Frame Modelling and

Classification

1
 Frame Idealisation

Reduction of 3-D framework to plane frames

2
 Frame Modelling
Frame Components
– Beams
– Beam-columns
– Joints Joint

Beam

Beam Column

Base

3
 Frame Modelling for Analysis
Framing and Joints

– Continuous frames: Rigid joint

– Simple frames: Pinned joint

– Semi-continuous frames: Semi–rigid joint

4
 Joint Modelling
The main approaches are:
 the traditional approach in which the joints are
considered as (nominally) pinned or rigid
 the semi-continuous approach in which a more
realistic model representing the joint behaviour is used.
It is usually introduced as a spiral spring at the extremity
of the member it attaches (usually the beam).
Semi-continuous elastic design should only be used where either it is
supported by test evidence according to SS EN 1993-1-8:2010,
5.2.2.1(2) or where it is based on satisfactorily performance in a similar
situation or the validity of such method that has been verified by
established results.
5
 Joint Modelling for Frame Analysis
JOINT BEAM-TO-COLUMN JOINTS BEAM COLUMN
MODELLING MAJOR AXIS BENDING SPLICES BASES

SIMPLE

SEMI-
CONTINUOUS

CONTINUOUS

6
Moment Rotational Relationship

Rigid

Pin

7
 Global Frame Analysis
Aims
Determine the distribution of the internal forces
Determine the corresponding deformations

Means
Adequate models incorporating assumptions about the
behaviour of the structure and its components.

8
 Requirements for Analysis

Basic principles to be satisfied:

Equilibrium throughout the structure
Compatibility of deformation between the frame components
Constitutive laws for the frame components

Frame model – element model

Must satisfy the basic principles

9
 Frame Behaviour
Displacement

Load parameter
Load
Full elastic response
Peak load

Geometric and
material nonlinearity
Elastic limit

Frame

Displacement parameter
10
 Frame Behaviour
• Actual response of the frame is non linear
– Linear behaviour is limited
– Non-linear behaviour due to:
• Geometrical influence of the actual deformed shape
(second order effects)
• Joint behaviour
• Material yielding

11
 Second-Order Effects
Sway
Displacement
1st Order Moment 2nd Order Moment

Load P P

H H

x x
d
h
x / h

Frame

M(x) = Hx M(x) = Hx + Pd + Px/h

M(h) = Hh M(h) = Hh + P

12
 Second-Order Effects
• P– effect :
– due to floor sway
– 1st order frame stiffness modified
– dominant effect

• P–d effect :
– due to beam-column deflection
– 1st order member stiffness modified
– significant only for relatively slender members which
is rare

13
 Imperfections
Frame imperfection: Member imperfection:
need to be considered for load only for slender members (rare) in
combinations. sway frames, otherwise it is covered
in the relevant buckling curve

L eo,d
 

14
 Global (Initial Sway) Imperfections
EN 1993-1-1 (Cl 5.3.2(4)B)
VEd2
The initial sway imperfections may be HEd2
disregarded if:
VEd1
HEd1
HEd ≥ 0.15VEd
where
HEd is the design value of the horizontal
reaction at the bottom of the storey
VEd is the total design vertical load on the
structure at the bottom of the storey

15
 Global (Initial Sway) Imperfections
EN 1993-1-1 (Cl 5.3.2(3))
For buildings with
Global initial sway imperfections: f = f0 ah am complex layout, you may
where f0 is the basic value: f0 = 1/200 ignore the reduction
factors ah , am and use f
ah is the reduction factor for height h applicable to columns = 1/200
2 2
ah  but  a h  1.0
h 3
h is the height of the structure in meters
 1
am is the reduction factor for the number of columns in a row: a m  0.5 1 + 
 m
m is the number of columns in a row

h h
f f

16
 Local (Initial Bow) Imperfections
EN 1993-1-1 (Cl 5.3.2(3)) & NA to SS EN1993-1-1 (Cl. NA.2.11)
Initial local bow imperfections = e0/L where L is the member length

Determination of initial imperfections e0

 Initial imperfections for an individual section about a particular axis should be L
back-calculated from the formula for the buckling curves given in EN 1993-1-
1:2010, Cl 6.3 using the section modulus.
e0  a (  0.2)W / A
where W=Wel and Wpl for elastic and plastic design respectively
a is the imperfection factor
 SSEN adopts recommended a values from EN1993-1-1 Table 5.1 as follows
Buckling curve Elastic analysis Plastic analysis
acc. To Table 6.1 e0/L e0/L
a0 1/350 1/300
a 1/300 1/250
b 1/250 1/200
c 1/200 1/150
d 1/150 1/100 17
Equivalent Horizontal Forces
The effects of initial sway (global) imperfection and local bow (local)
imperfections may be replaced by systems of equivalent horizontal
forces.

