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Example: Saprolegnia (freshwater mold). PHYLUM ZYGOMYCOTA (conjugation fungi) Cell walls of chitin; hyphae lack eross walls; sexual reproduction by conjugation produces diploid zygo- spores: asexual reproduction produces haploid spores; most parasites; some decomposers, Example: Rhizopus stoloniter (black bread mold), PHYLUM ASCOMYCOTA (sac fungi) Cell walls of chitin; hyphae have perforated cross walls; most multicellular; yeasts unicellular; sexual reproduction produces ascospores; asexual repro- duction by spore formation or budding: some cause Plant diseases such as chestnut blight and Dutch elm disease, Examples: Neurospora (red bread mold), Daker's yeast, morels, truffles, PHYLUM BASIDIOMYCOTA (club fungi) Cell walls of chitin; hyphae have cross walls; sexual reproduction involves basidiospores, which are borne on club-shaped basidia; asexual reproduction by spore formation. Examples: mushrooms, putt balls, shelf fungi, rusts PHYLUM DEUTEROMYCOTA (imperfect fungi) Cell walls of chitin; sexual reproduction never ob- served; members resemble ascomycetes, basidi- omycetes, or zygomycetes; most thought to be as- comycetes that have lost the ability to form asci Examples: Penicillium, athlete's foot fungus. Eukaryotic; overwhelmingly multicellular and nonmo- tile; photosynthetic autotrophs: possess chlorophylls and band other pigments in organelles called chloro- plasts; cell walls contain cellulose; food stored as starch: reproduce sexually; alternate haploid (gameto- phyte) and diploid (sporophyte) generations; botanists typically use the term division rather than phylum, PHYLUM CHLOROPHYTA (green algae) Live in fresh water and salt water; unicellular or muk ticellular; chlorophylls and accessory pigments similar to those in vascular plants; food stored as starch. Examples: Ulea (sea lettuce), Chlamydo- ‘monas, Spirogyra, Acetabularia. PHYLUM PHAEOPHYTA (brown algae) Live almost entirely in salt water; multicellular; con- tain brown pigment fucoxanthin; food stored as oils and carbohydrates. Examples: Fucus (rockweed), kelp, Sargassum. PHYLUM RHODOPHYTA (red algae) Live almost entirely in salt water; multicellular; con- tain red pigment phycoerythrin; food stored as car- bohydrates. Examples: Chondrus (Irish moss) coralline algae. PHYLUM BRYOPHYTA (bryophytes) Generally small; multicellular green plants; live on Jand in moist habitats; lack vascular tissue; lack true roots, leaves, and stems; gametophyte dominant; water required for reproduction. Examples: mosses, liverwort, hornwort. PHYLUM TRACHEOPHYTA (vascular plants) Contain xylem and phloem: true roots; sporophyte dominant: in primitive forms, gametophyte indepen: dent of sporophyte; in advanced forms, gameto- hyte clependent on sporophyte, Subphylum Psilopsida (whisk ferns) Primitive vaseu- larplants;no differentiation between root and shoot produce only one kind of spore; motile sperm must swim in water, Subphylum Lycopsida (lycopeds) Primitive vascular plants; usually small; sporophyte dominant; pos- sess roots, stems, anid leaves; water required for re- production. Examples: club moss, quillwort ‘Subphylum Sphenopsida (horsetails) Primitive vas- cular plants; stem comprises most of mature plant and contains silica; produce only one kind of spore; motile sperm must swim in water, Only one living genus: Equisetum. ‘Subphylum Pteropsida (ferns) Vascular plants well aclapted to live in predominantly damp or season: ally wet environments: sporophyte dominant and welladapted to terrestrial life; gametophyte incon: spicuous; reproduction still dependent on water for free-swimming gametes. Examples: cinnamon fern, Boston fern, tree fern, maidenhair fern Subphylum Spermopsida (seed plants), Vascular: use seeds for reproduction: nonmotile; cell walls | Rateenco 97contain cellulose: almost all photosynthetic; many can live in very wet places but others adapted to live and reproduce in dry environments; do not require water for reproduction. Gymnosperms_ Four classes of seed plants—Cyca- dae, Ginkgoae, Coniferae, and