually ⍀ + ␻兲 are given in
astronomical tables for planetary orbits with respect to the
ecliptic, but in Eq. 共4.14兲 these quantities must be specified
for Mercury’s orbit with respect to the perturbing planet’s
orbit. In the Appendix the appropriate formulas are derived
for determining these quantities as defined in Fig. 1. In Table
II the quantities ⍀, i, and ␻, for each planet are given with
respect to the ecliptic9 and are denoted by the subscript P.
The same quantities are given for Mercury with respect to
the perturbing planet’s orbit as calculated from Eqs. 共A3兲,
共A1兲, and 共A2兲, respectively, and are used to evaluate Eq.
共4.14兲.
Each planet’s contribution to the precession of the perihe-
lion of Mercury’s orbit, in seconds of arc per century, calcu-
lated from Eq. 共4.14兲 using the orbital parameters listed in
Table II is listed in column 5 of Table I. The small differ-
ences in the precession calculated from Eq. 共4.14兲 compared
to Doolittle’s calculations are due mainly to small differences
in the orbital parameters used in the two calculations.
The magnitude of the tangential force, F␥, on Mercury is
always less than 3% of the radial force, Fr, on Mercury due
to all the planets 共see Fig. 2兲.
The fact that the radial force is dominant, that the eccen-
tricities of the orbits of the perturbing planets are small, and
respect to Mercury’s orbit are small, explains why the calcu-
lation of Sec. III for circular, coplanar orbits gives a result
that is only 4.4% in error.
Equations 共3.5兲 and 共4.14兲 show that the precession is pro-
.
portional to the mass of the perturbing planet, and, as can be
seen in Fig. 3, the precession per unit mass is approximately
inversely proportional to the cube of the semimajor axis of
the perturbing planet’s orbit. This inverse cubic relationship
also can be seen by inspection of Eqs. 共3.5兲 and 共4.14兲. If the
elliptic integrals in Eq. 共3.5兲 are expanded in series form in
terms of the parameter 共a / a P兲, the leading term of ␦␥ is
proportional to 共a / a P兲3. The higher order terms cannot be
neglected, of course, if 共a / a P兲 is not small compared to one.
A least-squares fit to the data in Fig. 3 gives a slope equal to
−3.1.
V. RELATIVISTIC CONTRIBUTION
The general relativistic force correction to the Newtonian
central gravitational force is18
3GML2
Fgr = − r̂, 共5.1兲
mc2r4
where c is the speed of light. Because there is only a radial
component, we can substitute for Fr in Eq. 共3.2兲, which gives

Fig. 3. Precession of Mercury’s orbit divided by the mass of the perturbing

planet vs the semimajor axis of the perturbing planet. The precession/mass is
Fig. 2. Ratio of the tangential force to the radial force on Mercury due to approximately proportional to the inverse cube of the perturbing planet’s
Venus, Earth, Mars, and Jupiter as a function of gamma. semimajor axis.

733 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 73, No. 8, August 2005 M. G. Stewart 733

Downloaded 26 Oct 2012 to 128.248.155.225. Redistribution subject to AAPT license or copyright; see http://ajp.aapt.org/authors/copyright_permission
 planet, respectively. The point ␲ M is the perihelion of Mer-
cury’s orbit, and the point ␲ P lies on the line from the origin
to the perturbing planet’s perihelion.
From spherical trigonometry the cosine of the mutual in-
clination is
cos i = cos i M cos i P + sin i M sin i P cos共⍀ P − ⍀ M 兲. 共A1兲
The angle from the ascending node to Mercury’s perihelion,
␲M , is ␻ = A + ␻M , where
sin i P
sin A = sin共⍀ P − ⍀ M 兲. 共A2兲
sin i

Fig. 4. Relationship between the ecliptic, Mercury’s orbit, and the perturb-
The angle from the perturbing planet’s perihelion, ␲ P, to the
ing planet’s orbit. ascending node is ⍀ = 2␲ − B − ␻ P, where
sin i M
sin B = sin共⍀ P − ⍀ M 兲. 共A3兲
2
sin i
GML
␻gr = ␥˙ cos ␥ẑ⬘ . 共5.2兲
mkec2r2 a兲
Electronic mail: stewart@physics.wayne.edu
If we substitute mka共1 − e2兲 for L2 in Eq. 共5.2兲 and integrate 1
Eric Doolittle, “The secular variations of the elements of the orbits of the
␻gr for one revolution of Mercury’s orbit, the precession due four inner planets computed for the epoch 1850.0 G.M.T.,” Trans. Am.
to the relativistic force is Phil. Soc. 22, 37–189 共1912兲, and references therein.
2

