Soil Mechanics Settlement Calculation page 2

sub-layer 1

sub-layer 2

….

sub-layer n

Fig. 2 Soil profile divided into a number of sub-layers

The settlement of the soil layer is calculated by calculating the settlement of the individual
sub-layers and adding them. In doing this it is assumed that the voids ratio and the effective
stress are constant throughout the sub-layer and equal to their values at the centre of the sub-
layer.
thus
∆ek hk
For sub − layer k ∆hk =
1 + ei
so that
n n ∆ek hk
Total Setttlement ∆htot = ∑ ∆hk = ∑1
1
1 + ei

5.2 Example

A soil deposit, shown in Fig. 3 consists of 5 m of gravel overlaying 8 m of clay. Initially the
water table is 2 m below the surface of the gravel. Calculate the settlement if the water table
rises to the surface of the gravel slowly over a period of time and surface loading induces an
increase of total stress of 100 kN/m² at the point A and 60 kN/m² at the point B. The
preconsolidation stress at A is 120 kN/m², and the deposit is normally consolidated at B. The
3 3
gravel has a saturated bulk unit weight of 22 kN/m and a dry unit weight of 18 kN/m and is
relatively incompressible when compared to the clay. The voids ratio of the clay is 0.8 and the
skeletal particles have a specific gravity of 2.7. The compression index of the clay is 0.2 and
the recompression index is 0.05.

In solving this problem it will be assumed that the gravel is far less compressible than the clay
and thus that the settlement of the gravel can be neglected. The settlement of the clay layer
will be calculated by dividing it into two sub-layers
Soil Mechanics Settlement Calculation page 3

Water table
2m
Gravel 5m

A 4m
Clay
B 4m

Fig. 3 Layered soil deposit

In order to commence the calculations it is first necessary to calculate the unit weight of the
clay, this is shown schematically in Fig. 4.

Voids
Vv= e*Vs =0.8 m3 Wv = γ w * Vv
= 8. kN

Ws = Vs * γ w * G s
Skeletal Vs=1 m3
= 27. kN
material

Distribution of Volume Distribution of Weight

Fig. 4 Determination of Saturated Unit Weight

Ww + Ws 8 + 27
γ sat = = = 19.44 kN / m3
Vv + Vs 0.8 + 1

• Initial State at A: AI

Total stress σzz = 2 ×18 + 3 × 22 + 2 × 19.44 = 140.89 kN/m²

Pore water pressure uw = 5 × 10 kN/m² = 50 kN/m²
Effective stress σ′zz = σzz - uw = 140.89 - 50 = 90.89 kN/m²

Notice the initial effective stress is less than σ′pc =120 kN/m² thus the clay is initially over-
consolidated.

• Final State at A: AF

Total stress σzz = 100 + 2 × 22 + 3 × 22 + 2 × 19.44 = 248.89 kN/m²

Pore water pressure uw = 7 × 10 kN/m² = 70 kN/m²
Soil Mechanics Settlement Calculation page 4

Effective stress σ′zz = σzz - uw = 248.89 - 70 = 178.89 kN/m²

e
Slope : -Cc

AI
Slope : -Cr AF

91 σ'pc=120 179 σ' (Log scale)

Fig. 5 Initial and final states AI and AF

Notice that the final effective stress exceeds the initial preconsolidation stress and thus the
clay moves from being initially over-consolidated to finally normally consolidated.

• Settlement of the first sub-layer

The soil in the first sub layer moves from being over-consolidated to normally consolidated
and so the calculation of the change in voids ratio must be made in two stages.

Stage 1 Soil over-consolidated (σ′ < σ′pc (initial))

∆e1 = - Cr × log10(σ′pc (initial)/σ′I)

Stage 2 Soil normally consolidated (σ′ = σ′pc)

∆e2 = - Cc × log10(σ′F/σ′pc (initial))

now

hk ∆ ek
∆h = ∑ 1 + ei
4 1 2 0 .0 0 1 7 8 .8 9
= − [ 0 .0 5 × lo g 1 0 ( ) + 0 .2 × lo g 1 0 ( )]
1 .8 9 0 .8 9 1 2 0 .0 0
= − 0 .0 9 m

• Initial State at B

Total stress σzz = 2×18 + 3 × 22 + 6 ×19.44 = 218.67 kN/m²

Pore water pressure uw = 9 × 10 kN/m² = 90 kN/m²
Effective stress σ′zz = σzz - uw = 218.67 - 90 = 128.67 kN/m²