Global imperfections Local imperfections

q1 NEd
f Q1 4 N Ed e0,d
L
q2
f Q2 8 N Ed e0,d
L2 L
Qi=2qi l
4 N Ed e0,d
L
NEd
l l
These initial sway imperfections should apply in all
relevant horizontal directions, but only one direction
at a time.
18
 Including EHF in Load Combinations
Dead load (DL) + Imposed loads (IL)
1.35DL + 1.5IL + EHF

Dead load (DL) + Imposed load(IL) + Wind (WL)

1.35DL + 1.5IL + 0.75W + EHF
1.35DL + 1.05IL + 1.5W + EHF

Dead (DL) + Wind Only (WL)

1.35DL + 1.5WL + EHF

19
 Braced and Unbraced frames

Braced frame Unbraced frame

(may be sway if bracing is very flexible) (may be non-sway if it is insensitive to horizontal loads)

• A frame without bracing is unbraced.

• A frame with bracing is classified as braced frame only
when the braced structure is sufficiently stiff laterally.
20
 Resistance to horizontal force is
provided by concrete core

(a)

21
Can a Braced Frame be a Sway Frame?

Yes, when lateral deflection is large.

Especially for high-rise building.

22
 Sway Vs Non-Sway Frame
EN 1993-1-1 (Cl 5.2.1(3)) & NA to SS EN1993-1-1 (Cl. NA.2.9)

A frame can be deemed to be non-sway if,

acr  10 (acr = Fcr /FEd)

Otherwise it is a sway frame.
where
acr is the factor by which the design loading would have to be increased to cause
elastic instability in a global mode, i.e. (acr = Fcr/FEd)
FEd is the design loading on the structure
Fcr is the elastic critical buckling load for global instability based on initial elastic
stiffness.

23
Simple Estimate for acr
EN 1993-1-1 (Cl 5.2.1(4))

The following estimate for acr may be used for

 portal frames with shallow roof slopes
 beam-and-column plane frames in buildings

H  h 
a cr   Ed  
 
 VEd  d H , Ed 
In the calculation of acr , the
where horizontal reaction can be either
h is the storey height due to
HEd is the horizontal reaction at the bottom of the storey  equivalent horizontal forces,
 horizontal forces, or
VEd is the total vertical load at the bottom of the storey  total horizontal forces
dH,Ed is the horizontal displacement at the top of the storey, but the horizontal displacements
relative to the bottom of the store, when the frame is due to the respective horizontal
loaded with horizontal loads. forces have to be used in the
calculation.
24
Design of Sway Frames
If the effects of deformed geometry has to be considered, the
design of sway frame may be accomplished by one of the following
methods:
1. Advanced analysis that consider member stability directly
2. Member resistance check with second order moment or
amplified moment method
3. Member resistance check of equivalent columns with
appropriate buckling lengths according to the global buckling
mode of the structure.

25
Amplified Moment Method

26
 Amplified Sway Method
For multi-storey frames second order sway effects may be
calculated by increasing the horizontal loads HEd (e.g. wind)
and equivalent horizontal loads fVed due to imperfections
according to first order theory by the factor:
1
Kr  provided that αcr ≥ 3.0
1  (1 / a cr )
 H Ed  h 
a cr    
 
 VEd  d H , Ed 

27
 Amplified Sway Method
Perform first order analysis by amplify all
horizontal loads (i.e. wind and equivalent
horizontal forces) by the factor: For typical rectilinear frame

1
Af 
1  (1 / a cr ) αcr > 3.0

SSEN 1993-1-1 5.2.2(5)

This approach is valid for

 Single storey frames designed on the basis of elastic global analysis
 Multiple storey frames provided that all storeys have similar distribution of
(1) vertical loads;
(2) horizontal loads;
(3) frames stiffness with respect to the applied storey shear forces.

Not applicable for complex structures

28
 Amplified Sway Effect
Sway effect can be introduced approximately by amplifying
the design horizontal load by kr

kr(W + EHF)

kr(W + EHF)

kr(W + EHF)

kr(W + EHF)

29
 Sway Effective Length Method
EC3 1-1 Clause 5.2.2(8)
The individual members should be checked with the equivalent column method
according to the buckling length values based on a global sway buckling mode of
the frame.
This approach is valid for
 Multiple storey frames provided that all storeys have similar distribution of
(1) vertical loads;
(2) horizontal loads;
(3) frames stiffness with respect to the applied storey shear forces.

SSNA 2.10
In such cases the sway moments in the beams and beam-to-column connections
should be multiplied by kr unless a smaller value is shown to be adequate by
analysis. kr may be evaluated using the following expression provided that acr > 3.0:
1
kr 
1  (1 / a cr )
30
 Effective Length Method
BS5950: Part 1
or
NCCI: Buckling lengths of columns: A Rigorous Approach

31
 Effective Lengths and Critical Loads
Critical load of a Pin-ended Column
Ncr = Pe = 2EI/L2

Critical load of a column with other boundary condition

Ncr = 2EI/(KL)2 = Ne/ K2
KL = Effective Length
Ne = Euler buckling load
Effective Length factor, K = (Ne/Ncr)0.5

e.g., Cantilever Column

Pcr= 0.252EI/L2 = 2EI/4L2 = 2EI/(2L)2

Effective Length factor = (Ne/Ncr)0.5

Hence the effective length LE for a cantilever is 2L
32
 Nominal Effective Lengths
Restraint Position Position Position None
Direction Direction Direction

