I.

ORIGIN AND STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

Objectives:
At the end of the lesson the students can:
1. Explain the different theories of the origin of the universe.
2. Differentiate the hypotheses on the origin of solar system.
3. Depict how the solar system was formed.

LESSON 1. Theories on the origin of the universe

1. THE BIG BANG THEORY is the dominant scientific theory about the
origin of the universe. According to the big bang, the universe was
created sometime between 10 billion and 20 billion years ago from a
cosmic explosion that hurled matter and in all directions.

Big Bang galaxies forming the present

Galaxies dispersing

These diagrams illustrate the Big Bang theory of the formation of the universe. The density of
the material that made up the universe shortly after the Big Bang was immense. One cubic
centimeter of the material is estimated to have had a mass of one billion kilograms.

1
 After Big Bang Theory
 The universe has grown from the size of an atom to larger than the
size a grapefruit
 This basically says that like snowflakes freezing, energy forms
matter into clumps that today we call protons, neutrons and
electrons. These parts later form into atoms
 ATOMS form (specifically Hydrogen and its isotopes with a small
amount of Helium.)The early Universe was about 75% Hydrogen
and 25% Helium


200 to 400 million years after Bing Bang

• 1st stars and galaxies form
• 4.6 billion years ago. Our Solar system forms

2. INTELLEGENT DESIGN: The belief that humans, life, the Earth, and the
universe were created by a Supreme Being or Deity's supernatural intervention.
The intervention may be seen either as an act of creation from nothing or the
emergence of order from pre-existing chaos.
3. THE STEADY STATE THEORY asserts that although the universe is
expanding, it nevertheless does not change its look over time. For this to work,
new matter must be formed to keep the density equal over time. This

2
explanation has been unconvincing to most cosmologists as the cosmic
microwave background is very smooth, making it difficult to explain how it arose
from point sources, and the microwave background shows no evidence of
features such as polarization which are normally associated with scattering.
This theory States that our universe looks the same from every spot in it and at
every time. The term steady state means a stable condition that does not
change overtime or in which change in one direction is continually balanced by
change in another. Steady state theory of the universe also referred to as the
infinite theory or continuous creation.
4. OSCILLATION THEORY this is nothing more than a recurring Big Bang
every 80 billion years. Each explosion begins a new cycle that ends with
another explosion. Oscillating means forward and backwards motion or
expansion and contraction of the universe.
Hypothesis of the Origin of the Solar System
1. Encounter Hypothesis proposed in 1749 by Georges Louis Leclerc,
Comte de Buffon
• One of the earliest theories for the formation of the planets was
called the encounter hypothesis. In this scenario, a rogue star
passes close to the Sun about 5 billion years ago. Material, in the
form of hot gas, is tidally stripped from the Sun and the rogue
star. This material fragments into smaller lumps which form the
planets.
• This hypothesis has the advantage of explaining why the planets
all revolve in the same direction (from the encounter geometry)
and also provides an explanation for why the inner worlds are
denser than the outer worlds.

3
2. NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS: proposed Kant and Laplace.

• A second theory is called the nebular hypothesis. In this theory,

the whole Solar System starts as a large cloud of gas that
contracts under self-gravity. Conservation of angular
momentum requires that a rotating disk form with a large
concentration at the center (the proto-Sun). Within the disk,
planets form.

4
 3. PROTOPLANET HYPOTHESIS

The current working model for the formation of the Solar System is called
the protoplanet hypothesis. It incorporates many of the components of the
nebular hypothesis, but adds some new aspects from modern knowledge of
fluids and states of matter.

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6
Inner Solar System

 Note that as the planets began to form they grew in mass by accreting
planetesimal. Since force of gravity is proportional to mass, the largest
planetesimal are accreted first. The early proto-planets are able to
sweep the early Solar System clean of large bodies.
 Note that as the planets began to form they grew in mass by accreting
planetesimal. Since force of gravity is proportional to mass, the largest
planetesimal are accreted first. The early proto-planets are able to
sweep the early Solar System clean of large bodies.

