3 HALF-WAVE RECTIFIERS:

The Basics of Analysis

3.1 INTRODUCTION

A Rectifier converters ac to dc.

Producing a pure dc output, or a voltage or current waveform
having a specified dc component.

A half-wave form rectifier most often used in low-power
applications.

Introducing general analysis techniques for power electronics
circuits in this chapter.

3.2 RESISTIVE LOAD

Creating a dc component using an electronic sitch

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The dc component output voltage:
1 π Vm
Vo = Vavg = ∫0 Vm sin( wt ) d ( wt ) = .
2π π

The dc component output current:
Vo Vm
I= = .
R πR

Average power absorbed by the resistor:
2
2 Vrms
P= I rms R = .
R

The voltage and current are half-wave rectified sine waves,
thus:
1 π
∫0 [Vm sin(ωt )]
2 Vm
Vrms = d (ω t ) = .
2π 2

Vrms Vm
I rms = = .
R 2R

Example 3-1 Half-wave Rectifier with Resistive Load

For the half-wave rectifier of Fig. 3-1a, the source is a sinusoid of 120V
rms at a frequency of 60Hz. The load resistor is 5Ω . Determine (a) the
average load current, (b) the average power absorbed by the load, and (c)
the power factor of the circuit.
Solution:
(a) The voltage across the resistor is a half-wave rectified sine wave with
peak value Vm = 120 2 = 169.7 V . From Eq. 3-2, the average voltage is
Vm / π , and the average current is:
2 (120)
= 10.8A .
Vo Vm
I= = =
R πR π5

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(b) From Eq.3-3, the rms voltage across the resistor for a half-wave
rectified sinusoid is:
Vm 2 (120 )
Vrms = = = 84.9V .
2 2
The power absorbed by the resistor is:
2 2
84.9
= 1440W .
V
P = rms =
R 4

The rms current in the resistor is Vm = 17.0A , and the power could
(2 R )
R = (17.0) 5 = 1440W .
2 2
also be calculated from I rms
(c) The power factor is:
P P 1440
pf = = = = 0.707 .
S Vs , rms I s , rms (120 )(17 )

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3.3 RESISTIVE-INDUCTIVE LOAD

As the source voltage becoming positive in the circuit of Fig.

3-2a, the KVL equation is:
di (t )
Ri (t ) + L = Vm sin ωt. (VR + VL = Vs ) .
dt

The solution of current composed of the forced response and
the natural response:
i (t ) = i f (t ) + in (t ) .

The first term, in the right side of the above equation, is called
the forced response or steady-state response, while the second
one only associated with the initial conditions is called the
natural or transient response.

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The forced response current can be found from phasor analysis,
resulting in:
V 
i f (t ) =  m  sin(ωt − θ) .
 Z 
ωL 
where Z = R 2 + (ωL) 2 and θ = tan −1 .
 R 

The natural or transient response is caused when the load is
energized. It is the solution to the homogenous differential
equation for the circuit without the source or diode:
di (t )
Ri (t ) = L = 0.
dt

For this first-order circuit, the natural response has the form:
in (t ) = Ae − t / τ .
where time constant τ = L / R and A is a constant determined
from the initial condition.

The complete solution is:

Vm
i (t ) = i f (t ) + in (t ) = sin(ωt − θ) + Ae − t / τ .
Z

Using the initial condition to evaluate A,

Vm
i ( 0) = sin(0 − θ) + Ae − 0 = 0.
Z
Vm V
A=− sin(−θ) = m sin(θ) .
Z Z
Vm V
i (t ) = sin(ωt − θ) + m sin(θ)e − t / τ
Z Z
⇒
V
[
= m sin(ωt − θ) + sin(θ)e − t / τ
Z
]
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Writing the preceding equation in terms of angle results in:

i (ωt ) =
Vm
Z
[
sin(ωt − θ) + sin(θ)e −ωt / ωτ . ]

Note that the diode remains forward biased longer than π
radians and that the source is negative for the last part of the
conduction interval.

Also note that the inductor voltage is negative when the
current is decreasing [ v L = L (di dt ) )].

The point when the current reaches zero is when the diode
turns off.

Extinction angle “ β ” is defined as ωt = β that causes diode
turning off and results in zero current, i.e.,

i(β ) =
Vm
Z
[
sin (β − θ ) + sin (θ )e −β / ωτ = 0 ]
⇒ sin(β − θ) + sin θe −β / ωτ = 0

There is no closed-form solution for β .