Restraint Position Position Position Position Position

Direction Direction Direction
Practical 1.0 L 0.85 L 0.7 L 2.0 L 1.2 L
LE

33
Buckling of a column in a non-sway frame (theoretical values)

Buckling of a column in a sway frame (theoretical values)

34
 BS5950:Part1: Annex E: Effective length of columns in Non-Sway frames
Pinned
1

0.9
k1
0.8

0.7

Ku 0.6
K TL
K TR
0.5
Kc
0.4

K K
BL BR 0.3
KL
0.2

0.1

Fixed 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
k2
Fixed Pinned
35
BS5950:Part1: Annex E: Effective length of columns in Sway frames
Pinned
1

0.9
k1
0.8

0.7 k2

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

Fixed 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
k2
Fixed Pinned
36
 Buckled Mode Shapes

Non Sway Frame Sway Frame

37
Effective Length of Columns in Multistorey Frame

Total Column Stiffness at Joint

k
Total Stiffness of All Members at Joint

Kc + Ku
k1  Ku
K c + K u + KTL + K TR KTL K1 KTR
Kc = I/L
Column being considered
Kc + K L K KBR
k2  BL
K2
K c + K L + K BL + K BR KL

38
Derivation of Charts
kl = KC / (KC + KBL + KBR) 1
LE
k2 = KC+ KL / (KC +KL + KBL + KBR) 2

Conservative Formulae for the curves

For non-sway frames
LE / L  0.5 + 0.14k1 + k 2  + 0.55(k1 + k 2 ) 2

For sway frames

1  0.2(k1 + k 2 )  0.12k1k 2 
LE / L   
 1  0.8( k1 + k 2 )  0.6 k k
1 2 

39
 Use of the Charts of Annex E
• k1 = (Kc + Ku) / (Kc+Ku+KTL +KTR)
• k2 = (Kc + KL) / (Kc+KL+KBL +KBR)
• The stiffness K for each member is taken as a
function of I / L
• If a beam supports a floor slab, its K value should be
taken as I / L
• For a beam which is not rigidly connected to the
column, K should be taken as zero.

40
 Use of the Charts of Annex E
• For a beam which carries more than 90% of
its moment capacity, a pin should be
90%Mp
inserted at that location or set Ib/Lb = 0.
Ib/Lb = 0
• If either end of the column carries more
than 90% of Mp, the value of k1 or k2 as k2 = 1
appropriate should be taken as 1.0.
• For other conditions, the appropriate values
of K are given in Tables E1, E2 and E3 of
the code.

41
 Beam Stiffness Values
Table E.1 – BS5950:Part1
Loading condition Non-sway mode Sway mode

Beam directly supporting 1.0 ( I/L ) 1.0 ( I/L )

concrete floor or roof slab
Other beams supporting 0.75 ( I/L ) 1.0 ( I/L )
direct loads
Beams with end moments 0.5 ( I/L ) 1.5 ( I/L )
only

Beam in single Beam in double

curvature curvature

Non Sway Frame Sway Frame

42
 Columns in a Mixed Frame (E.5)

Effective length to
be increased by F

Rigid frame Simple frame

Storey buckling amplification factor

 Vsr = total vertical load in that storey in the columns that resist sway in that plane

V su = total vertical load in that storey in the columns not resisting sway in that plane

43
Example 1
The figure below shows an unbraced two-storey frame where the column based are fixed and
subjected to factored floor (dead and imposed) loadings qi and factored wind loadings Wi.
Determine sway imperfections and equivalent horizontal forces if it is necessary to be
considered in the design of this frame.
q1=40kN/m
W1=8kN
q2=60kN/m 3m
W2=16kN
3m

6m 6m
H Ed  (W1 + W2 )  (8 + 16)  24 kN
VEd  ( q1 + q2 ) * 2l  (40 + 60) * 12  1200 kN
H Ed  24 kN  0.15VEd  0.15 * 1200  180kN

Since HEd < 0.15VEd, sway imperfections have to be taken into account.
44
  1  2   1   1 2 2
f  f0a ha m     0.5 *  1 +   a  but  a h  1.0
 200  6    3   300
h
h 3
1
H1  f q1 (2l )  * 40 * 12  1.6kN  1
300 a m  0.5 1 + 
1  m
H 2  f q2 (2l )  * 60 * 12  2.4kN
300
Example 2
For the frame in Example 1, determine the horizontal forces that need to be considered to
account for the sway effects. The inter-floor displacements for the total horizontal force
(equivalent horizontal forces + Wind forces) are dH,1 = 6.48mm and dH,2 = 8.75mm
respectively.
q1=40kN/m d = 6.48mm
H,1
H1=1.6kN
W1=8kN q1=60kN/m 3m
H2=2.4kN
W2=16kN dH,2 = 8.75mm
3m