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Outer Solar System

4. Modern solar system origin theory

 The current Condensation Theory of Solar System Formation

was the brain child of French philosopher Rene Descartes, who
lived in the 17th century. In the 18th century, Pierre Simon de
Laplace revised this theory.
 Both of these early astronomers based their theories on a disk-
shaped solar nebula that formed when a large cloud of interstellar
gas contracted and flattened under the influence of its own
gravity.

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  According to the Condensation Theory, the formation of planets
in our solar system involved three steps, with the differentiation
between planet and asteroid formation being a part of the second
step.
Step 1: Planetesimals form by “sticky collision” accretion
During this phase of formation, dust grains formed condensation nuclei
around which matter began to accumulate. This vital step accelerated the
critical process of forming the first small clumps of matter, which then start to
collide with each other at low velocities. The particles eventually stick together
through electrostatic forces, forming larger aggregates of similar types of
constituents
Step 2: Planetary embryos/cores form by gravitational accretion the loose,
granular structure of planetesimals formed in Step 1 made it possible for
them to continue to form more massive bodies through collisional coagulation
of “nebular dustballs” and prevent these small objects from bouncing off by
absorbing the object’s energy during collision.
Step 3: Planetary development when the early asteroids were fully formed,
the gas and dust continued to form planetesimals. The system of embryos in
the inner solar system becomes unstable and the embryos started to collide
with each other, forming the terrestrial planets over the largest accumulations
of planetesimals became the planets and their principal moons period of 107
to 108 years.
In the third phase of planetary development, the four largest protoplanets swept
up large amounts of gas from the solar nebula to form what would ultimately
become the Jovian planets (gas giants). The smaller, inner protoplanets never
reached that point, and as a result their masses remained relatively low often
called the modern theory, the Condensation Theory of Solar System Formation
built on the oldest of evolutionary models, the Nebular Contraction Theory.

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 ACTIVITY 1
Directions: Stars follow a very distinct process when they form, and so do solar
system and planets. In this activity you’ll look at six images that illustrate the
process of solar system and planet formation. Using intuition and logic,
determine the correct order of the images. In your activity notebook, indicate
the correct order for the images to show the progression in the formation of our
solar system. Explain each image in sentence.

ACTIVITY 2
Group Activity: Form a group with 8 members and do the task given:
20 minutes is given for the preparation of your timeline and graphic organizer.
Each group will consume maximum of 10 minutes for the presentation of your
output.

1. Create a timeline on the historical development of the origin of the

universe. (S11ES- 1a)
2. Compare the hypothesis of the origin of the solar system and present it
in graphic organizer form (S11ES-Ia-2)

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Lesson 1. Quiz

Explain the following briefly (10 points each)

1. What is the Universe, and what is the current view of how it came into
being?
2. How did our Solar System form? What is the most likely hypothesis?
3. What are the basic forces that underpin the Universe, and what do these
forces do?

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LESSON 2. EARTH SYSTEMS

Learning Objectives:

At the end of the lesson the students can:

1. Discuss why earth is habitable planet
2. Explain the characteristics of planet earth
3. Identify processes in earth systems
4. Describe connection between earth systems
5. Value the interrelationship of the subsystems of the earth
6. Illustrate the energy flow within the subsystem

The planet Earth provides fixed of nutrients which are continually

recycled to support life. This process is governed by the Law of Conservation
of matter and Energy. The law of conservation of matter and energy states that
matter is neither created nor destroyed but conserved.

The Earth’s life support system is made up of four interconnected

spheres: the lithosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere and atmosphere.
Energy
The Earth system is powered by energy from two major sources: the Sun
and the planet's internal heat.
.
The four subsystems of the Earth

Fig. 1 four spheres of the Earth

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 Lithosphere or Geosphere

The geosphere is the physical Earth – the rock, magma and soil. It is the
entire surface of the earth from the top of the highest mountain to the bottom
of the deepest trench. The geosphere is the solid, rocky crust covering the
entire planet. The lithosphere serves as a source of minerals and fuels such
as coal, petroleum and natural gas.

Fig. 2 Layer of the Earth

Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere is all the water held on the Earth – water molecules in the
air, icebergs and glaciers, groundwater, lakes, rivers and oceans. Water
regulates Earth’s climate necessary for the survival of organisms living in
the planet.
Atmosphere
The atmosphere is the layer of gases that surround the Earth. In
comparison to the size of the Earth, it is a thin layer, composed primarily
of (78%) nitrogen, and (21%) oxygen, and (1%) carbon dioxide and other
gases. The atmosphere is important for a number of reasons – it protects

13
 the Earth from incoming solar rays, it circulates the gases that plants and
animals need to survive and it is responsible for our weather.