In summary:
Vm
i (ωt ) =  Z
[ ]
sin (ωt − θ ) + sin θe −ωt / ωτ for 0 ≤ ωt ≤ β
 0 for β ≤ ωt ≤ 2π

−1  ωL  L
Where Z = R + (ωL)
2 2
, θ = tan   and τ =
 R  R

2

I rms R is the average power absorbed by the load since the
average power absorbed by the inductor is zero.
1 2π 2 1
(ωt )dωt = ∫ (ωt )d (ωt )
β 2
I rms = ∫ i i
2π 0 2π 0

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Average current is:
1
∫0 i(ωt )d (ωt ).
β
I=
2π

Example 3-2 Half-wave Rectifier with R-L Load

For the half-wave rectifier of Fig.3-2a. R = 100Ω , L = 0.1H ,
ω = 377 rad s and Vm = 100V . Determine: (a) an expression for the
current in this circuit, (b) the average current, (c) the rms current, (d) the
power absorbed by the R-L load, and (e) the power factor.
Solution:
For the parameters given ,

(
Z = R 2 + (ωL )2 )
0.5
= 106.9Ω .

θ = tan −1 (ωL / R ) = 20.7o = 0.361 rad .

and ωτ = ωL = 0.377 rad .

R

(a) The current obtained is:

i (ωt ) = 0.936 sin(ωt − 0.361) + 0.331e −ωt / 0.377 A .

for 0 ≤ ωt ≤ β .
Beta can be found by:
sin(β − 0.361) + sin(0.361)e −ωt / 0.377 = 0 .
Using a numerical root-finding program , β is found to be 3.50 rads,
or 201o .

(b) Average current is determined as:

I=
1
2π
3.50
∫0 [0.936 sin(ωt − 0.361) + 0.331e ω
− t / 0.377
]d (ωt ) = 0.308A .
 A numerical integration program is recommended.

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(c) The rms current is found as:
1 3.50
I rms = ∫0 [0.936 sin (ωt − 0.361) + 0.331e −ωt / 0.377 ]2 d (ωt ) = 0.474A .
2π

(d) The power absorbed by the resistor is:

2
I rms R = (0.474)2100 = 22.4W.
The average power absorbed by the inductor is zero. P can also be
computed from the definition of average power:
1 2π 1 2π
P= (ω ) (ω ) = v(ωt )i (ωt )d (ωt )
2π ∫0 2π ∫0
p t d t

1 3.50
= [100 sin( ω )][ 0 .936 sin (ω − 0 .361) + 0. 331 −ωt / 0.377
]d (ωt )
2π ∫0
t t e

= 22.4 W.

(e) The power factor is computed from the definition pf = P / S . P is

power supplied by the source, which must be the same as that absorbed
by the load.
P P 22.4
pf = = = = 0.67.
(
S Vs , rms I rms 100 / 2 (0.474) )
 Note that the power factor is not cos(θ) .

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3-5 R-L SOURCE LOAD
Supplying Power to a dc Source from an ac Source

As referred to Fig.35, the diode will remain off as long as the

voltage of the ac source is less than the dc voltage. Letting α
be the value of ωt that causes the source voltage to be equal
to Vdc ,
Vm sin α = Vdc .
V 
or, α = sin −1  dc  .
 Vm 

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The diode starts to conduct at ωt = α . With the diode
conducting , Kirchhoff s voltage law for the circuit yields the
,

equation:
di (t )
Ri (t ) + L
dt
+ Vdc = Vm sin (ωt ) [* i(t ) = i f (t ) + in (t )].

The current i f (t ) is determined using superposition for the
two sources.
Vm V
i f (t ) = sin (ωt − θ ) − dc .
Z R

The natural response:
−t
in (t ) = Ae
. τ

The complete response:

Vm Vdc −t
i (ωt ) =  Z sin (ω t − θ ) − + Ae τ for α ≤ ωt ≤ β
R
 0 otherwise.
where α and β called starting and extinction angled (current
reaching zero) respectively.