6m 6m 45
 VEd 1  q1 (2l )  40 * 12  480 kN

VEd 2  q2 (2l )  60 * 12  720 kN

 H 1 + W1   h1   1.6 + 8   3000   Conservatively taking a = 8.00

a cr1           9.26  The amplification factor crk is
V d
 Ed 1   H ,1   480  6.48   r
 1 1
 H 1 + W1 + H 2 + W2   h2   9.6 + 18.4  3000   r
k    1.14
a cr 2          8.00  1  (1 / a cr ) 1  (1 / 8)
 VEd 1 + VEd 2   d H ,2   480 + 720  8.75 

Total horizontal forces to be considered for design

q1=40kN/m
(H1+W1) x kr = 11.0kN
q1=60kN/m 3m
(H2+W2) x kr = 21.0kN
3m

6m 6m 46
Example 3
Design Column “A” for the following load combination (factored loads)
Assume the frame is braced in the out-of plane direction at each storey. Assume that the
frame is braced out of plane at the storey level to prevent side sway.

W1=8kN W2=16kN H1=1.6kN H2=2.4kN

kr  1.14

q1=40kN/m
(H1+W1) x kr = 11.0kN
q1=60kN/m 3m
(H2+W2) x kr = 21.0kN column “A”

3m

47
 Bending Moment Shear Forces

Column Reaction Force Axial Forces

48
 Design of Column “A”
Analysis result Member section
My(major) 19.2KNm Try203x203x60 UC S275
Mz-z (minor) 0KNm Section table mm
NEd 660KN h 209.6 Iy-y 6120cm4
L 3m b 205.8 Iz-z 2060
Span 6m tw 9.4 Wy-y 656cm3
tf 14.2 Wz-z 305
Eff legth fac(major) 1 r 10.2 A 76.4cm2
Eff legth fac(minor) 1 d 160.8 Iw 0.197dm6
cf/tf 6.2 IT 47.2cm4
Ley
Lez
3
3
cw/tw 17.1 iy
iz
8.96cm
5.2cm
660 kNm
E 210KN/mm2
fy 275 G 81KN/mm2
ε 0.92 14.54 kNm
Member classification

Flange
cf/tf 6.2 < 9ε 8.32 Class 1
Web

1  h 1 N Ed 
a   +  t + r 
19.2 kNm
f
c  2 2 f y t w  = 1.29 < 1.0
take a = 1.0
cw=d=c
cw/tw 17.1 < 396ε/(13α - 1) = 30.36 Class 1

Overall classification is Class 1

Column “A”

 1  93 . 9   86.8

49
For buckling about y-y axis:
L cr, y 1
y   0.39
iy 1
h/b = 1.02< 1.2
Using buckling curve b, imperfection factor α 0.34

 
Φ  0.5 1 + α  λ  0.2  + λ 2   0.61
y   y  y 
1
χ   0.93
y 2  λ 2
Φ + Φ
y y y

χ Af
N 
y y
 1957.5 KN Design table : N b,y,Rd = 1960 KN
b, y, Rd γ
M1

For buckling about z-z axis:

L 1
cr, z
λ   0.66
z i λ
z 1
h/b = 1.02< 1.2

Using buckling curve c, imperfection factor α 0.49

Φ
z
 0.5  1 + α λ  0.2
 z
 + λ
z
2  

0.83

1
χ   0.75
z 2 2
Φ + Φ  λ
z z z

χ Af
N 
z y
 1568.3KN Design table : N b,Z,Rd = 1570 KN
b, z, Rd γ
M1

50
Resistance to lateral torsional buckling:
660 kNm
C1 = (1.88-1.4*ψ+0.52*ψ^2)
ψ= M1/M2
ψ= -0.76
C1= 3.23 so 2.7 should be <= 2.7 14.54 kNm
0.5
 2 EI z  I w Lcr GI T 
2

M cr,0   + 2  = 629.76KNm
Lcr
2
 I z  EI z 

M  C M  1700KNm
cr 1 cr,0
W f
pl.y y
λ   0.33
LT M
cr 19.2 kNm
h/b = 1.02< 2

Using buckling curve a, imperfection factor α = 0.21 Column “A”

Φ
LT
 0.5 1 + α

λ
LT LT
 0.2 + λ 2 
LT 
  0.57

1
χ   0.97
LT 2  λ 2
Φ + Φ
LT LT LT

χ W f
LT pl, y y
M   175.24 KNm Design table : M b,,Rd = 180 KNm
b, Rd γ
M1

51
 From bending moment distribution
and Annex B-EC3
C = 0.6+0.4ψ >=0.4
ψ= -0.76
Cmy = 0.3 so 0.4
Cmz = 0
CmLT = 0.3 so 0.4

Interaction factors:
 N 
λ  1.0  k  C  1 +  λ  0.2  Ed   0.43
y yy my   y  N 
 b, y, Rd 