Biosphere

The biosphere consists of all the living organisms on Earth.

Their habitats extend from the upper areas of the atmosphere, too deep in
the ground, to the bottom of the ocean – any place that life can exist.

How do the 4 spheres interact?

We know weather happens in the atmosphere, but without the

hydrosphere, there would be no water to evaporate and so no cloud or rain
could form. Without oceans and land (hydrosphere and geosphere), there
would be no wind (as winds are produced by differences of
air temperature between the land and oceans).
Without the atmosphere (giving us air to breathe and protection from
incoming solar rays), there would be no life on Earth. It would be as barren as
the moon. Without water, life as we know it would cease to exist. Last of all,
without the geosphere, there would be no world to live on!

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Earth: Matter does not come and go

Energy and matter are cycled between these four spheres.

The major elements which make up all living organisms are carbon,
nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur. These building blocks are acquired by
organisms is usable chemical forms as nutrients in a process called nutrient
cycle.
Matter moves in numerous cycles from one part of an ecosystem to
another that is, one organism to another organism and from living organisms
to the abiotic environment and back again. These cycles of matter is called
biogeochemical cycles.

Biogeochemical Cycle
Carbon Cycle
Carbon is pivotal molecule in the carbon cycle. Carbon must be available to
organisms because proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, carbohydrates, and other
molecules are essential to life contain carbon.
Carbon is present in atmosphere as gas carbon dioxide (CO2) which makes
up approximately 0.04% of atmosphere.

Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen is important for all organisms because it is essential part of
proteins, nucleic acids, and chlorophyll. About 78% of nitrogen found on

15
Earth’s atmosphere. However, molecular nitrogen is so stable and not readily
combine with other elements. Therefore nitrogen atoms needs chemical
reactions to break up and combine with other elements such as oxygen.
5 steps of nitrogen cycles
1. Nitrogen fixation – involves conversion of gaseous nitrogen ( N2) to
ammonia ( NH3). This process is called nitrogen fixation because
nitrogen is fixed into a form that organisms use. Combustion, volcanic
action, lightning discharges, and industrial processes also fix nitrogen
as nitrate. Each of these supplies enough energy to break molecular
nitrogen. Nitrogen fixing bacteria, including cyanobacteria carry on
biological nitrogen fixation in soil and aquatic environments. Nitrogen-
fixing bacteria employ an enzyme called nitrogenase to break up
molecular nitrogen and combine the resulting nitrogen atoms with
hydrogen.
2. Nitrification- the conversion of ammonia (NH3) or ammonium (NH4
formed when water reacts with ammonia) to nitrate (NO3). Soil bacteria
are responsible for the two- step process of nitrification. First the soil
bacteria convert ammonia to nitrite (NO2). Then the soil bacterium
Nitrobacteria oxidizes nitrite to nitrate. The process of nitrification
furnishes these bacteria called nitrifying bacteria with energy.
3. Assimilation – root of plant absorb ammonia, and nitrate that nitrogen
fixation and nitrification formed and incorporate the nitrogen into nucleic
acids, proteins and chlorophyll. When animals consume plant tissues,
they assimilate nitrogen by taking in plant nitrogen compounds and
converting them to animal nitrogen compounds.
4. Ammonification- begins when organisms produce nitrogen containing
wastes such as urea in urine, uric acid in the wastes of birds. These
substances along with the nitrogen compounds in dead organisms are
decomposed releasing the nitrogen into abiotic environment as
ammonia.
5. Denitrification – which is the reduction of nitrate to gaseous nitrogen.
Denitrifying bacteria reverse the action of nitrogen-fixing and nitrifying
bacteria by returning nitrogen to atmosphere as nitrogen gas.
Denitrifying bacteria are anaerobic and therefore live and grow best
where there is little or no oxygen.
Phosphorus Cycle
• In the phosphorus Cycle, phosphorus does not exist in gaseous state
and thus, it does not enter the atmosphere, cycles from the land to
sediments in the ocean and back to the land.