Using the initial condition of i (α ) = 0 and solving for A,

 Vm Vdc  α ωτ
A = − sin (α − θ ) + e .
 Z R 
2

The average power absorbed by the resistor is: I rms R.
1
∫ (ωt )d (ωt ) .
β 2
where I rms = i
2π α

The average power absorbed by the dc source is:

Pdc = IVdc .

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 1
∫α i(ωt )d (ωt ) .
β
where I is the average current , that is I =
2π

The power supplied by the ac source is equal to the sum of the

power absorbed by the resistor and the dc source.
2
Pac = I rms R + IVdc .
or, can be computed from:
1 2π
Pac =
2π ∫0 v(ωt )i(ωt )d (ωt )
1
∫α (Vm sin ωt )i(ωt )d (ωt ) .
β
=
2π

Example 3-5 Half-wave Rectifier with R-L Source Load

For the circuit of Fig.3-5a , R = 2Ω, L = 20mH , and Vdc = 100V . The ac
source is 120V rms at 60Hz. (a) Determine an expression for the current in
the circuit. (b) Determine the power absorbed by the resistor. (c)
Determine the power absorbed by the dc source. (d) Determine the power
supplied by the ac source and the power factor of the circuit.
Solution:
From the parameters given ,
Vm = 120 2 = 169.7 V,
Z = R 2 + (ωL )2 = 7.80Ω,
θ = tan −1 (ωL / R ) = 1.31rad,
α = sin −1 (100 / 169.7 ) = 36.1o = 0.630rad,
ωτ = 377(0.02 / 2) = 3.77 rad.
(a) Using Eq.3-22 ,
i (ωt ) = 21.8 sin (ωt − 1.31) − 50 + 75.3e −ωt / 3.77 A.

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 The extinction angle β is found from the solution of
i (β ) = 21.8 sin (β − 1.31) − 50 + 75.3e −β / 3.77 = 0 A.
which results in β = 3.37 rad(193o ) using root-finding software.

(b) Using the preceding expression for i (ωt ) in Eq.3-24 and using a
numerical integration program , the rms current is
1 3.37 2
I rms = ∫ i (ωt )d (ωt ) = 3.98A ,
2π 0.63

2
Resulting in PR = I rms R = (3.98)2 (2 ) = 31.7 W.

(c) The power absorbed by the dc source:

1 3.37
I=
2π ∫0.63 i(ωt )d (ωt ) = 2.25A .
yielding Pdc = IVdc = (2.25)(100 ) = 225W .

(d) The power supplied by the ac source is the sum of the powers absorbed
by the load:
Ps = PR + Pdc = 31.2 + 225 = 256W .
P P 256
The power factor is pf = = = = 0.54 .
S Vs , rms I rms (120)(3.98)

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3.6 INDUCTOR-SOURCE LOAD

As Refer to Fig.3.6, Using inductance to limit current Based on
KVL, the relationship of voltages on the circuit in Fig.3.6 can
be formulated as:
di (t )
L + Vdc = Vm sin(ωt ) .
dt

Rearranging the above equation obtains:

di (t ) Vm sin(ωt ) − Vdc
= .
dt L
i (t ) 1 ωt
∫i(α ) di (t ) = [V sin(ωt ) − Vdc ]d (ωt ) .
ωL ∫α m
1 ωt
⇒ i (t ) = [V sin(λ ) − Vdc ]dλ .
ωL ∫α m
1 ωt
or i(ωt ) = [V sin(λ ) − Vdc ]dλ , i (α) = 0 .
ωL ∫α m
1 ωt 1 ωt
= sin λ λ − V dλ .
ωL ∫α m ωL ∫α dc
V d

Performing the integration,

 1 V
(cos α − cos ωt ) + dc (α − ωt )
i (ωt ) = ωL ωL for α ≤ ωt ≤ β .
 0 otherwise

Vm V
where i (β) = (cos α − cos β) + dc (α − β) = 0 .
ωL ωL

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Example 3-6 Half-wave Rectifier with Inductor-Source Load
For the circuit of Fig.3-6, the ac source is 120 V rms at 60Hz L = 50mH
and Vdc = 72V . Determine:
(a) an expression for the current.
(b) the power absorbed by the dc source, and
(c) the power factor.
Solution:
For the parameters given,
 72 
α = sin −1   = 25.1 = 0.438rad .
o
 120 2 
(a) The equation for current is found from Eq.3-33:
i (ωt ) = 9.83 − 9.00 cos(ωt ) − 3.82ωt A . for α ≤ ωt ≤ β .
where β is found to be 4.04rad from the numerical solution of
9.83 − 9.00cos β − 3.82β = 0. （ β will be given in tests）