 0.1 λ N 
λ  1.0  k  1  z Ed   0.81
z zy  C  0.25 N 
 mLT b, z, Rd 

Second order moment

M Member Buckling Resistance Check 
NEd 660 19.2
+ kyy y,Ed  + 0.43  0.38  1.0 Biaxial bending combined with flexural buckling about MAJOR
Nb,y,Rd Mb,Rd 1957.5 175.24 axis

NEd M M Member Buckling Resistance Check 

+ kzy y,Ed + kzz z,Ed
Nb,z,Rd Mb,Rd Mz,Rd Biaxial bending combined with flexural buckling about MINOR
First order moment (=19.2/1.14)
axis.
660 16.8 The frame is non-sway in the out-of-plane at the storey level.
 + 0.81 + 0  0.42 + 0.096  0.52  1.0
1568 175.24
Column “A” is adequate
A smaller column size may be used

Homework
Design the edge column

52
 Example 4: Determine effective lengths of
columns in sway frame

2 3.6m
Ix beams = 21500cm4
1 3.6m
Ix columns = 6090cm 4
3.6m

3 3.6m

7.2m 7.2m 7.2m 7.2m

Factored dead plus live load
16kN/m
72kN/m

Beams are supporting concrete slab, Kb = 1.0 I/L

2017/7/14 53
53
Using Appendix E
Column 1 2 3.6m

Beams KTL = KTR = KBL = KBR = I/L =21500/720 = 29.9 1 3.6m

Columns KU = KC = KL = I/L = 6090/360 = 16.9 3.6m

End restraint factors

3 3.6m
Top k1 = (KC+KU) / (KC + KU +KTL+KTR) = 0.36
7.2m 7.2m 7.2m 7.2m
Bottom k2 = (KC+KL) / (KC + KL +KTL+KTR) = 0.36

The frame is a sway frame; use Figure E.2 for sway frame
LE/L = 1.27 i.e. LE = 1.27 x 3.6 = 4.57m

If bracings were provided and the frame is a non-sway frame, the effective length ratio from
Figure E.1 would be 0.625 .
i.e. LE = 0.625 x 3.6 = 2.25m

54
Pinned
1

0.9
k1
0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

Fixed 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
k2
Fixed Pinned
55
Column 2
Beams KTL = KBL = I/L =21500/720 = 29.9 2 3.6m

Columns KC = KL = I/L = 6090/360 = 16.9 1 3.6m

End Restraint factors 3.6m

Top k1 = (KC) / (KC +KTL) = 0.36

3 3.6m
Bottom k2 = (KC+KL) / (KC + KL +KTL) = 0.53
7.2m 7.2m 7.2m 7.2m

From Figure E.2 for sway frame

LE/L = 1.4 i.e. LE = 1.4 x 3.6 = 5.04m

56
 2 3.6m

1 3.6m

If the column bases are pinned 3.6m

3 3.6m

7.2m 7.2m 7.2m 7.2m

Column 3
Beams KTL = KTR = I/L =21500/720 = 29.9
Columns KU = KC = I/L = 6090/360 = 16.9
End restraint factors
Top k1 = (KC+KU) / (KC + KU +KTL+KTR) = 0.36
Bottom k2 = (KC) / (KC ) = 1

Therefore as the frame is a sway frame from Figure E.2

LE/L = 2.25 i.e. LE = 2.25 x 3.6 = 8.10m
The design would then proceed as normal using the effective
lengths calculated above.

57
 2
If the column bases were rigid –
1
base stiffness is taken as column
stiffness : cl. 5.1.3.2 in BS5950:Part1
3
Column 3
Beams KTL = KTR = I/L =21500/720 = 29.9
Columns KU = KC = I/L = 6090/360 = 16.9

End restraint factors

Top k1 = (KC+KU) / (KC + KU +KTL+KTR) = 0.36
Bottom k2 = (KC) / (KC + KC ) = 0.50
From Figure E.2 LE/L = 1.35 i.e. LE = 1.35 x 3.6 = 4.86m

The effective length is much reduced and the column will be smaller but the cost of providing
moment resisting foundations may out-weight the cost of the savings in steelwork. The fixity
would also be beneficial in controlling sway deformations.
58
Example 5: Frame Classification
1) Simple frames
2) All horizontal loads are resisted by
the two bracing frames
3) Stability is provided by the two
bracing frames.
4) Need to classify the bracing frame

Unfactored wind load = 154kN per braced frame

Unfactored Roof and Floor Loads

Roof: Roof beam: 305 x 127 x 37 UB in grade S275
Dead load Gr = 3.5 kN/m2 Floor beam: 406 x 178 x 60 UB in grade S275
Imposed load Qr = 1.0 kN/m 2
Ground to 2nd floor columns: 203 x 203 x 60 UC in grade S275
Floor: 2nd floor to roof columns: 203 x 203 x 46 UC in grade S275
Dead load Gf = 3.5 kN/m2 Bracing: 168.3 x 6.3 CHS in grade S275
Imposed load Qf = 6.0 kN/m 2

59
Factored roof and floor loads
Consider the following two load combinations:
(1) 1.35G + 1.5Q + 0.75W + EHF (Imposed load is leading variable))
(2) 1.35G + 1.5W + 1.05Q + EHF (Wind load is leading variable)