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 Steps in Phosphorus Cycle
1. As water runs over rock containing phosphorus, it gradually erodes the
surface and carries off inorganic phosphate.
2. The erosion of phosphorus rocks releases phosphate into the soil where
it is taken up by roots in the form of inorganic phosphates. Phosphate
released by decomposers becomes part of the pool of inorganic
phosphate in the soil that plants reuse. Therefore, like carbon, nitrogen,
phosphorus moves through the food web as one organism consumes
another.
3. Phosphorus cycle through aquatic ecosystems in much the same way
through terrestrial ecosystems. Dissolves phosphate enters aquatic
ecosystem through absorption by algae and aquatic plants which larger
organisms consume.
4. Phosphates can be lost for varying time periods from biological cycles.
Streams and rivers carry some phosphate to the ocean where it is
deposited on the sea floor and remains for millions of years.
5. The geologic process of uplift may someday exposed these sea floor
sediments as new land surface from which phosphate will be once again
eroded.
6. Phosphate deposits including guano are also mined for agricultural use
in phosphate fertilizers.

Sulfur cycle
1. Hydrogen sulfide gas (H4S) is released into the atmosphere by volcanic
eruptions, hot springs, and anaerobic decay of sulfur containing
biological material in swamps, bogs.
2. Certain marine algae produce dimethyl sulphide, a volatile compound
that inters the atmosphere tiny droplets.
3. The winds carry droplets of sulfuric acid and particles of Sulphur salts,
which then fall to the earth in acid deposition
4. Animals get Sulphur by eating plants, and all living things release
Sulphur compounds when they decay.
5. Decomposition releases Sulphate salts ( SO3) which can be taken and
formed as gaseous hydrogen sulfide.

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 6. When decay occur in an oxygen, free involvement of anaerobic bacteria
breakdown hydrogen Sulphide and release sulfur gas.

Activity 3
A. Choose a partner, and brainstorm on the scene below. Describe the
interactions in this scene, tracing the movement of materials or energy
through all four Earth’s spheres.

B. Discuss how matter is conserved.

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I- ASSESSMENT

A. Read properly the questions and choose the correct answer. Write the
letter of your choice on your paper.

1. The hydrologic cycle is a familiar example of a subsystem of the

Earth system.
A. True
B. False

2. Earth processes are powered by energy from two sources, the

__________ and Earth's interior.

A. Moon
B. Sun
C. atmosphere
D. oceans
E. none of the above

3. Loosely defined, a __________ can be any size group of

interacting parts that form a complex whole.

A. sink
B. system
C. stage
D. subset
E. series
4. The Earth system is characterized by processes that vary on
spatial scales from fractions of millimetres to thousands of
kilometres and time scales from milliseconds to billions of years.
A. True
B. False
5. Earth consists of four major spheres: hydrosphere, atmosphere,
solid Earth, and ecosphere.

A. True
B. False

6. Earth system science attempts to integrate the knowledge of

several academic fields.

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 A. True
B. False

7. Most natural systems are closed systems.

A. True
B. False

8. Negative feedback mechanisms work to maintain the system as

it is, in other words, to maintain the status quo.
A. True
B. False
9. A common boundary where different parts of a system or
subsystem come in contact or overlap and interact is called a/an
A. loop
B. subsystem
C. sphere
D. interface
E. none of the above

10. Since carbon dioxide is one of the atmosphere's greenhouse

gases, its removal has a negative impact on global warming.

A. True
B. False

B. Explain the following briefly. 5 points each

1. Explain the current advancements/information on the solar system
2. What are the characteristics of planet earth that other planet don’t have.
3. Explain that the Earth consists of four subsystems, across whose
boundaries how matter and energy flow.
4. Show the advantages of people who has understanding of the earth
Systems.

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II. EARTH MATERIALS AND RESOURCES
Lesson 1. MINERALS AND ROCKS
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
 Demonstrate understanding physical and chemical properties of
minerals and will be able to identify certain minerals
 Identify some rock-forming minerals; and
 Classify minerals based on chemical affinity.
 Identify the rocks according to 3 different types.

What are Minerals?