(e) The power absorbed by the dc source is IVdc , where

1 β
I= i(ωt )d (ωt )
2π ∫α
1 4.04
= [9.83 − 9.00 cos(ωt ) − 3.82ωt ]d (ωt )
2π ∫0.438
= 2.46A,
resulting in Pdc = (2.46 )(72) = 177 W.
(c) The rms. current is found from

1
∫α i (ωt )d (ωt ) = 3.81A .
β 2
I rms =
2π
P P 177
Therefore, pf = = = = 0.388 .
S Vrms I rms (120)(3.81)

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3.7 THE FREEWHEELING DIODE
In the circuits of Fig. 3.7, diode D1 will be on when the
source is positive, and diode D 2 will be on when the source is
negative. Diode D 2 plays a crucial role to provide a path for
inductor L to release its stored energy to the load when diode D1
is off during negative half period of the source.

For a positive source voltage

D1 is on
D 2 is off

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 For a negative voltage
D1 is off
D 2 is on

Since the voltage across the R-L load is the same as the source
voltage when the source is positive and is zero when the source
is negative, the load voltage is a half-wave rectified sine wave.

As seen in Fig. 3.8, the action of current in the Half-wave
rectifier with freewheeling diode, it can be seen that a few
periodic transient time for the current to reach steady-state is
needed.

However, the steady-state current is usually of more interest

than the transient. The steady-state waveforms can be seen in
Fig. 3.9.
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The Fourier series for the half-wave rectified sine wave of the
voltage across the load is:
∞
Vm Vm 2Vm
v(t ) = + sin(ω0t ) − ∑ 2
cos(nω0t ) .
π 2 n = 2, 4,6,... ( n − 1)π

Taking each frequency separately, the current in the load can be

expressed as a Fourier series by using superposition.

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Example 3-7 Half-wave Rectifier with Freewheeling Diode
Determine the average load voltage and current, and determine the power
absorbed by the resistor in the circuit of Fig. 3-7a., where
R = 2Ω and L = 25mH . Vm is 100V, and the frequency is 60Hz,
( ω0 = 2πf = 377 rad ).
sec
Solution:
The Fourier series for this half-wave rectified voltage that appears across
the load is obtained from Eq.3-34. The average load voltage is the dc term
in the Fourier series.
Vm 100
V0 = = = 31.8V .
π π
Average load current is:
V0 31.8
I0 = = = 15.9A .
R 2
2
Load power can be determined from I rms R , and rms current is determined
from the Fourier components of current. The amplitudes of the ac current
components are determined from phasor analysis:
Vn
In = .
Zn

where Z n = R + jnω0 L = 2 − jn377(0.025) .

The ac voltage amplitudes are determined from Eq. 3-34, resulting in
Vm 100
V1 = = = 50V .
2 2
2Vm
V2 = = 21.2V .
(2 2 − 1)π
2Vm
V4 = = 4.24V .
(4 2 − 1)π

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 2Vm
V6 = = 1.82V .
(6 2 − 1)π
The resulting Fourier terms are as follows:
n Vn(V) Zn(Ω) In(A)
0 31.8 2.00 15.9
1 50.0 9.63 5.19
2 21.2 18.96 1.12
4 4.24 37.75 0.11
6 1.82 56.58 0.03

The rms current is obtained using Eq. 2-64:

∞ 2 2 2
2  5.19   1.12   0.11 
2
I rms = ∑ I k ,rms ≈ 15.9 + 
 2
 +
  2
 +
  2
 = 16.34A .

k =0

Notice that the contribution to rms current from the harmonics decreases
as n increases, and higher-order terms are not significant. Power in the
2
resistor is I rms R = (16.34) 2 2 = 534W .

Reducing Load Current Harmonics (For wheeling diode)

If the inductance is infinitely large, the impedance of the load
(Zn) to ac terms in the Fourier series is infinite, and the load
current is purely dc. The load current is then:
V0 Vm L
io (t ) ≈ I 0 = = ( → ∞ ).
R πR R

A large inductor with a freewheeling diode provides a means of
establishing a nearly constant load current. Zero-to-peak
fluctuation in load current can be estimated as being equal to
the amplitude of the first ac term in the Fourier series. The
peak-to-peak ripple is then:
∆I o ≈ 2I1 .