Gravity loads for load combination (1)

Roof: wr = (3.5 x 1.35) + (1.0 x 1.5) = 6.225 kN/m2
Floor: wf = (3.5 x 1.35) + (6.0 x 1.5) = 13.725 kN/m2

Gravity loads for load combination (2)

Roof: wr = (3.5 x 1.35) + (1.0 x 1.05) = 5.775 kN/m2
Floor: wf = (3.5 x 1.35) + (6.0 x 1.05) = 11.03 kN/m2

60
Design of Bracing Frame
• Bracing system will resist all the lateral loads
wr(1) = 6.225 kN/m2 wr(2) = 5.775 kN/m2
wf(1) = 13.725 kN/m2 wf(2) = 11.03 kN/m2
wr
W + EHF
Evaluate acr for every storey
wf
W + EHF  H Ed  h 
a cr    
 
W + EHF
wf  VEd  d H , Ed 
acr < 10 Sway Frame
wf
W + EHF

61
Wind load (Consider 154kN per braced frame)
3m
Unfactored wind load
– At roof level = 3*0.5*154 / 12.5 = 18.48 KN
– At 2nd & 3rd floor level = 3*154 / 12.5 = 36.96 KN
3m
– At 1st level = (3+3.5)*0.5*154 / 12.5 = 40.04 KN
• As per load combination 1, factored wind load = 0.75 W
3m
– At roof level = 18.48 * 0.75 = 18.48 KN
– At 2nd & 3rd floor level = 36.96 * 0.75 = 27.72 KN
– At 1st level = 40.04 * 0.75 = 30.03 KN
3.5m
Total wind load = 103.9kN
Total gravity load = (6.225 + 3 x 13.725) x 0.5 x 28 x 49 = 19244kN 3.5m
Since Wind load is less than 0.15 Gravity load, need to consider EHF
• As per load combination 2, factored wind load = 1.5 W
– At roof level = 18.48 * 1.5 = 27.72 KN
– At 2nd & 3rd floor level = 36.96 * 1.5 = 55.44 KN
– At 1st level = 40.04 * 1.5 = 60.06 KN
Total wind load = 199kN
Total gravity load = (5.775 + 3 x 11.03) x 0.5 x 28 x 49 = 26661kN
Since Wind load is less than 0.15 Gravity load, need to consider EHF
62
EHF is conservative taken as 1/200 of the gravity load
For load combination 1
• Roof level EHF = 0.005 x 0.5x28x49 x 6.225 = 21.3 kN
• Floor level EHF = 0.005 x 0.5x28x49 x 13.725 = 47.1 kN
For load combination 2
• Roof level EHF = 0.005 x 0.5x28x49 x 5.775 = 19.8 kN
• Floor level EHF = 0.005 x 0.5x28x49 x 11.03 = 37.83 kN

Total horizontal loads HEd for load combination 1

• Roof level = 21.3 + 18.48 = 39.78 KN
• 3rd or 2nd level = 47.1 + 27.72 = 74.82 KN
• 1st level = 47.1 + 30.03 = 77.13 KN
Total horizontal load HEd for load combination 2
• Roof level = 19.8 + 27.72 = 47.52 KN
• 3rd or 2nd level = 37.83 + 55.44 = 93.24 KN
• 1st level = 37.83 + 60.06 = 97.9 KN
63
Storey deflection due to horizontal loads

Combination 1 Combination 2
kN kN
(mm) (mm)

64
 H  h 
Load Combination 1: 1.35G + 1.5Q + 0.75W +EHF a cr   Ed  
 
 VEd  d H , Ed 
Roof to 3rd floor 2nd to 1st floor
HEd = 39.8kN HEd = 74.82*2 + 39.78 = 189kN
VEd = 0.5*49*28*6.225 VEd = 0.5*49*28*(6.225+13.725*2)
= 4270 kN per braced frame = 23101 kN per braced frame
h = 3m h = 3m
d = 3.5mm d = 4.6 mm
α cr = 39.8/4270 * 3000/3.5 = 7.98 αcr = 189/23101 * 3000/4.6 = 5.35

3rd to 2nd floor 1st to ground floor

HEd = 74.82 + 39.78 = 115kN
VEd = 0.5*49*28*(6.225+13.725)
= 13686 kN per braced frame
h = 3m
d = 4 mm
α cr = 115/13686 * 3000/4 = 6.28
HEd = 74.82*2 + 39.78 + 77.13 = 267kN
VEd = 0.5*49*28*(6.225+13.725*3)
= 32516 kN per braced frame
h = 3.5m
d = 5.4 mm
α cr = 267/32516 * 3500/5.4 = 5.31