Minerals are the fundamental components of rocks. They are naturally
occurring inorganic substances with a specific chemical composition and an
orderly repeating atomic structure that defines a crystal structure.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

1. Silicates Minerals
• Silicates are the most commonly found groups of minerals in the Earth’s crust.
They have Silicon and oxygen as their primary components. Most silicate
minerals are formed by the cooling of molten rocks.
• Oxides
- Minerals that contain oxygen and one more other elements, which are usually
metals.
- b. Sulfates and sulfides
- Minerals contain element Sulfur.
3. Native elements
Halides
 Are relatively small group of minerals, which one of the halogens as
anions.
 Carbonates
 Are minerals which have CO3 as anion. They are formed when a single
carbonate ion reacts with a metal ion complementing polarity.
 Phosphates
 Are minerals that have PO4 as anions. The typical phosphate is vitreous
to dull, often strongly colored, above average in density and average in
hardness.

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 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

. Color

- Small amounts of different elements can give the same mineral

different colors.

2. Streak

- Streak is the color of a mineral in its powdered form.

3. Luster

- Luster is used to describe how light is reflected from the surface of a

mineral.

4. Crystal Form

- Crystal form is the visible expression of a mineral’s internal

arrangement of atoms.

5. Hardness
- - Hardness is a measure of the resistance of a mineral to being
scratched.

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 6. Cleavage
- - Cleavage is the tendency of a mineral to cleave, or break, along flat,
even surfaces.
-
7. Fracture
- Minerals that do not show cleavage when broken are said to fracture.
- Fracture is the uneven breakage of a mineral.

8. Density
- Density is a property of all matter that is the ratio of an object’s mass
to its volume.

Commercially important minerals

There are some minerals that are commercially important. They

may not Abundant as others but are important in industries
.
• Ore minerals are minerals from metals are usually recovered. Few of
the elements are recovered as single element such as native gold and
native silver.
• Industrial minerals. Are not considered ore because they are mined
Purposely for extraction of minerals.
Ex. Gympsum for plaster, phosphorus for phosphate fertilizers,
limestone As raw materials of cement and native sulfur to be used for
manufacture of sulfuric acid, insecticides, rubber.

Activity 1. A Paste with a Taste

Activity Source:
Adapted from Women in Mining Education Foundation Activities
Purpose
To allow students to produce a "marketable" product made from minerals that
are used by most people every day. Both the abrasive and cleansing
compounds found in toothpaste, calcium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate,
are minerals.

23
Materials
 Calcium carbonate (finely powdered unflavored TUMS will work)
 Sodium bicarbonate (baking soda)
 Small plastic cups (1 for each student)
 Popsicle sticks for stirring (1 for each student)
 Eye droppers (1 for each group)
 Plastic spoons (1 for each group)
 Water
 Assorted food colors and flavorings (sugar, mint extract, etc.)
Have some commercial toothpaste samples available.
Instructions
Basic recipe for toothpaste:
½ teaspoon calcium carbonate, ¼ teaspoon sodium bicarbonate in a small
plastic cup, add just enough water (with eye dropper) to make a paste.
Have the students taste the basic recipe and discuss possible improvements.
Divide the class into small groups and let them come up with some solutions to
make the basic recipe more appealing to other children. Remember, the
purpose is to produce the most "marketable" toothpaste. Each group is
responsible for one recipe. (As the samples are quite small, only small amounts
of color and flavoring are needed.) Each group will have to keep a record of
their recipe (what they added and how much) using the
accompanying worksheet, and submit it with the sample for judging. The panel
of judges, which can be another class, parents, etc., will determine the winner.
Have a prize for the winning sample.
Review
How did the homemade toothpaste compare to commercial products? What
other mineral is added to toothpaste to fight cavities? How many of the
commercial toothpastes had minerals in them? Have the students compare the
prices of commercial toothpaste in relation to the number of mineral
ingredients. Which were more expensive, the ones with more or fewer mineral
ingredients? Finally, have the groups develop an advertising campaign (for
example, a 15 second posted in FB) for their toothpaste.