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Example 3-8 Half-wave Rectifier with Freewheeling Diode: L / R → ∞
For the half-wave rectifier with a freewheeling diode and R-L load as shown in
Fig.3-7a, the source is 240V rms at 60Hz and R = 8Ω. (a) Assume L is infinite for
practical purposes. Determine the power absorbed by the load and the power factor as
seen by the source. Sketch vo , iD1 , and iD 2 . (b) Determine the average current in
each diode. (c) Determine L such that the peak-to-peak current is no more than 10％
of the average current.
Solution:
(a) The voltage across the R-L load is a half-wave rectified sine wave，which has an
average value of Vm / π . The load current is:

io (ωt ) ≈ I 0 =
V0 Vm / π
= =
(
240 2 / π )
= 13.5A = I rms .
R R 8
Power in the resistor is:
P = (I rms )2 R = (13.5)2 8 = 1459W .
Source rms current is computed from:
1 π
∫0 (13.5) d (ωt ) = 9.55A .
2
I rms =
2π
The power factor is:
P 1459
pf = = = 0.637.
Vs , rms I s , rms (240 )(9.55)
Voltage and current waveforms are shown in Fig.3-10.

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(b) Each diode conducts for one-half of the time. Average current for each diode is:
I 0 / 2 = 13.5 = 6.75A .
2
(c) The value of inductance required to limit the variation in load current to 10％ can
be approximated from the fundamental frequency of the Fourier series. The
voltage input to the load for n = 1 in Eq. 3-34 has amplitude
Vm / 2 = 2 (240) / 2 = 170V. The peak-to-peak current must be limited to:
∆io = (0.10 )(I 0 ) = (0.10 )(13.5) = 1.35A.

which corresponds to an amplitude of 1.35 = 0.675A .

2
The load impedance at the fundamental frequency is required to be:
V1 170
Z1 = = = 251Ω .
I1 0.675
The load impedance is

Z1 = R 2 + (ωL )2 = R + jωL = 8 + j 377 L = 251Ω .

Since the 8Ω resistance is negligible compared to the total impedance, the
inductance can be approximated as
Z1 251
L≈ = = 0.67H .
ω 377
The inductance will have to be slightly larger than 0.67H because Fourier terms
higher than n = 1 were neglected in this estimate.

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3.8 HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER WITH A CAPACITOR FILTER
Creating a dc voltage from an ac source

In operating:

 V sin ωt diode on 0 ≤ ωt ≤ θ
vo (ωt ) =  m − (ωt − θ ) / ωRC
 Vθ e diode off θ ≤ ωt ≤ 2π + α

where Vθ = Vm sin θ .

The slopes of these signals are:
d
(Vm sin ωt ) = Vm cos ωt .
d (ωt )
d 1
and Vm sin θe −(ωt −θ ) / ωRC = Vm sin θ(− )e −(ωt −θ ) / ωRC .
d (ωt ) ωRC

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 At ωt = θ , the slopes of the two voltage functions are equal:
Vm sin θ −(θ −θ ) / ωRC V sin θ
Vm cos θ = − e =− m ,
ωRC ωRC
Vm cos θ 1
=− ,
Vm sin θ ωRC
1 1
=− ,
tan θ ωRC

θ = tan −1 (−ωRC ) = − tan −1 (ωRC ) + π .

In practical circuits where the time constant is large

(τ = RC >> 0 ),
π π
=> θ≈− +π = and Vm sin θ ≈ Vm .
2 2

When the source voltage comes back up to the output voltages
in the next period, the diode becomes forward biased, and the
output again is the same as the source voltage. The angle at
which the diode turns on in the second period, ωt = 2π + α , is
the point at which the sinusoidal source reaches the same value
as the decaying exponential output:
Vm sin(2π + α) = Vm sin θe −( 2π + α −θ ) / ωRC ,

or sin(α) = sin θe −( 2π + α −θ ) / ωRC .

where α needs to be solved using a numeric program.

vo
iR (ωt ) =
R
,
dvo dv (ωt )
iC (ωt ) = C = ωC o ,
dt d (ωt )

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  Vm sin θ − (ωt − θ ) / ωRC
− e for θ ≤ ωt ≤ 2π + α (diode off)
⇒ iC (ωt ) =  R
ωCVm cos(ωt ) for 2π + α ≤ ω t ≤ 2π + θ (diode on)

is = iD = iR + iC (* α < θ ).