αcr < 10  Classified as Sway Frame for Load Combination 1

65
 H  h 
Load Combination 2: 1.35G + 1.05Q + 1.5W +EHF a cr   Ed  
 
 VEd  d H , Ed 

Roof to 3rd floor 2nd to 1st floor

HEd = 47.5 kN HEd = 93.2*2 + 47.5 = 234
VEd = 0.5*49*28*5.775 VEd = 0.5*49*28*(5.775+11.03*2)
= 3962 KN per braced frame = 19095 KN per braced frame
h = 3m h = 3m
δ = 4.2 mm δ = 5.8 mm
αcr = 47.5/3962 * 3000/4.2 = 8.56 αcr = 234/19095 * 3000/5.8 = 6.33

3rd to 2nd floor 1st to ground floor

HEd = 47.5 + 93.2 = 141 kN
VEd = 0.5*49*28*(5.775+11.03)
= 11528 KN per braced frame
h = 3m
δ = 5 mm
αcr = 141/11528 * 3000/5 = 7.32
HEd = 233.9+97.9 = 332
VEd = 0.5*49*28*(5.775+11.03*3)
= 26661.4 KN per braced frame
h = 3.5m
δ = 6.7 mm
αcr = 332/26661 * 3500/6.7 = 6.5

αcr < 10  Classified as Sway Frame for Load Combination 2

66
 Brace member design - Compression
• Incorporate Sway Amplification Factor since frame is sway sensitive
• acr min = 5.31 for load combination 1
1 1
k r1    1.23
1  (1 / a cr ) 1  (1 / 5.31)

• acr min = 6.33 for load combination 2

1 1
kr 2    1.19
1  (1 / a cr ) 1  (1 / 6.33)

67
 wr = 6.23
Amplified horizontal forces W+EHF = 48.93 kN

wf = 13.7
W+EHF = 92.03 kN
Combination 1
(Hed,r)*kr1 = 39.78*1.23 = 48.93 kN W+EHF = 92.03 kN
wf = 13.7

(Hed,f3)*kr1 = 74.82*1.23 = 92.03 kN wf = 13.7

W+EHF = 94.87 kN
(Hed,f2)*kr1 = 74.82*1.23 = 92.03 kN
(Hed,f1)*kr1 = 77.13*1.23 = 94.87 kN
wr = 5.78
W+EHF = 56.53 kN
Combination 2
wf = 11.0
(Hed,r)*kr2 = 47.5*1.19 = 56.53 kN W+EHF = 110.9 kN

(Hed,f3)*kr2 = 93.2*1.19 = 110.91 kN W+EHF = 110.9 kN

wf = 11.0

(Hed,f2)*kr2 = 93.2*1.19 = 110.91 kN

wf = 11.0
(Hed,f1)*kr2 = 97.9*1.19 = 116.5 kN W+EHF = 116.5 kN

68
Loading for Combination 1

Gravity load Horizontal load - Amplified

69
Axial force Bending moment
70
• Maximum compressive force on bracing = 470 KN
• Try 168.3 x 6.3 CHS,
– Effective length = 4.95 m (Le = K L ; K=1.0 pin-pin )
– Compression capacity 647 KN ( use table, page D-14,
S355)
– Therefore member is adequate.

71
Loading for Combination 2

Gravity load Horizontal load - Amplified

72
Axial force Bending moment
73
• Maximum compressive force on the bracing = 564 KN
• Check 168.3 x 6.3 CHS,
– Effective length = 4.95 m (Lcr = KL ; K=1.0 pin-pin )
– Compression capacity 647 KN (use table, page D-14,
S355)
– Therefore member is adequate.
Therefore 168.3 x 6.3 CHS, S355 adequate for both load combination

74
Direct Advanced Analysis Methods

75
 Direct Second Order Analysis for
Sway Frames
• Direct second order analysis includes both the sway effect
(P- effect) and the member deflection effect (P-d effect) by
modifying the member stiffness terms. Load is applied in
increments. Iterations and convergence procedures are
required.

• For most sway frames, only the P- effect (sway effect)
needs to be allowed for.

• Eurocode 3 & BS5950:Part 1: Indirect methods are

possible but beware of their limitations.

76
 Effective Length Method
The individual compression members should be checked with the buckling
length values based on a global sway buckling mode of the frame.

Use KL to design for these members?

Ne
K 
acr N Ed

αcr= Ncr/NEd
from buckling analysis

77
 Paradox of Effective Length Method
NEd = 0 NEd

Effective Length Factor

KL= 
Ne
K L
a cr N Ed

EC3:1-1 - SSNA 2.10

How about beam and joint design?
The design of beams and joints should be based Beam?
Joint?
on second order moments.
Design using KL
Second order moment is still needed!
 Second-Order Direct Analysis
• For complex structures - more economical with average
saving in steel weight about 25%.
• Safer as “old” method could under-design critical members
and over-design redundant members
• More efficient as design and analysis are automatically
done by computer software -
“old” method needs manual input of effective length factor
and member imperfections for each member in each load
case.
Second-order analysis is mandatory for slender & complex
structures in many codes like EC-3, HK Steel Code & AISC

80
 Directly Second Order Analysis Method
is not familiar to most structural engineers
(1) Design engineers do not understand the method of second
order analysis & non-linear theory
many engineers think they know but they actually overlook
many essential points like use of member initial
imperfection to Table 5.1 in Eurocode-3
(2) Consideration of frame imperfection using
buckling mode (Eurocode-3)

Overlooking of the above gives design NOT to

code requirements & will be inadequate !
82
AISC- Direct analysis method is the preferred method
 Books have been published on
this new method a decade ago

http://www.amazon.com/Stability-Design-
Semi-Rigid-Frames- http://as.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTit
http://en.nidacse.com/ le/productCd-0470030615.html#
Chen/dp/0471076708#reader_0471076708
Can a Braced Frame be a Sway Frame?
Yes, when lateral deflection is large.
Especially for high-rise building.