• Final State at B

Total stress σzz = 60 + 2 × 22 + 3 × 22 + 6 × 19.44 = 286.67 kN/m²

Soil Mechanics Settlement Calculation page 5

Pore water pressure uw = 11 × 10 kN/m² = 110 kN/m²

Effective stress σ′zz = σzz - uw = 286.67 - 110 = 176.67 kN/m²

• Settlement of the second sub-layer

The soil in the second is normally consolidated and thus:

∆e2 = - Cc × log10(σ′F/σ′I)

now
hk ∆ek
∆S = ∑ 1+ e
i

4 176.67
= − 0.2 × log10 ( ).
1.8 128.67
= 0.061 m

• Total Settlement

Total settlement = 0.09 + 0.061 m

= 0.151m

5.3 Exercise
1. The construction of a new embankment induces a uniform load of 18 kN/m² on the top of
a 12 m thick layer of saturated clay, whose characteristics are: bulk unit weight γ= 16
kN/m³ ; voids ratio eo = 1,8 ; compression index Cc = 0,7.
The water table is at the initial ground level (top of the clay layer).
Assuming that the clay is normally consolidated, estimate the settlement of the clay after
realization of the embankment. Compare results obtained by dividing the clay layer in 1, 2
or 4 sub-layers.

5.4 Settlement under Uniformly Loaded Areas

The calculation of settlement depends upon knowledge of the initial and final effective stress
within each sub layer of the deposit. The initial effective stress state can be determined, from
knowledge of the bulk unit weight and the position of the water table. The increase in total
stress can be estimated using the theory of elasticity. (Note the soil is in general not really
elastic however in the working stress range this assumption provides reasonably accurate
estimates of the stress increases due to the applied loads)

5.4.1 Stresses under Circular Uniform Loading

A circular area of diameter 5 m, subjected to an average applied stress of 100 kN/m² is shown
in Fig.6.
Soil Mechanics Settlement Calculation page 6

5m

p=100 kN/m²

2m
z

A B
5m

Fig. 6 Circular loaded area on a deep elastic layer

(a) Calculate the increase in vertical stress at point A

There is a simple analytic expression for points on the centre line under a circular load:

a2
∆σ zz = p(1 − [1 + 2
] −3 / 2 )
z

where

p = the surface stress = 100 kN/m²

a = the radius of the loaded area = 2.5m
z = the depth of interest = 2m

∆σ zz = 100 × (1 − [1 + (1.25)2 ]−3/ 2 ) = 75.6 kN / m ²

(b) calculate the increase in vertical stress at point B

In this case there is no simple analytic expression and the solution must be found by using the
influence charts given in Figure 7. Note that this chart can also be used for points on the
centre line for which r = 0.
Now z/a = 2/2.5 = 0.8
r/a = 5/2.5 = 2
using the chart ∆σzz/p = 0.03 and so ∆σzz = 3.0 kN/m²
Soil Mechanics Settlement Calculation page 7

σ zz
Iσ =
p
10-3 10-2 10-1 1
0 1.00
1.25
1.5 0.0
2 2.0
5 2.5
6 3
4
7 4
z/a
6 8 Values on curves
are values of r/a
9
8
10

10

Fig. 7 Influence factors for a uniformly loaded circular area of radius a

Fig.7 Influence Factors for a Uniformly Loaded Circular Area of radius a

5.4.2 Stresses under Rectangular Uniform Loading

L
Plan
B
(top view)
Uniformly distributed
surface stress p

z
Point immediately
Elevation
beneath one of the
(side view)
rectangle’s corners

Fig. 8 Rectangular uniform loading on a deep elastic layer

Many loads which occur in practice are applied to foundations that may be considered to
consist of a number of rectangular regions. It is thus of interest to be able to calculate the
vertical stress increases due to a uniformly distributed load acting on a rectangular loaded
area. This is shown schematically in Fig. 8.
The vertical stress change at a distance z below one of the corners of the rectangular load
may be determined from a chart which is given in the data sheets and is reproduced in Fig. 9
Soil Mechanics Settlement Calculation page 8

8
0.25 3.0 2.0

1.0
0.20
0.8
Note m & n are
0.15 interchangeable 0.6
σ zz
Iσ =
q 0.4
0.10

0.05 0.2

0.00 m=B/z=0.0
0.01 0.1 1 10
(n=L/z)
Fig. 9 Influence factors for uniformly loaded rectangular areas
Fig. 9 Influence factors for a uniformly loaded rectangular area

This chart can be used to determine the value of stress increase at any point in an elastic
layer, the method for doing this is illustrated below.