Peak capacitor current occurs when the diode turns on
at ωt = 2π + α :
I C , peak = ωCVm cos(2π + α) = ωCVm cos α

Vm sin(2π + α) Vm sin α
iR (2π + α) = = .
R R
Peak diode current is:
Vm sin α  sin α 
I D, peak = ωCVm cos α + = Vm  ωC cos α + .
R  R 

The peak-peak ripple voltage is:

∆Vo = Vm − Vm sin α = Vm (1 − sin α) .

In circuits, where the capacitor is selected to provide for nearly
constant dc output voltage, the R-C time constant is large
compared to the period of the sine wave. When α ≈ π 2 and if
Vθ ≈ Vm and θ ≈ π ,
2
evaluating vo at α = π 2
(* ωt = 2π + α ≈ 2π + π 2 ) obtains:
− ( 2π +π −π ) / ωRC
vo (2π + α) ≈ Vm e 2 2 = Vm e − 2π / ωRC .

Thus, the ripple voltage can be approximated as:

∆Vo ≈ Vm − Vm e − 2π / ωRC = Vm (1 − e − 2π / ωRC ) .

2π
Q e − 2π / ωRC ≈ 1 − ( RC >> 0 ).
ωRC

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 2π V
∴ ∆Vo ≈ Vm ( )= m (* ω = 2πf ).
ωRC fRC

Example 3-9 Half-wave Rectifier with R-C Load

The half-wave rectifier of Fig. 3-11a has a 120-V rms source at 60Hz,
R=500 Ω , and C = 100µF . Determine (a) an expression for output voltage,
(b) the peak-peak voltage variation on the output, and (c) an expression for
capacitor current. (d) Determine the peak diode current. (e) Determine C
such that ∆Vo is 1% of Vm .
Solution:
From the parameter given,
Vm = 120 2 = 169.7 V

ωRC = (2π 60)(500)(10) − 6 = 18.85rad.

The angle θ is determined from Eq. 3-41:
θ = − tan −1 (18.85) + π = 1.62rad = 93o

Vm sin θ = 169.5V .
The angle α is determined from the numerical solution of Eq. 3-43:
sin α - sin(1.62)e − ( 2π + α -1.62)/18.85 = 0.

yielding α = 0.843 rad = 48o .

(a) Output voltage is expressed from Eq. 3-37:
 169.7 sin(ωt ) 2π + α ≤ ωt ≤ 2π + θ
vo (ωt ) =  − (ωt −1.62) / 18.85
169.5e θ ≤ ωt ≤ 2π + α
(b) Peak-Peak output voltage is described by Eq. 3-44:
∆Vo = Vm (1 − sin α) = 169.7[1 - sin(0.843)] = 43V.

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(c) The capacitor current is determined from Eq. 3-4:
 − 0 .339 e − (ω t −1.62 ) / 18 .85 A for θ ≤ ω t ≤ 2π + α (diode off)
iC (ω t ) = 
 6 .4 cos( ω t ) A for 2π + α ≤ ω t ≤ 2π + θ (diode on)

(d) Peakdiode current is determined from Eq. 3-48:

 sin(0.843) 
I D, peak = 2 (120) 377(10) − 4 cos(0.843) +
 500 
= 4.26 + 0.34 = 4.50A.
(e) For ∆Vo = 0.01Vm , Eq. 3-51 can be used:

Vm Vm 1
C≈ = = F = 3333µF.
fR (∆Vo ) (60)(500)(0.01Vm ) 300
Note that peak diode current can be determined from Eq. 3-48 using an
estimate of α from Eq. 3-49:
 ∆V   1 
α = sin −1 1 − o  = sin −1 1 −  = 81.9o.
 Vm   fRC 

From Eq. 4-48, peak diode current is 30.4A.

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3.9 THE CONTROLLED HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER

Two conditions must be bet before the SCR can conduct:
1. The SCR must be forward biased (VSCR > 0 ).
2. A current must be applied to the gate of the SCR.

Once the SCR is conducting, the gate current can be removed
and the SCR remains on until the current (load current) goes to
zero.