Gnetalae—were once considered to be orders within the class Gymno- spermae. Today, botanists realize that members of these groups differ from one another as much as they differ from angiosperms and are therefore not closely related enough to be placed in the same class. Although the term gymnosperm no longer refers ejaltezmnomlc emegory, 1 1s tll used coally Gymnosperms are characterized by seeds that de- velop exposed or “naked!” on fertile leaves—there is ‘no ovary wall (ruit) surrounding the seeds. Gymno- sperms lack flowers. Class Cycadae (cycads) Evergreen, slow-growing, tropical and subtropical shrubs; many resembie small palm trees; palmlike or fernlike compound leaves; possess symbiotic cyanobacteria in special roots; sexes are separate—individuals have either male pollen-producing cones or female seed-pro- ducing cones. Class Gingkoae Deciduous trees with fan-shaped leaves: sexes separate; outer skin of ovule develops into a fleshy, fruitlike covering. Only one living species: Gingko biloba (gingko). Class Ghetalae Few species; mostly desert-living; functional xylem cells are alive; sexes separate, Examples: Welwitschia, joint fir (Ephedra) Class Coniferae (conifers) Cones predominantly winé-pollinated; most are evergreen; most temper- ate and subarctic shrubs and trees; many have needielike leaves: in most species, sexes are not, separate. Examples: pine, spruce, cedar, cypress, yew, fir, larch, sequoia. Angiosperms Unlike the term gymnosperm, the term angiosperm continues to refer to a taxonomic group. Nearly all familiar trees, shrubs, and garden, plants are angiosperms. Class Angiospermae Members of this class are commonly called flowering plants. Seeds develop enclosed within ovaries; fertile leaves modified into flowers; flowers pollinated by wind or by animals, including insects, birds, and bats; occur in’ many different forms; found in most land and freshwater habitats; a few species found in shallow saltwater and estuarine areas. Subclass Monocotyledonae (monocots) Embryo with a single cotyledon; leaves with predominantly parallel veination; flower parts in threes or multiples of three; vascular bundles scattered throughout stem. Examples: lily, corn, grasses, iris, palms, tulip Subclass Dicotyledonae (dicots) Embryo with two cotyledons; leaves with veination in netlike pat- terns; flower parts in fours or fives (or multiples thereof); vascular bundles arranged in rings in stem, Examples: rose, maple, oak, daisy, apple. Multiccliular; eukaryotic; typical heterotrophs that ingest their food; lack cell walls; approximately 35 phyla; in most phyla cells are organized Into tissues that make up organs; most reproduce sexually; motile sperm have flagella; nonmotile egg is much larger than sperm; development involves formation of a hollow ball of cells called a blastula, ‘Subkingdom Parazoa Animals that possess neither tissues nor organs; most asymmetrical PHYLUM PORIFERA (sponges) Aquatic; lack true tissues and organs; motile larvae and sessile adults; filter feeders; internal skeleton made up of spongin and/or spicules of calcium car- bonate or silica. Examples: Venus’ flower basket, bath sponge, tube sponge. ‘Subkingdom Metazoa Animals with definite symmetry; definite tissues; most possess organs. PHYLUM CNIDARIA Previously known as coelenterates; aquatic; mostly carnivorous; two layers of true tissues; radial sym- metry; tentacles bear stinging nematocysts; many alternate between polyp and medusa body forms; gastrovascular cavity. Class Hydrozoa_Polyp form dominant; colonial or solitary; life cycle typically includes a medusa gen- ration that reproduces sexually and a polyp gen- eration that reproduces asexually. Examples: hydra, Portuguese man-ol-war. Class Scyphozoa Medusa form dominant; some species bypass polyp stage. Examples: lion's mane Jellyfish, moon Jelly, sea wasp. Class Anthozoa Colonial or solitary polyps; no medusa stage. Examples: reef coral, sea anemone, sea pen, sea fan.PHYLUM PLATYHELMINTHES (Hlatworms) Three layers of tissues (endoderm, mesoderm, ecto- erm); bilateral. symmetry; some