冕
Herbert Goldstein, Charles Poole, and John Safko, Classical Mechanics
␶ 共Addison–Wesley, San Francisco, CA, 2002兲, 3rd ed., p. 538.
␦␥gr = ␻grdt 3
Jerry B. Marion and Stephen T. Thornton, Classical Dynamics of Par-
0 ticles and Systems 共Harcourt Brace, Orlando, FL, 1995兲, 4th ed., pp. 318–

冕 2␲ 321.
3GM 4
Michael P. Price and William F. Rush, “Nonrelativistic contribution to
= 共1 + e cos ␥兲2 cos ␥ d␥ Mercury’s perihelion precession,” Am. J. Phys. 47, 531–534 共1979兲.
ec a共1 − e2兲
2
0 5
B. Davies, “Elementary theory of perihelion precession,” Am. J. Phys.
6␲GM 51, 909–911 共1983兲.
6
= Reference 2, pp. 102–106. For more information about the history of the
c2a共1 − e2兲 Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector, see Herbert Goldstein, Am. J. Phys. 43,
737–738 共1975兲; 44, 1123–1124 共1976兲.
= 5.0191 ⫻ 10−7 rad/revolution 7
See EPAPS Document No. E-AJPIAS-73-011508 for details of the cal-
= 42.98 seconds of arc/century. 共5.3兲 culations. A direct link to this document may be found in the online
article’s HTML reference section. The document may also be reached via
As noted in Sec. I, this 43 seconds of arc/century was the the EPAPS homepage 具http://www.aip.org/pubservs/epaps.html典 or from
missing contribution that completed the explanation of the ftp.aip.org in the directory/epaps. See the EPAPS homepage for more
information.
precession of the perihelion of Mercury’s orbit. 8
Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac edited by P. Ken-
neth Seidelmann 共University Science Books, Mill Valley, CA, 1992兲, p.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 697, Table 15.2.20.
9
See Ref. 8, p. 316, Table 5.8.1.
10
I would like to thank H. V. Bohm, H. H. Denman, and G. The sidereal period of Mercury is 0.240 844 45 years 共Ref. 8, p. 704,
B. Beard for their helpful comments and suggestions. Table 15.6兲, which gives a conversion factor from radians per revolution
to seconds of arc per century of 8.564 233⫻ 107.
11
Reference 1, p. 179. The quantity in Ref. 1 that corresponds to ␦␥ is
APPENDIX: CALCULATION OF ⍀, i, AND ␻
d␹ / dt00.
12
When measured from the vernal equinox of earth’s orbit along the ecliptic
In astronomical publications the longitude of the ascend- to the ascending node, ⍀ is called the longitude of the ascending node.
ing node, ⍀, the inclination, i, and the argument of the peri- 13
When measured from the ecliptic to the perihelion, ␻ is called the argu-
helion, ␻, are given with respect to the ecliptic, and ⍀ is ment of the perihelion. The longitude of the perihelion, which is defined
measured from the vernal equinox. In Eq. 共4.14兲 these quan- as ␻¯ = ⍀ + ␻ is usually given in astronomical tables instead of ␻.
14
tities refer to the plane of the perturbing planet’s orbit, and ⍀ 15
Reference 2, pp. 150–154.
Reference 1, p. 41.
is the angle measured from the perihelion of the perturbing 16
The normal force, F␩, gives rise to changes in i and ⍀.
planet to the ascending node. In Fig. 4 the orbital parameters 17
Reference 2, p. 153. Their 共␾ , ␪ , ␺兲 correspond to the angles 共⍀ , i , ␻兲
with respect to the ecliptic are shown with subscripts. The used here.
18
subscripts M and P refer to Mercury and the perturbing Reference 3, p. 318.

734 Am. J. Phys., Vol. 73, No. 8, August 2005 M. G. Stewart 734

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