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Resistive Load

When a gate signal is applied to the SCR at ωt = α , where α
is the delay angle, the average dc voltage across the load
resister can be calculated by:
1 π V
Vo =
2π ∫α Vm sin(ωt )dωt = 2πm (1 + cos α) .
2
Vrms
The power absorbed by the load is R
, where
1 2π 2
Vrms = vo (ωt )dωt
2π ∫0
1 π
= ∫ [Vm sin ωt ]2 d (ωt )
2π α
V α sin( 2α)
= m 1− + .
2 π 2π
Example 3-10 Controlled Half-wave Rectifier with Resistive Load
Design a circuit to produce an average voltage of 40V across a 100 Ω load
resistor from a 120V rms 60Hz ac source. Determine the power absorbed
by the resistance and the power factor.
Solution:
Equation 3-52 is rearranged to determine the required delay angle:
  2π  
α = cos −1 Vo   − 1
  Vm  
  2π  
= cos −1 40  − 1
  2 (120  
= 61.2o = 1.07 rad.
Equation 3-53 gives:
2 (120) 1.07 sin[2(1.07)]
V rms= 1− + = 75.6V.
2 π 2π

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Load power is:
2
Vrms (75.6) 2
PR = = = 57.1W.
R 100
The power factor of the circuit is:
P P 57.1
pf = = = = 0.63.
S Vs , rms I rms (120)(75.6 / 10)

R-L Load

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The analysis of this circuit is similar to that of the uncontrolled
rectifier. The current is the sum of the forced and natural
response:
i (ωt ) = i f (ωt ) + in (ωt )

Vm − ωt
= sin(ωt − θ) + Ae ωτ
Z
ωL
where θ = tan −1 and Z = R 2 + (ωL) 2 .
R
The constant A is determined from the initial condition:
Vm −α
i (α ) = 0 = sin(α − θ) + Ae ωτ
Z
 V  α
⇒ A = − m sin(α − θ) e ωτ .
 Z 
Vm
i (ωt ) =  Z
[
sin(ωt − θ) − sin(α − θ)e ( α −ωt ) / ωτ ] for α ≤ ωt ≤ β
 0 otherwise

When ωt = β , β being the extinction angle the current returns to zero,

 (α −β ) 
V ωτ .
i (β) = 0 = m sin(β − θ ) − sin( α − θ ) e 
Z  

β is solved numerically and γ = β − α is called conduction angle.

The average (dc) output voltage is:

1
Vo =
β
∫α Vm sin(ωt )dωt =
Vm
[cos α − cos β].
2π 2π

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 The average current is computed from:
1 β
I=
2π ∫α i(ωt )dωt .
2
Power absorbed by the load is I rms R,
1 β 2
where I rms = ∫α i (ωt )dωt .
2π

Example 3-11 Controlled Half-wave Rectifier with R-L Load

For the circuit of Fig. 3-14a, the source is 120V rms at 60Hz, R = 20Ω ,
L = 0.04H , abd the delay angle is 45o . Determine (a) an expression for
i (ωt ) , (b) the average current, (c) the power absorbed by the load, and (d)
the power factor.
Solution:
(a) From the parameter given,

Vm = 120 2 = 169.7 V

Z = R 2 + (ωL ) 2 = 20 2 + (377 ⋅ 0.04) 2 = 25.0Ω

θ = tan -1 (ωL / R) = tan −1[377 ⋅ 0.04) / 20] = 0.646rad

ωτ = ωL / R = (377 ⋅ 0.04) / 20 = 0.754

α = 45o = 0.785rad .
Substituting the preceding quantities into Eq. 3-55, current is:

i (ωt ) = 6.78 sin(ωt − 0.646) − 2.67e −ωt / 0.754 A for α ≤ ωt ≤ β .

With the β = 3.97rad (217o ) readily solved numerically by setting the
equation to zero and solving for ωt , the conduction angle
γ = β − α = 3.79 − 0.785 = 3.01 rad = 172o .