24
What are Rocks?
Rocks are naturally occurring aggregates of minerals, rock fragments or
organic matter. The composition of a rock, as well as the appearance, shape,
and arrangement of the grains or crystals within the rock (i.e. its texture), are
the characteristics that reveal its process of formation. Based on their mode of
formation, rocks are classified into three main types: igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic.
MINERALS vs. ROCKS

A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic solid with a definite chemical

composition and a crystalline structure formed by geological processes. The
building blocks of rock.
A rock is an aggregate of one or more minerals whereas a rock may also
include organic remain. Some rocks are predominantly composed of just one
mineral.
Introduction to Rock Identification

In most cases, it is not possible to directly observe how rocks are formed.
Therefore, it is necessary to rely on the distinctive features of a rock to infer
its origin. Texture and mineral composition are two important characteristics
that may help to confirm the origin of a rock.
 Texture refers to the sizes and shapes of the component minerals or
grains, and to their collective arrangement in a rock.
 Composition refers to the crystals, mineral grains, and fragments of
other rocks, and/or fossils, which make up a rock. It also refers to the
chemical constituents of a rock. The color of a rock may also provide
an important guide to its composition.
Igneous Rocks

This is formed by the crystallization of molten magma. Igneous rocks form when
hot, molten rock (magma) cools and solidifies. The magma originates deep
within the Earth near active plate boundaries or hot spots, then rises toward the
surface. Igneous rocks are sub-divided into either intrusive or extrusive rocks,
depending upon where in the Earth the magma solidifies.

25
Magma is a molten rock material beneath the surface of the earth. Lava is
molten rock material extruded to the surface of the earth through a central
vent (volcano) or as fissure eruption.

KINDS OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

GRANITE contains quartz, feldspar & mica.

DIORITE contains feldspar& one or more dark mineral. Feldspar is dominant.
GABBRO contains feldspar & one or more dark mineral. The dark minerals are
dominant.
PERIODOTITE contains iron and is black or dark.
PEGMATITE is a coarse-grained granite with large crystals of quartz, feldspar
& mica.

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 Intrusive, or plutonic, igneous rocks
Are formed when magma hardens beneath Earth’s surface. Have large crystal
sizes because the magma cools slowly providing enough time for the crystals
of minerals to grow.

Extrusive, or volcanic, igneous rocks

Are formed when lava hardens. It has smaller crystals because the solidification
process is faster. Molecules do not have time to arrange to form large crystals.

Sedimentary Rocks

is formed from the weathered products of preexisting rocks that have been
transported, deposited, compacted, and cemented.

Sedimentary rocks are formed from the eroded fragments of pre-existing rocks,
or from the skeletal fragments of once-living plants or organisms. They
accumulate in various environments on the Earth's surface. Sedimentary rocks
commonly have distinctive layering or bedding.

Formation of Sedimentary Rocks

Weathering, Erosion, and Deposition, compaction and cementation.

Erosion involves the weathering and the removal of rock.

Deposition occurs when an agent of erosion—water, wind, ice, or gravity—

loses energy and drops sediments.

Compaction is a process that squeezes, or compacts, sediments.

Cementation takes place when dissolved minerals are deposited in the tiny
spaces among the sediments.

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CONGLOMERATE rock has rounded rocks (pebbles, boulders) cemented
together in a matrix
SANDSTONE is a soft stone that is made when sand grains cement together.
Sometimes the sandstone is deposited in layers of different color sand.
SHALE is clay that has been hardened and turned into rock. It often breaks
apart in large flat sections.
LIMESTONE is a rock that contains many fossils and is made of calcium
carbonate and/or microscopic shells.
GYPSUM, common salt s the water evaporates.
BRECCIA has jagged bits of rock cemented together in a matrix.

Classification of Sedimentary Rocks

Two Main Groups

1. Clastic sedimentary rocks are composed of weathered bits of rocks and

minerals.
2. Non-clastic sedimentary rocks - form when dissolved substances
precipitate, or separate, from water.

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 Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic rocks are formed below the surface of the earth through the
process of metamorphism with the recrystallization of minerals in rocks due to
changes in pressure and temperature conditions
- Contact and regional metamorphism

 Contact metamorphism – one type of rock is converted into

metamorphic when it comes in contact with the source of heat.

 Regional metamorphism - pressure as main factor: occurs in areas

that have undergone considerable amount of mechanical deformation
and chemical recrystallization during orogenic event.
KINDS OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS

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 ROCK CYCLE

 is a conceptual model that explains how geological processes acting

on any one of the three main rock types - igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic - can change one rock type to another over geological
time. Plate tectonics is the driving force of the Rock Cycle.