Calculation of Stress below an interior point of the loaded area

This situation is shown schematically in Fig.10. The stress change is required at a depth z
below point O.

The first step in using the influence charts is to break the rectangular loading up into a number
of components each having a corner at O, this is relatively simple as can be seen in Fig.(10)

It thus follows that at the point of interest, the stress increase ∆σzz(ABCD) is given by:

∆σ zz (ABCD) = ∆σ zz (OXAY ) + ∆σ zz (OYBZ ) + ∆σ zz (0ZCT ) + ∆σ zz (OTDX )

Soil Mechanics Settlement Calculation page 9

D T C

X O Z Plan
(top view)

A Y B

Elevation
(side view)
z

O Point of interest
Fig. 10 stress increase at a point below a loaded rectangular region

Example

Suppose we wish to evaluate the increase in stress at a depth of 2m below the point O due to
the rectangular loading shown in shown in Fig. 11, when the applied stress over ABCD is 100
kN/m².

D T C
2m
X O Z

3m

A Y B
3m 2m

Fig. 11 Dimensions of rectangular loaded area

For rectangular loading OZCT D T C

2m
X O Z
m = L/z =1
3m
n = B/z =1
thus A Y B

Iσ = 0.175 3m 2m
and so
∆σzz = p Iσ = 100 × 0.175 = 17.5 kN/m² (9a)
D T C
For rectangular loading OTDX
2m
X O Z
m = L/z = 1.5
3m
n = B/z = 1
thus A Y B

Iσ = 0.194 3m 2m
Soil Mechanics Settlement Calculation page 10

and so
∆σzz = p Iσ = 100 × 0.195 = 19.4 kN/m²
D T C
For rectangular loading OXAY 2m
X O Z

m = L/z = 1.5 3m
n = B/z = 1.5 A Y B
thus
3m 2m
Iσ = 0.216
and so
∆σzz = p Iσ = 100 × 0.216 = 21.6 kN/m²

For rectangular loading OYBZ D T C

2m
X O Z
m = L/z = 1.5
3m
n = B/z = 1
thus A Y B

Iσ = 0.194 3m 2m
and so
∆σzz = p Iσ = 100 × 0.194 = 19.4 kN/m²

Thus the increase in stress ∆σzz = 17.5 + 19.4 + 21.6 + 19.4 = 78.9 kN/m²

This must of course be added to the existing stress state prior to loading to obtain the actual
stress σzz.

Calculation of stress below a point outside the loaded area

The stress increase at a point vertically below a point O which is outside the loaded area can
also be found using the influence charts shown in Fig. 9.
X Z O

D C T

A B Y
Fig. 12 Rectangular loaded area ABCD and point of interest O

The method is illustrated in Fig. 13.

This is achieved by considering the stress q acting on ABCD to consist of the following:

1. A stress +q acting over OXAY

2. A stress +q acting over OZCT

3. A stress -q acting over OZBY

Soil Mechanics Settlement Calculation page 11

4. A stress -q acting over OXDT

X Z O X Z O
(q) (q) (0) (q)
D C T D C T

(q) (q) (0) (0)

A B Y A B Y
Stage 1 Stage 2

X Z O X Z O
(0) (-q) (-q) (-q)
D C T D C T

(0) (-q) (0) (0)

A B Y A B Y

Stage 3 Stage 4
Fig. 13 Decomposition of loading over a rectangular area (for stress at external point)

It thus follows that at the point O, the stress increase ∆σzz(ABCD) is given by:

∆σ zz (ABCD) = ∆σ zz (OXAY ) − ∆σ zz (OYBZ ) + ∆σ zz (OZCT ) − ∆σ zz (OTDX )

and thus

σ zz ( ABCD) = q[I σ (OXAY) − I σ (OYBZ) + I σ (0 ZCT ) − I σ (OTDX )]

Soil Mechanics Settlement Calculation page 12

Example
1m

X Z O

1m
D C T

2m

A B Y
10m

Fig. 14 Dimensions of rectangular loaded area

Suppose the rectangular area ABCD, shown in Fig. 14 is subjected to a surface stress of 100
kN/m² AND it is required to calculate the vertical stress increase at a point 1.5m below the
point O.