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(b) Average current is determined by:

I=
1 3.79
2π ∫0 . 785
[ ]
6.78 sin(ωt − 0.646) − 2.67e −ωt / 0.754 d (ωt )

= 2.19A.
(c) The power absorbed by the load is computed by:
1 3.79
I rms = ∫ [6.78 sin(ωt − 0.646) − 2.67e −ωt / 0.754 ]2 d (ωt )
2π 0.785
= 3.26A.
2
yielding P = I rms R = (3.26) 2 (20) = 213W.
(d) The power factor is:
P 213
pf = = = 0.54.
S (120)(3.26)

R-L Source Load

For the controlled rectifier, conduction begins when a gate

signal is applied to the SCR, provided that the SCR is forward
biased. Thus, the gate signal may be applied at any time that ac
source is larger than the dc source:

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 V 
α ≥ α min = sin −1  dc  .
 Vm 
Current is expressed with α specified within the allowable
range:
Vm V
sin(ωt − θ) − dc + Ae −ωt / ωτ for α ≤ ωt ≤ β
i (ωt ) =  Z R
 0 otherwise

 V V 
where A = − ( m ) sin(α − θ) + dc  eα/ωτ .
 Z R 

Example 3-12 Controlled Rectifier with R-L Source Load

The controlled half-wave rectifier of Fig. 3-15 has an ac input of 120V rms
at 60 Hz, R = 2Ω , L = 20mH , and Vdc = 100V . The delay angle α is
45o . (a) Determine an expression for the current. (b) Determine the power
absorbed by the resistor. (c) Determine the power absorbed by the dc
source in the load.
Solution:
From the parameters given,
Vm = 120 2 = 169.7 V

Z = R 2 + (ωL) 2 = 2 2 + (377 ⋅ 0.02) 2 = 7.80Ω

θ = tan -1 (ωL / R) = tan −1[377 ⋅ 0.02) / 2] = 1.312rad

ωτ = ωL / R = (377 ⋅ 0.02) / 2 = 3.77

α = 45o = 0.785rad .

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(a) First, using Eq. 3-60 to determine if α = 45o is allowable, the
minimum delay angle obtained is:
 100 
α min = sin −1  = 36 ,
o
 120 2 

which indicates that 45o is allowable.

Equation 3-61 becomes:

i (ωt ) = 21.8 sin(ωt − 1.312) − 50 + 75.0e −ωt / 3.77 .

for 0.785 ≤ ωt ≤ 3.37
where the extinction angle β is found numerically to be 3.37rad from
the equation: i (β) = 0.

(b) Power absorbed by the resistor is computed as:

1 β 2
I rms = ∫ i (ωt )d (ωt ) = 3.90A .
2π α

P = (3.90) 2 (2) = 30.4 W.

(c) Power absorbed by the dc source is:
1 β
I=
2π ∫α i(ωt )d (ωt ) = 2.19A
P = IVdc = (2.19)(100) = 219W.

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3.11 COMMUTATION

A nonideal circuit includes the source inductance with the load
elements.

Commutation is the process of turning off an electronic switch,
which usually involves transferring the load current from one
switch to another.

The interval when both D1 and D 2 are on is called the
commutation time or commutation angle.

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When both D1 and D2 are on, the voltage across Ls is:
vLs = Vm sin(ωt ) .
and current in Ls and the source is:
1 ωt 1 ωt
is = ∫0 vLs d (ωt ) + is (0) = ∫0 Vm sin(ωt )d (ωt ) + 0
ωLs ωLs

=
Vm
[1 − cos(ωt )].
ωLs
Current in D2 is:
Vm
(1 − cos ωt ) .
iD 2 = I L − is = I L −
ωLs
The current in D2 starts at I L and decreases to zero. Letting
the angle at which the current reaches zero be ωt = u ,
Vm
iD2 (u ) = I L − (1 − cos u ) = 0 .
ωLs
I LωLs I X
u = cos −1 (1 − ) = cos −1 (1 − L s ) .
Vm Vm
 The commutation from D2 to D1 is analyzed similarly, yielding an
identical result for the commutation angle u.

Since the voltage across the load is zero when D 2 is

conducting, the load voltage remains at zero through the
commutation angle.

Average load voltage is:
1 π
Vo =
2π ∫u Vm sin(ωt )dωt
π
1
= [− cos(ωt )]
2π u
Vm
= (1 + cos u ).
2π
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 Using u, obtain,
Vm IL X s
Vo = (1 − ).
π 2Vm
Vm
 Vo < (the average output voltage of ideal half-wave rectifier)
π

3.12 SUMMARY

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