cephalization; coelomate;freelving or parasitic. Class Turbellaria Freediving carnivores and scav- engers; live in fresh water, in salt water, or on land; ‘move with cilia, Example: planarians Class Trematoda (tukes) Parasites: lifecycle typl- cally involves more than one host. Examples: ‘Schistosoma, lver fluke. Class Cestoda (tapeworms) Internal parasites; lack digestive tract; body composed of many repeating sections (proglottids) PHYLUM NEMATODA (roundworms) Digestive system has two openings—amouth and an anus; pseudocoelomates. Examples: Ascaris lumbré coides (human ascarid), hookworm, Trichinella. PHYLUM MOLLUSCA (mollusks) Sott-bodied; usually (but not always) posses a hard, calcified shell secreted by a mantle; most adults have bilateral symmetry; muscular foot; divided into seven classes; digestive system with two open- Ings; coelomates. Class Pelecypoda (bivalves) Two-part hinged shell; wedge-shaped foot; typically sessile as adults; pric marily aquatic; some burrow in mud or sand. Ex- amples: clam, oyster, scallop, mussel Class Gastropoda (gastropods) Use broad mus- cular foot in movement; most have spiral, cham- bered shell; some lack shell; distinct head; some ter- restrial, others aquatic; many are cross-ertilizing hermaphrodites. Examples: snail, sug, nudibranch, sea hare, sea butterfly. Class Cephalopoda (cephalopods) Foot divided Into tentacles: live in salt water; closed circulatory system; Sexes separate. Examples: octopus, squid, nautilus, cuttlefish PHYLUM ANNELIDA (segmented worms) Body composed of segments separated’ by internal Partitions: ligestive system has two openings; coelo- ‘mate; closed circulatory system, Class Polychaeta (polychaetes) Live in salt water; pair of bristly, fleshy appendages on each segment; some live in tubes. Examples: sandworm, blood ‘worm, fanworm, feather-duster worm, plume wort, Class Oligochasta (oligochaetes) Lack append: ages; few bristles; terrestrial or aquatic. Examples: Tabifex, earthworm. Class Hirudinea (leeches) Lack appendages: car nivores oF blood-sucking external parasites; most live in fresh water. Example: medicinal leech (Hirudo ‘medicinalis). PHYLUM ARTHROPODA (arthropods) Exoskeleton of chitin; jointed appendages;segmented body; many undergo metamorphosis during devel- ‘opment; open circulatory system; ventral nerve cord; largest animal phylum, Subphylum Trilobita (triobites) Two furrows running from head to tail divide body into three lobes; one pair of unspecialized appendages on each body segment; each appendage divided into two branches—a gill and a walking leg: all extinct Subphylum Chelicerata (chelicerates) First pair of appendages specialized as feeding structures called, chelicerae; body composed of two parts—cephalo. thorax and abdomen; lack antennae; most terres- trial. Examples: horseshoe crab, tick, mite, spider, seorpion, Subphylum Crustacea (crustaceans) Most aquatic; ‘most livein salt water, two pairs of antennae; mouth- parts called mandibles; appendages consist of two branches; many havea carapace that covers part or all of the body. Examples: crab, crayfish, pill bug, water flea, barnacle. Subphylum Uniramia Almost all terrestrial; one pair ‘of antennae; mandibles; unbranched appendages; ‘generally divided into five classes. Class Chilopoda (centioedes) Long body consist. ing of many segments; one pair of legs per segment; poison claws for feeding; carnivorous, Class Diplopoda (milipodes) Long body consist: ing of many segments; two pairs of legs per segmen mostly herbivorous. Class Insecta (inscc's) Body divided into three parts—head, thorax, and abdomen; three pairs of legs and usually two pairs of wings attached to thorax; some undergo complete metamorphosis: approximately 25 orders. Examples: termite, ant, beetle, dragontly, fly, moth, grasshopper. PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA (echinoderms) Live in salt water; larvae have bilateral symmetry; adults typically have five-part radial symmetry; endoskeleton; tube feet; water vascular system used in respiration, excretion, feeding, and locomotion. Class Crinoidea (crinoids) Filter feeders: feathery arms; mouth and anus on upper surlace of body disk; some sessile. Examples: sea lily, feather star. Class Asteroidea (starfish) Star-shaped; carnivo- rous; bottom dwellers; mouth on lower surface. Examples: crown-ol-thorns starfish, sunstar, Class Ophiuroidea Small body disk; longarmored arms; most have only five arms; lack an anus; most are filter feeders or detritus feeders. Examples: brittle star, basket star. | elon 10°07)J less Echinoidea Lack arms; body encased in righd, boxlike covering: covered with spines; most grazing herbivores or detritus feeders. Examples: sea urchin, sand dollar, sea biscult. Class Holothuroidea (sea cucumbers) Cylindrical body with feeding tentacles on one ends lie on their side; mostly detritus or filter feeders; endoskeleton greatly reduced. PHYLUM CHORDATA (chordates) Notochord and pharyngeal gill slits during at least part of development; hollow dorsal nerve cord. ‘Subphylum Urochordata (tunicates) Live in salt wa- ter; tough outer covering (tunic); display chordate features during larval stages; many adults sessile, some free-swimming. Examples: sea squirt, sea peach, salp. ‘Subphylum Cephalochordata (lancelets|_ Fishlikeslive in salt water; filter feeders; no internal skeleton. Example: Branchiostoma, Subphylum Vertebrata Most possess a vertebral col- ‘umn (backbone) that supports and protects dorsal nerve chord; endoskeleton; distinct head with a skull and brain, Jawless Fishes Characterized by long cellike body and a circular mouth; two-chambered heart; lack scales, paired fins, jaws, and bones: ectothermic; possess a notochord as adults. Once considered a single class, Agnatha, jawless fishes are now divided Into two classes: Myxini and Cephalaspidomorphi Although the term agnatha no longer refers to atrue taxonomic group, it is still used informally. Class Myxini (hagfishes) Mostly scavengers; live Insalt water; short tentacles around mouth: rasping tongue; extremely slimy; open circulatory system. Class Cephalaspidomorphi (iampreys) Larvae fil. ter feeders; adults are parasites whose circular mouth is lined with rasping toothlike structures many live in both salt water and fresh water during the course of their lives. Class Chondrichthyes (cartiaginous fishes) Jaw: fins; endoskeleton of cartilage; most live in salt ‘water; typically several gill slits; tough small scales with spines: ectothermic; two-chambered heart; males possess structures for internal fertilization. Examples: shark, ray, skate, chimaera, saws. Class Osteichthyes (bony fishes) Bony endoskele ton; aquatic; ectothermic; well-developed respira- tory system, usually Involving gills; possess swim bladder; paired fins; divided into two groups—ray- finned fishes (Actinopterygii). which include most living species, and fleshy-finned fishes. (Sarcop- terygli), whieh include lungfishes and the coela canth, Examples: salmon, perch, sturgeon, tuna, goldfish, eel. Class Amphibia (amphibians) Adapted primarily to life in wet places; ectothermic; most carnivorous smooth, moist skin; typically lay eggs that develop Inwater; usually have gilled larvae; most have three- chambered heart; adults either aquatic or terres trial terrestrial forms respire using lungs, skin, and or lining of the mouth, ORDER URODELA (salamanders) Possess tall as adults; carnivorous; usually have four legs; usually aquatic as larvaeand terrestrialas adults, ORDER ANURA ((rogs and toads) Adults in al ‘most all species lack tail; aquatic larvae called tadpoles; well-developed hind legs adapted for jumping. ORDER APODA (legless amphibians) Wormlke: lack legs; carnivorous; terrestrial burrowers; some undergo direct development; some vi viparous. Class Reptilia (repiles) As a group adapted to fully terrestrial life although some live in water: dy, scale-covered skin; ectothermic; most have three- chambered hearts; internal fertilization; amniotic eggs typically laid on land; extinct forms include dinosaurs and flying reptiles ‘ORDER RHYNCHOCEPHALIA (tuatara) “Teeth formed by serrations of jawbone; found only in New