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Chemical Tests

1. Mucic Acid Test


a. Determines presence of galactose and lactose
b. Forms HNO3 (crystal formation)
2. Barfoed’s Test
a. Determines presence of monosaccharides
3. Benedict’s Test
a. Determines presence of simple carbohydrates (mono- and di-
saccharides)
4. Hinsberg Test
a. Determines presence of amines
5. Lucas Test
a. Differentiates between primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols
6. Iodoform Test
a. Determines presence of a methyl ketone (of alcohol w/ methyl
group)
b. Reaction of iodine and base with methyl ketone
c. Appearance of a yellow precipitate
7. Beilstein Test
a. Determines presence of halogens
b. Also known as “frame test”
8. Tollen’s Test
a. Determines presence of aldehydes
9. Fehling’s Test
10. Biuret Test
11. Iodine Test
12. Molisch Test

Oxidation and Reduction


LEORA
 Lose e-
 Oxidized
 Reducing agent

GEROA
 Gain e-
 Reduced
 Oxidizing agent

Intermolecular vs Intramolecular Forces


 INTERmolecular forces: attractive forces BETWEEN molecules
o Weaker than intramolecular
 INTRAmolecular forces: chemical bond WITHIN a molecule

Oxidation States

Laws of Thermodynamics
the 4 most abundant gases in the earth’s atmosphere are:

Nitrogen (N2) - 78.084%


Oxygen (O2) - 20.9476%
Argon (Ar) - 0.934%
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 0.0314%

SUMMARY :-

if the atom is bonded ( can say surrounded by ) to 4 THINGS ( no matter if ATOMS or LONE PAIRS ) then it's >>> sp3
if 3 THINGS >>> sp2
if 2 THINGS >>> sp

double bond: one sigma, one pi


triple bond: one sigma, two pi
rate determining step: the slowest step of a chemical reaction that determines the speed (rate) at which the overall reaction
proceeds. The rate determining step can be compared to the neck of a funnel.

Physics

Instruments
 Galvanometer
 Generator
 Transformer
 Rectifier
Specific Heat vs Latent Heat
 Specific heat: the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a
substance a certain amount.
o specific heat of water: 1 calorie/gram °C = 4.186 joule/gram °C

 Latent heat: the amount of heat released during a change of state, i.e.
the boiling of water or the melting of ice.

Q = m · c · (Tf – Ti)

Here, m is equal to the amount of mass of the object, c is the objects specific heat capacity which is a
constant unique for every substance, the two Ts are the initial and final temperature and Q tells us how
much energy in Joules we need all together.

Q=P·t

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