For rectangular loading OZCT

m = L/z = 0.67
n = B/z = 0.67
thus
Iσ = 0.121
and so
∆σzz = p Iσ = + 100 × 0.121 = +12.1 kN/m²

For rectangular loading OXDT

m = L/z = 7.67
n = B/z = 0.67
thus
Iσ = 0.167
and so
∆σzz = p Iσ = -100 × 0.167 = -16.7 kN/m²

For rectangular loading OXAY

m = L/z = 7.67
n = B/z = 2.00
thus
Iσ = 0.240
and so
∆σzz = p Iσ = + 100 × 0.240 = + 24.0kN/m²
Soil Mechanics Settlement Calculation page 13

For rectangular loading OZBY

m = L/z = 2
n = B/z = 0.67
thus
Iσ = 0.164
and so
∆σzz = p Iσ = -100 × 0.164 = -16.4 kN/m²

Thus the increase in stress ∆σzz = 12.1 - 16.7 + 24.0 + -16.4=3.0 kN/m²

5.4.3 Exercises

1. Using the graphed relation between e and σ′ from Chapter 4 - Exercise 1, calculate the
maximum differential settlement of a flexible rectangular foundation with dimensions 3 m x
6 m located on the surface of a 4.5 m layer of the clay. The stress on the foundation is 500
kPa. The clay overlies an incompressible stratum. For the purpose of calculation, divide
the clay into three layers, each 1.5 m thick. (Use influence curves for stresses beneath
corners of rectangles). The water table is 1 m below the surface and the saturated unit
weight of the soil is 17 kN/m3. It may be assumed that the clay remains fully saturated
above the water table.

2. A soil deposit consists of 2 m of gravel overlaying an 8 m thick deposit of an over-

consolidated clay overlaying rigid permeable sandstone. The gravel has a unit weight of 22
kN/m3 when saturated and a unit weight of 18 kN/m3 when dry. The properties of the clay
are uniform throughout the layer and indicated below:

Void Ratio e 1.2

Specific Gravity Gs 2.7
Pre-consolidation pressure σ′pc 70 kPa
Compression Index Cc 0.1
Recompression Index Cr 0.02
Consolidation coefficient cv 0.5 m2/year

Calculate the settlement under the centre of a square tank of side 5 m exerting an average
pressure of 175 kPa constructed on the ground surface after a long period of time.
Assume that initially the water table is at the surface of the gravel but that after construction
it is lowered to the surface of the clay. The clay should be divided into two equal sub-
layers.

5.4.4 Stresses under loads of arbitrary shape

Newmark’s chart provides a graphical method for calculating the stress increase due to a
uniformly loaded region, of arbitrary shape resting on a deep homogeneous isotropic elastic
region.

Newmark’s chart is given as separate .doc file on the Moodle website and is reproduced in
part in Fig 15. The procedure for its use is outlined below
1. The scale for this procedure is determined by the depth z at which the stress is to be
evaluated, thus z is equal to the distance OQ shown on the chart.
Soil Mechanics Settlement Calculation page 14

2. Draw the loaded area to scale so that the point of interest (more correctly its vertical
projection on the surface) is at the center of the concentric circles, the orientation of the
drawing does not matter

3. Count the number of squares (N) within the loaded area, if more than half the square is in,
count the square, otherwise neglect it.

4. The vertical stress increase ∆σzz = N × [scale factor(=0.001)] × [surface stress (p)]

The procedure is most easily illustrated by an example.

Example

Suppose a uniformly loaded circle of radius 2 m carries a uniform stress of 100 kN/m². It is
required to calculate the vertical stress at a depth of 4 m below the edge of the circle.

The loaded area is drawn on Newmark’s chart to the appropriate scale (i.e. the length OQ is
set to represent 4 m) as shown in Fig. 15.

It is found that the number of squares, N = 194 and so the stress increase is found to be

∆σzz = 194 × 0.001 × 100 = 19.4 kN/m²

This result can also be checked using the influence charts for circular loading and it is then
found that:

z/a = 2, r/a = 1. ∆σzz /p = 0.2 and so ∆σzz = 20 kN/m²

Soil Mechanics Settlement Calculation page 15

INFLUENCE
VALUE = 0.001

4m
O Q

Loaded
Area

Fig 15 Newmark’s Chart

5.4.5 Exercise
Use the Newmark's influence chart given as separate .doc file on the Moodle website to find
the vertical stresses caused by a flexible hexagonal shaped foundation with all sides 3 m long
carrying a uniform load of 500 kN/m², at depths of 3 and 4.5 m beneath a corner of the
foundation.
Note : To be able to draw the complete loading area, it may be necessary to move the center
of the chart to the left.