Resistance to horizontal force is provided by concrete core 85

Braced frame is always stable?
Can we design the members in a braced frame using the member length between the two node points?

Experience shows that conventional method over design the main members and under-design the bracing members

collapse of a telecom tower in Vietnam

86
87
under-design of the bracing members

Collapse of Water Tank Tower - Brunei

88
 Mix of braced and unbraced frames

Temporary Support

braced

Unbraced

89
Slender braced frame
- Crane Tower

90
 Fundamental differences
between old and new codes (1)
• Old codes mention nothing about analysis as it
is often based on linear analysis. Checking of
strength and stability is at the design stage.
→ Analysis simple and design complex.

• Member stability check approach - Design

formulae have many limitations including
uncertainty associated with the use of member
effective length.
91
 Fundamental differences
between old and new codes (2)
• Modern codes consider member and frame
stability directly into the analysis and design
becomes simple.
→ Analysis complex and design simple.

• System stability & performance-based

approach and can be applied to different
scenarios including analysis for progressive
collapse.

92
Second-order P-d elastic direct analysis
• Check only the cross sectional strength - the design
resistance is reached when the section Capacity is
reached.
• The design resistance is taken as the load causing the
formation of the first plastic hinge for plastic (class 1)
section or compact (class 2) section or first yield semi-
compact (class 3) section or slender section with further
reduction of cross-sectional properties due to local
buckling.

Cross section check:

N Ed ( M y ,Ed + P y + Pd y ) ( M z ,Ed + P z + Pd z )
+ + 1
Af y M y ,Rd M z ,Rd 93
 Imperfections
Imperfections are essential for a reliable and safe design by
second-order analysis.

The effects of imperfections shall be taken into account as:

• frame imperfection based on global buckling mode – load
case sensitive
• Member imperfection to be modelled using curved element
with initial curvature - Table 5.1

94
 Frame imperfections
5.3.2 - The effects of frame imperfections shall be
incorporated in frame analysis using an equivalent
geometric imperfection or equivalent horizontal force.

• EHF = 0.5% of the vertical load

should be applied horizontally to
a frame which is basically
1 regular in order to simulate
f imperfection.
200
• For temporary structures, the
frame imperfections or EHF
should be increased.

95
 Member imperfections
For a compression member, the equivalent initial
bow imperfection specified in Table 5.1 of
Eurocode-3 may be used in a second order
analysis of the member.

 SSEN 1993-1-1 Singapore national annexes adopts recommended

values from EN1993-1-1 Table 5.1 as
Buckling curve Elastic analysis Plastic analysis
acc. To Table 6.1 e0/L e0/L
a0 1/350 1/300 e0
a 1/300 1/250 L
b 1/250 1/200
c 1/200 1/150
d 1/150 1/100
96
 P P


If we consider both P- and P-

d effects, we need not worry
about the effective length and
the design is more efficient and
accurate.

The P- and P-d Effects 97

This method has been used for
court case & investigation

98
 Collapse Investigation of Tower Crane

99
Second order over turning moment
Advanced Analysis of 3D frame
Subject to Extreme Loads

At first
At initial At first
buckling At limit
yield plastic hinge of member load 100
 Collapse
Analysis of
Composite
Frames

20-story building
subjects
to Wind Load

At first plastic hinge At collapse

101
 Second-order direct analysis
with PROPER consideration of
Imperfections

Second-order P-d elastic or plastic

analysis can be used in all cases. No
effective length nor moment amplification is
required. Only section capacity check is
needed.

102
 First Order Versus Second Order Analysis
Direct Second Order Analysis
Design is included in the analysis
Frame classification is not need
Check section capacity
More reliable as buckling is checked by
rigorous nonlinear theory
Implemented in modern design codes
Design speed is faster as effective
lengths are not needed
More economical or safer design
Collapse analysis and progressive
collapse analysis can be carried out
Simple to use as imperfections are
automatically computed by software for
all load combinations
First order Linear Analysis
Only for αcr > 10
Frame classification is needed
Check individual member buckling
capacity and estimate effective buckling
length
Less reliable as buckling is checked by
column buckling length
Allowed to be used in modern design
codes, but it is not the preferred method
Design speed is slower as effective
lengths are needed
May not be safe as some critical
members may be under-designed
Limited to simple problems and system
“true” capacity cannot be obtained
Design is tedious as effective lengths
need to be computed for different load
cases and cannot be done automatically 103