Zealand; carnivorous. One species: Sphenodon punctatus ORDER SQUAMATA (lizards and snakes) Most carnivorous: majority terrestrial; lizards typ cally have legs: snakes lack legs. Examples: iguana, gecko, skink, cobra, python, boa. ORDER CROCODILIA (crocodilians) _Carnivo- rous; aquatic or semiaquatic; four-chambered heart. Examples: alligator, crocodile, caiman, gharial ORDER CHELONIA (turtles) Bony shell; ribs and vertebrae fused to upper part of shell; some terrestrial, others semiaquatic or aquatic; ll lay eggs on land, Examples: snapping turtle, tor- toise, hawksbill turtle, box turtle. Class Aves (birds) Endothermic: feathered over much of body surface; scales on legs and feet; bones, hollow and lightweight in flying species; four-cham- bered heart; well-developed lungs and air sacs for efficient air exchange: about 27 orders. Examples: owl, eagle, duck, chicken, pigeon, penguin, sparrow, stork Class Mammalia (mammals) Endothermic; sub- cutaneous fat; hair; most viviparous; suckle young with milk produced in mammary glands; four-cham- bered heart; four legs; use lungs for respiration.Monotremes (egg-laying mammals) ORDER MONOTREMATA (monotremes) Exhibit features of both mammals and reptiles; possess a cloaca; lay eggs that hatch externally; produce milk from primitive nipplelike structures, Ex- amples: duck-billed platypus, short-beaked echidna, Marsupials (pouched mammals) ‘ORDER MARSUPALIA (marsupials) Young de- velop in the female's uterus but emerge at very early state of development; development com- pleted in mother’s pouch. Examples: opossum, kangaroo, koala Placentals Young develop to term in uterus; nour- ished through placenta; some born helpless, others, able to walk within hours of birth; about 16 orders. ORDER INSECTIVORA (insectivores) Amongthe most primitive of living placental mammals; feed primarily on small arthropods. Examples: shrew, mole, hedgehog, ORDER CHIROPTERA (bats) Flying mammals, with forelimbs adapted for fight; most noctur- nal; most navigate by echolocation; most spe cles feed on insects, nectar, or fruits; some species feed on blood. Examples: fruit bat, flying fox, vampire bat. ORDER PRIMATES (primates) Highly developed brain and complex social behavior; excellent binocular vision; quadrupedal or bipedal loco- ‘motion; five digits on hands and feet, Examples: Jemur, monkey, chimpanzee, human, ORDER EDENTATA (edentates) Teeth reduced or absent; feed primarily on social insects such as termites and ants. Examples: anteater, armadillo, ORDER LAGOMORPHA (lagomorphs) Small herbivores with chiselshaped front teeth; gen- erally adapted to running and jumping. Ex- amples: rabbit, pika, hare. ORDER RODENTIA (rodents) Mammalian or- der with largest number of species; mostly her- bivorous but some omnivorous; sharp front teeth. Examples: rat, beaver, guinea pig, ham- ster, gerbil, squirrel, ORDER CETACEA (cetaceans) Fully adapted to aquatic existence; feed, breed, and give birth in ‘water: forelimbs specialized as flippers; external, hindlimbs absent; many species capable of long, deep dives; some use echolocation to navigate; ‘communicate using complex auditory signals Examples: whale, porpoise, dolphin, ORDER CARNIVORA (carnivores) Mostly car- jive in salt water or on land; aquatic species must return to land to breed. Examples: dog, seal, cat, bear, raccoon, weasel, skunk, panda. ORDER PROBOSCIDEA (elephants) Herbivo- rous; largest land animal; long, flexible trunk. ORDER SIRENIA (sirenians) Aquaticherbivores; slow-moving; front limbs modified as flippers; hindlimbs absent; little body hair. Examples: manatee, sea cow. ORDER PERISSODACTYLA (odd-toed _ungu- lates) Hooved herbivores; odd number of hooves; one hoof generally derived from mid- dle digit on each foot; teeth, jaw. and digestive system adapted to plant material. Examples: horse, donkey, rhinoceros, tapir. ORDER ARTIODACTYLA (ever-toed ungulates) Hooved herbivores; hooves derived from two digits on each foot; digestive system adapted to thoroughly process tough plant material. Ex: amples: sheep, cow, hippopotamus, antelope, camel, giratfe, pig.