 In order to understand the Rock Cycle, it is important to understand the

rock-forming processes.
 Igneous rock- forming processes involve melting, cooling and
crystallization.
 Sedimentary rock- forming processes involve weathering, erosion,
deposition, cementation and compaction.
 Metamorphic rock- forming processes involve changes to rock textures
and mineral compositions under different temperature, pressure or hot
fluid conditions.

30
Assessment: Explain the following comprehensively. 10 points each.
1. Differentiate the formation of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic
rocks.
2. Depict and discuss rock cycle

Mineral Resources
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
1. understand the importance of the different minerals to the society; and
2. Explain the different ways on how the mineral deposits are formed.
3. understand the life cycle of mineral resources; and
4. Relate the impact of mining on the environment.
Mineral Deposits

• Is a natural concentration of minerals in the earth’s crust. The degree of

concentration is called the "grade" of a mineral deposit. An "ore deposit"

31
 is a mineral deposit which has high enough grades of metal that makes
it economic to mine. Rock worth mining is called ore.

Types of mineral resources

 Metallic mineral deposits: gold, silver, copper, platinum, iron
 Non-metallic resources: talc, fluorite, sulfur, sand, gravel

Minerals and their uses

Aggregates
 Natural aggregates include sand, gravel, and crushed stone.
Aggregates are composed of rock fragments that may be used in their
natural state or after mechanical processing, such as crushing, washing,
or sizing. Recycled aggregates consist mainly of crushed concrete and
crushed asphalt pavement.
 The geologic processes involved in the rock cycle play major role in the
accumulation and concentration of valuable elements/ minerals.
 - Plate tectonics: the Earth’s crust is broken into a dozen or more plates
of different sizes that move relative to one another (lithosphere). These
plates are moving slowly on top of a hot and more mobile material called
the asthenosphere. The diagram below shows the different mineral
deposits that usually occur in different tectonic environments.

• Mineral resources can be classified according to the mechanism

responsible for concentrating the valuable substance.
1. Magmatic Ore Deposits
- Valuable substances are concentrated within an igneous body
through magmatic processes such as crystal fractionation, partial
melting and crystal settling.
- Magmatic processes can concentrate the ore minerals that
contain valuable substances after accumulating elements that were
once widely dispersed and in low concentrations within the magma.
. Hydrothermal Ore Deposits

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- Concentration of valuable substances by hot aqueous (water-rich) fluids
flowing through fractures and pore spaces in rocks - hydrothermal
solutions.
- Are hot, residual watery fluids derived during the later stages of magma
crystallization and may contain large amount of dissolved metals. These
can also originate from the ground water circulating at depth that is being
heated up by a cooling and solidifying igneous body or along depths with
known geothermal gradient.
3. Sedimentary Ore Deposits - Some valuable substances are
concentrated by chemical precipitation coming from lakes or seawater.

Although clastic sedimentary processes can form mineral deposits, the term
sedimentary mineral deposit is restricted to chemical sedimentation, where
minerals containing valuable substances are precipitated directly out of
water.
. Placer Ore Deposits
- Deposits formed by the concentration of valuable substances through
gravity separation during sedimentary processes.
- Usually aided by flowing surface waters either in streams or along
coastlines.
- Concentration would be according to the specific gravity of substances,
wherein the heavy minerals are mechanically concentrated by water
currents and the less-dense particles remain suspended and are carried
further downstream.
- Usually involves heavy minerals that are resistant to transportation and
weathering.
5. Residual Ore Deposits
- A type of deposit that results from the accumulation of valuable materials
through chemical weathering processes.
- During the process, the volume of the original rock is greatly reduced by
leaching.
- Leaching – the removal of soluble materials in rocks or ore body through
the percolation of water

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- Different minerals are important for different
- Purposes: from household items, construction, energy sources,
communication, travels, recreation, food processing and even in
multivitamins.
- A. Mineral Exploration

The different stages of mineral exploration allow the investor to

systematically evaluate the potential and marketability of having a mineral
project. Knowledge about the project is increased at every stage, and this
knowledge serves as the basis whether to proceed with the project or not.

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